The 12

th
International Conference of
International Association for Computer Methods and Advances in Geomechanics (IACMAG)
1-6 October, 2008
Goa, India

Viscoplastic Modelling of Unsaturated Geomaterials
V. De Gennaro, J.M. Pereira
Universit Paris-Est, Navier, Ecole des Ponts - CERMES, Marne-la-Valle, France
Keywords: viscoplasticity, constitutive modeling, suction, geomaterials
ABSTRACT: In this paper a rate dependent model for unsaturated geomaterials is presented. The formulation
and numerical predictions are compared with available experimental results and discussed. The constitutive
laws for the description of the time-dependent mechanical behaviour of saturated and unsaturated
geomaterials generalize the isotach approach to the elastoplastic strain hardening based constitutive laws for
unsaturated soils. The formulation encompasses rate and creep effects together with suction dependency on
creep. Some perspectives about the constitutive modelling of time-dependent behaviour of saturated and
unsaturated geomaterials, including soft rocks are proposed.
1 Introduction
Time dependent behaviour of geomaterials has been recognized in clays (Bjerrum, 1967; Vaid & Campanella,
1977; Kim & Leroueil, 2001; Leroueil, 2006), sands (e.g. Tatsuoka et al., 2000; Di Benedetto et al. 2002),
rockfill (e.g. Oldecop & Alonso 2002, 2007), rocks and soft rocks (e.g. uklje, 1957; De Gennaro et al. 2003,
Fabre & Pellet, 2006; Priol et al. 2007). A recent review of the literature is given by Augustensen et al. (2004).

Time effects involve both deformation behaviour under constant effective stresses (creep behaviour), and
loading rate dependent strength behaviour (Vaid & Campanella, 1977; Graham et al., 1983; Leroueil &
Marques, 1996). Figure 1 (a) shows typical creep curves of marine clay obtained during multiple-stage loading
oedometer tests. As it can be observed, when extrapolated for the long term sustained loading, the evolution of
creep strain is proportional to the logarithm of the elapsed time. The slope of each curve corresponds to the
well known secondary compression index C

or d dln = / t

. Values of C

are in general strongly dependent

on the stress history (e.g. Feda, 1992). Note that although often used in engineering practice, the expression of
C

leads to a fundamental inconsistency when the creep time is infinite as it predicts infinite creep strain (e.g.
Yin, 1999).

Suction dependency and fluid nature dependency of secondary compression index has been investigated
recently by Oldecop & Alonso (2003, 2007) in rockfill and Pasachalk (2004), Priol (2005) and Priol et al., (2007)
in chalk.
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000
TEMPS (min)
V
A
R
I
A
T
I
O
N

D
'
H
A
U
T
E
U
R

(
m
m
)
TIME (min)
S
E
T
T
L
E
M
E
N
T

(
m
m
)
2 kPa
5,8 kPa
12,5 kPa
25 kPa
50 kPa
1
C

0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000
TEMPS (min)
V
A
R
I
A
T
I
O
N

D
'
H
A
U
T
E
U
R

(
m
m
)
TIME (min)
S
E
T
T
L
E
M
E
N
T

(
m
m
)
2 kPa
5,8 kPa
12,5 kPa
25 kPa
50 kPa
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000
TEMPS (min)
V
A
R
I
A
T
I
O
N

D
'
H
A
U
T
E
U
R

(
m
m
)
TIME (min)
S
E
T
T
L
E
M
E
N
T

(
m
m
)
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
0,1 1 10 100 1000 10000
TEMPS (min)
V
A
R
I
A
T
I
O
N

D
'
H
A
U
T
E
U
R

(
m
m
)
TIME (min)
S
E
T
T
L
E
M
E
N
T

(
m
m
)
2 kPa
5,8 kPa
12,5 kPa
25 kPa
50 kPa
1
C

(a)


(b)
Figure 1. (a) Creep curves for marine clay during during multiple-stage loading oedometer tests (after De
Gennaro et al., 2004), (b) Example of strain rate dependency of the strength behaviour of a
water saturated chalk.
'
r

'
v

2232

Figure 1 (b) identifies the increase of material strength with increasing strain rate & . This behaviour is
eventually identified as "isotach" (uklje, 1957; Tatsuoka et al., 2000) and points out the loading rate
dependent strength behaviour of geomaterials. Early works by Ladd (1971) corroborated by further
experimental evidences (e.g. Leroueil et al. 1985) showed that in the usual range of interest of the applied
strain rates during Constant Rate of Strain (CRS) oedometer tests (i.e. & varying between 110
-8
s
-1
and 110
-4

s
-1
) a linear relationship between the logarithm of the yield stress
y
and the logarithm of the strain rate & can
be established.

