The International Journal of Human Resource Management 9:5 October 1998

Sequential cross-cultural training for

expatriate business managers: pre-
departure and post-arrival
Jan Selmer, Ingemar Torbiorn and Corinna T. de Leon
Abstract The need for cross-cultural capabilities has become crucial to international
business. From empirical studies, it is not clear that pre-departure training can provide
intemational managers with the necessary qualities. This article presents a theoretical
framework on the dynamics of host-culture adjustment and discusses its relevance to
cross-cultural training. Propositions refer to the timing and the suitable content of
sequential training implemented at various phases before and during the expatriate
assignment.
Keywords Cross-cultural training, expatriate managers, post-