Constitutive modelling of time dependent behaviour of geomaterials has been considered for a long time and
various approaches have been proposed. A rather large variety of models are based on Perzynas theory of
elastoviscoplasticity (Malvern, 1951; Perzyna, 1964). These models are often qualified as "overstress models."
Examples of overstress models for soils and soft rocks are available in Adachi & Oka (1982), Datcheva et al.,
(1998), Collin et al. (2003), De Gennaro et al. (2003), Alonso et al. (2005), Yin & Hicher (2007). Various models
have been formulated adopting the Bjerrum's notion of equivalent (or reference) time (e.g. Bjerrum, 1967; Borja
and Kavazanjian, 1985; Krogsboll, 1998; Yin & Graham, 1999; Vermeer & Neher, 2000; Yin et al., 2007;
Hickman & Gutierrez, 2007). In these models, viscoplastic strains evolve along linear and parallel lines (time-
lines) characterised by a given time of sustained loading (creep). Other models have used the concept of the
Non Stationary Flow Surface (NSFS) theory (e.g. Nova, 1982; Liingaard et al., 2004). A recent review of the
literature is given by Liingaard et al. (2004). While quite a large number of contributions have been devoted to
the description of the mechanical time-dependent behaviour of saturated geomaterials, few research works
have tackled the problem dealing with the time dependent behaviour of geomaterials filled with more than one
fluid. In this paper the viscoplastic modelling of geomaterials whose porous network is filled with two
immiscible fluids will be considered. Besides the basic constitutive assumptions admitted to cope with the
effect of partial saturation, some additional working hypotheses have to be introduced to account for viscous
behaviour. They will presented hereafter.
2 Position of the problem
As already pointed out, laboratory evidences suggest that there exists a definite linear relationship in clays
between the yield stress
y
and the strain rate & (e.g. Leroueil & Marques, 1996). It can be expressed as,
log log
y
A + & (1)
where A and are materials constants. During Pasachalk-2 project (Pasachalk, 2004; Priol, 2005; Priol et al.,
2007) it has been shown that this type of relationship can also be generalized to chalks (Figure 2 (a)).
Therefore, it seems quite likely that the validity of (1) can be verified for a rather wide range of geomaterials and
strain rates.
In addition to this first rheological evidence results presented in Figure 2 (a) also suggest that the rate of
increase of
y
does not depend solely on the imposed strain rate & . Indeed, the slope of the regression
lines in Figure 2 (a) seems to vary also as a function of the degree of saturation and the type of fluid.

The general trend depicted in Figure 2 (a) indicates that rate dependency in chalk tends to develop increasing
the amount of water (wetting fluid) filling the porous network. This is the same as saying that parameter in
(1) is such that ( s ) , where
nw w
s = p - p the suction or capillary pressure, the difference between the non-
wetting fluid pressure
nw
p and the wetting fluid pressure
w
p . Mesri and Godlewsky (1977) showed that
values are constants depending on the type of geotechnical material (see 1). A similar relationship has been
verified recently by Oldecop & Alonso (2007) on rockfill in terms of ratio between the time-dependent
compressibility index d dln
t
= / t

and the compressibility index d dln = / (Figure 2 (b) ), which is

equivalent to
e c
C C

. Interestingly, data from Oldecop & Alonso (2007) show increasing values of
t
/
ratio for decreasing air-water total suction, that is for increasing degree of water saturation. This is in good
agreement with data shown in Figure 2 (a) for chalk and confirms the suction dependency of . Oldecop &
Alonso suggest a suction induced stress corrosion mechanism to explain the time-dependent deformation of
rockfill. In a similar way one could argue that enhanced creep in chalk for decreasing level of suction (i.e.
increasing levels of saturation in wetting fluid) might be the sign of the well known phenomenon of water
sensitivity of chalk (e.g. Risnes et al. 2005) and the manifestation of the water weakening effect. One possible
well identified micromechanical phenomenon is the Intergranular Pressure Solution (IPS) mechanism
(Hellmann et al. 2002). It seems thus interesting to encompass this type of phenomena in an ad hoc evolution
law for the viscous parameter . This aspect will not be tackled in the current work and certainly deserves
further investigations. Since the slope ( s ) can be identified with the ratio
e c
C C

a definite coupling between

2233

suction, creep and compressibility can be established. Equati on (1) and equality
e c
( s ) C C

will be the
tenet of the theoretical framework proposed in the next section for the constitutive modelling of time dependent
behaviour of saturated and unsaturated geomaterials.

Table 1. Parameter a for various geotechnical materials
(data from Mesri et al. 1995, modified from Leroueil, 2006).



(a)


(b)
Figure 2. (a) Time-dependent behaviour of chalk, variation of yield stress with strain rate during CRS
oedometric tests, 0.2 MPa indicates the level of oil-water suction (after Priol et al. 2007).
(b) Parameter for saturated and unsaturated rockfill (after Oldecop & Alonso, 2007).
3 RASTRA model formulation: isotropic loading
The rate dependent model RASTRA (RAte of STRAin) has been developed adopting the "isotach" or "reference
time" models proposed by uklje (1957) and Bjerrum (1967) within the general theoretical framework based
on the theory of strain hardening plasticity. For the sake of conciseness, the formulation of the RASTRA model
will be limited to the case of isotropic stress states.
3.1 The Barcelona Basic Model
The Barcelona Basic Model (BBM) proposed by Alonso et al. (1990) has been chosen as the reference
constitutive framework enabling to encompass in a relatively simple and straightforward formulation the effects
of time and suction.

The BBM is formulated in the framework of the hardening elastoplasticity and extends the features of the
modified Cam-clay model to suction dependent stress states. Two independent sets of stress variables are
used to describe the mechanical behaviour of unsaturated soils: the net stress
tot a
p = p - p and the suction
2234

a w
s = p - p , where
tot
p ,
a
p and
w
p are the total mean stress, the air pressure and the water pressure,
respectively. The extension of the modified Cam-clay model involves the introduction of the Loading Collapse
(LC) and Suction Increase (SI) curves, that are associated to the generation of irreversible strains due to
suction changes; details can be found in Alonso et al. (1990). A short description of the model follows herein.

The volumetric deformation increment d
v
is partitioned in an elastic part and a plastic part. Each component
consists of a mechanical contribution ( p subscript) and of a suction dependent contribution ( s subscript):
d d d d d (d d ( + ) + )
e p e e p p
v v v vp vs vp vs
+ + (2)
The elastic behaviour is expressed as follows

d d
d
( )
e s
v
atm
p s
v p v s p

+
+
(3)
where and
s
are the elastic stiffness parameters for changes in mean net stress and suction, respectively;
v 1 e + is the specific volume (e being the void ratio) and
atm
p is the atmospheric pressure.
Since the formulation of RASTRA model will be restricted to isotropic stress states the equation for the yield
surface reduces to the following condition

o
F p p (4)
where
o
p is the isotropic yield stress for the material at a given suction s . The Loading Collapse (LC) and
Suction Increase (SI) loci delimit the elastic domain in (p,s) plane and control the generation of irreversible
strains due to sucti on changes. They are expressed as follows:

( 0)
( )
:
s k
o o
o
c c
p p
SI s s LC
p p

_
:

,
(5)
Without accounting for the effect of suction on cohesion and tensile strength, as the formulation will refer to
isotropic compressive stress states, in describing the LC and SI loci three additional parameters with respect
to Modified Clay Model are introduced:
c o
( s ) , p , s ; ( s ) is the compressibility at virgin state for a material at a
given suction s ,
c
p is a reference pressure (see Alonso et al. 1990 for further details),
o
s is the maximum
suction experienced by the material (yield condition). Both originally present in Cam-clay model,
*
o
p is the
isotropic yield stress for the saturated material and ( 0 ) is the material compressibility at virgin state and
saturated condition. The change of material compressibility with suction is expressed as follows:
[ ] ( ) (0) (1 )exp( ) s r s r + (6)
where r and are two additional parameters of the model and control the rate of change of soil stiffness with
suction s . Substituting equation (5) in (4) and considering (6) shows that the material yielding is suction
dependent. The position of the SI and LC yield curves is controlled by the irreversible deformations generated
during hydromechanical loading. For isotropic stress states the plastic volumetric deformation increment d
p
v

is derived considering the effects of mechanical isotropic loading and suction increase. The former generates
plastic volumetric deformation increments d
p
vp
, the latter plastic volumetric deformation increments d
p
vs
. It is
assumed that material experiences same hardening if submitted either to mechanical loading or suction
increase, so that a complete coupling can be considered admitting that d = d + d
p p p
v vp vs
. With this
assumption the hardening laws governing the evolutions of LC and SI yield curves respectively are

d
d
(0)
p o
v
o
p v
p

(7)

d
d
p o
v
o atm s s
s v
s p


.
+
(8)
In (7) and (8)
*
o
p and
o
s are the hardening parameters that control the position of LC and SI.
3.2 The rate-dependent modelling
In order to incorporate the viscoplastic coupling in the original formulation of the BBM the extended
elastoplasticity framework has been considered (e.g. Dragon & Mroz, 1979, Lemaitre & Chaboche, 1985).
More precisely RASTRA model includes rate effects by means of an extended strain rate dependent hardening
law. As it will be shown the definition of this law is based on the rheological relationships (1) and equality
e c
( s ) C C

that have been proved reliable for a large variety of geotechnical materials.
2235


The dependency of the yield condition in (4) can be rewritten as follows:
( )
p
o v
F F p s p

1 , ,
]
(9)
In (9) ( )
p
o v
p

is the hardening function and

p
v
is the plasti c volumetric strain identified as the hardening
variable. Note that (9) also includes suction dependency owing to the evolution of
o
p

with suction according to

(5). The expression of ( )
p
o v
p

can be obtained by integrating (7):

exp
(0)
p
o ro v
v
p p

_

(10)
where
ro
p is a reference pressure, eventually identified with the yield stress of the saturated material before
occurrence of any irreversible strain.
As shown in Figure 1 (b) and Figure 2 (a) chalk exhibits strain rate suction dependent hardening involving
plastic yielding when strain rate increases. In order to capture this coupling, similarly to the case of thermal
and chemical hardening (e.g. Ulm & Coussy, 1998; Hueckel, 2002; Laloui & Cekerevac, 2003; Coussy, 2004),
an extended hardening law is proposed to account for strain rate hardening in the form
( )exp
(0)
vp
o ro v v
v
p p

_

& (11)
A new deformation partition is now assumed, admitting that
d d d
e vp
v v v
+ (12)
where
vp
v
is the viscoplastic component of the irreversible deformation. In (11) the volumetric strain rate
v
& is
an additional hardening variable. Its expression is derived from the results shown in Figure 2 (a), plotted
schematically in Figure 3, expressed by

( ) s
ref v
ro ro ref
v
p p

,
&
&
(13)
The additional parameters
ref
ro
p ,
ref
v
& and ( ) s (Figure 3) can be directly derived from experimental results.
As a first approach, in order to complete the formulation of the model the expression of ( ) s has to be
identified. A linear dependence between and s has been chosen in the form:
( ) (0) s bs (14)
where (0) is the slope of the linear yield stress-strain rate relationship for the water saturated geomaterial
(Figure 2 (a) and Figure 4) and b is the forth additional constitutive parameter.
In comparison with the single hardening variable elastoplastic formulation the introduction of (11) and (13) in
the model requires a new derivation of the plastic multiplier d , that now depends on the hardening variable
vp
v
and the volumetric strain rate
v
& . The latter can be obtained considering the expression of the yield
function F given in (4) that, accounting for, (11) and (13), can be written

( 0 )
( ) ( )
exp
(0)
k
s s
ref
p ro v
c v ref
c v
p v
F p p
p

1
_
1

1

1

1
,
1 ]
_

,
&
&
(15)
Invoking the consistency condition 0 dF for the plastic loading, it follows that:
0
vp o o
o v v vp
o o v v
p p F F F F F F
dF dp ds dp dp ds d d
p s p p s p


_

,

+ + + + +

&
&
(16)
and considering in the case of associated flow rule that:

vp
v
F
d d
p

(17)
the plastic multiplier can be identified as follows:

1
o
v
o v
p F F F
d dp ds d
H p s p

,

+ +

&
&
(18)
where the hardening modulus H is given by

o
vp
o v
p F F
H dp
p p

.

(19)
2236





Figure 3. Schematic representation of the variation of yield stress with strain rate in CRS oedometric tests.
When specialized using (15), substitution of (18) and (19) in (17) yields

1 2 3
vp
v v
d dp ds d + + & (20)
where the partial multipliers
1 2 3
, , can be determined following the standard procedure of elastoplasticity.
The first two terms on the right hand side of (20) represent the contributions of the mechanical and suction
loadings to the viscoplastic deformation and the last term allows to identify the contribution to the viscoplastic
deformation of the volumetric strain rate.

Owing to the additional character of the viscoplastic strains in (20), viscoplastic deformations occur even if
stress and suction are held constants (i.e. d 0 p and d 0 s ). This corresponds to the typical case of creep.
Also, from (20) follows that viscoplastic deformation during creep includes the effect of suction.
4 RASTRA model verification
In order to verify RASTRA model capabilities strain rate dependent behaviour of a geomaterial submitted to
isotropic compression loading under constant suction is first simulated. A set of trial parameters is given in
Table 2. Apart from the height parameters of the original BBM, the extension to viscoplastic behaviour
introduces four additional constitutive parameters:
ref
v
& ,
ref
ro
p , (0)
c
and b , whose physical meaning is
straightforward.
Table 2. Constitutive parameters of RASTRA model.
Parameter Unit Value (prediction) Value (test)
Elastic swelling (suction)
s
- 1e-5 1e-5
Plastic compressibility (suction) s

- 1e-4 1e-4
Elastic swelling (mechanical) - 0.02 0.004
Saturated plastic compressibility (mechanical) (0) - 0.2 0.15
Suction dependent compressibility parameter r - 0.9 0.9
Suction dependent compressibility parameter MPa
-1
0.25 0.25
Loading collapse (LC) locus c
p
MPa 0.01 0.01
Suction Increase (SI) locus o
s
MPa 30 30
Yield stress-strain rate relationship parameter
ref
v
& s
-1
7 7
Yield stress-strain rate relationship parameter
ref
ro
p MPa 28 28
Yield stress-strain rate relationship parameter
(0)
c

- 0.1 0.108
Yield stress-strain rate relationship parameter b MPa
-1
1 0.043
2237

(a)

(b)
Figure 4. (a) Prediction of strain-rate controlled isotropic compression tests under various volumetric strain
rates showing isotach behaviour; (b) reference time model (after Bjerrum, 1967)
Results shown in Figure 4 (a) demonstrate the reliability of the model in reproducing the general features of
the isotach behaviour. Each compression line shown in Figure 4 (a) is characterised by a given value of the
imposed volumetric strain rate
v
& . Simulations have been carried out for
v
& =
vo
& , ... ,
vo
0.001& where
vo
& =
1x10
-5
has been assumed as the reference strain rate during instantaneous loading. These lines are equally
spaced following a logarithmic progression, in agreement with equation (13) and in striking analogy with the
"isotach" or "reference time" models proposed by uklje (1957) and Bjerrum (1967) (Figure 4 (b)).

A second series of simulations have been performed in order to compare RASTRA model predictions and
experimental results on chalks submitted to isotropic loading under variable imposed stress-rate conditions
and including creep phases. Isotropic compression tests with variable controlled stress-rates were conducted
on Lixhe outcrop chalk samples unsaturated with oil and water (De Gennaro et al. 2003; Pasachalk, 2004).
The initial void ratio was e
o
= 0.7. This chalk has been used as an analogue of the oil reservoir chalk of Ekofisk
oilfield (North Sea) in order to study the origin of the seafloor subsidence experienced during the last two
decades of the reservoir exploitation. Two constant rates of isotropic stress p & 5.5x10
-5
MPa s
-1
(curve with
open triangles) and p & 3.3x10
-3
MPa s
-1
(curve with open circles) were used. Samples were partially filled with
oil and water. The water saturation degree was S
rw
= 10%, corresponding to a suction level of about 1 MPa (De
Gennaro et al. 2003). Tests results and data shown in Figure 2 (a) allowed the identification of the strains
rates corresponding to each of the post yield loading branches in Figure 5 (a) being & 2.5x10
-7
s
-1
. Owing to
the hypothesis of the time independent nature of the elastic strain predicted in RASTRA model, rate effects do
not influence the simulated elastic behaviour, although experimental results seem to suggest that stress rate
affects also the initial slope of the compressibility curves.

(a)

10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
0.25
0. 3
0.35
0. 4
0.45
0. 5
Time, t (s)
V
o
i
d

r
a
t
i
o
,


e

(
s
)
s = 1 MPa
s = 0.2 MPa
s = 0 MPa

(b)

Figure 5. (a) Simulation of loading-rate controlled isotropic compression tests under constant oil-water
suction; (b) Developed creep phases and model predictions.
2238

The last series of simulations show RASTRA model ability to reproduce the influence of suction on the
evolution of creep. Results of simulations are shown in Figure 5 (b) in terms of evolution of the void ratio e as a
function of the elapsed time of the test. The semi-logarithmic description has been adopted to better illustrate
the effect of suction on creep which is accounted in RASTRA model via the constitutive parameter ( )
c
s
(Figure 3). The isotropic compression test conducted under constant rate of stress p & 3.3x10
-3
MPa s
-1
and
oil-water suction equal to 1 MPa (curve with open circles, Figure 5 (a)) has been considered as the reference
test. Two ideal tests have been simulated admitting that suction was reduced to 0.2 MPa (i.e. S
rw
= 40%; De
Gennaro et al. 2003) and 0 MPa (i.e. saturated state). As expected, chalk compaction increases when suction
decreases. However, besides the effect of suction on chalk compressibility, the originality of the results shown
in Figure 5 (b) consists in the capacity of the model to account for suction effect on the evolution of creep. This
is illustrated by inspecting the linear slopes of the final creep phases relative to the three tests, plotted as
dashed lines. As it can be noted the lines are not parallel, the larger slope being that associated with the test
on the saturated chalk sample. Although these results give a qualitative picture of the phenomenon, this
example permits to appreciate the potential of RASTRA model to include in a consistent theoretical framework
rate-hydro-mechanical coupling.
5 Conclusions
In this paper the basis of a rate dependent model for unsaturated geomaterials has been presented and
some numerical results are discussed. The model, called RASTRA has been developed adopting the
"reference time" or "isotach" models proposed by uklje (1957) and Bjerrum (1967). RASTRA model includes
rate effects by means of an extended strain rate dependent hardening law. The definition of this law is based
on available experimental results on various geomaterials. An extension to include suction effects on creep
has been proposed.

The model has been used to simulate tests involving variable stress and/or strain rate conditions, including
creep phases. Numerical results demonstrate the reliability of the model in reproducing the general features
of the rate-dependent behaviour. Further developments of RASTRA model will include the extension to the
case of deviatoric loading.
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Alonso E.E., Olivella S., Pinyol N.M. 2005. A review of Beliche dam. Gotechnique, 55(4), 267-285.

Augustesen A., Liingaard M. , Lade P.V. 2004. Evaluation of time-dependent behaviour of soils. Int. Journal of Geomechanics
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Bjerrum L. 1967. Engineering geology of Norwegian normally-consolidated marine clays as related to settlement of buildings.
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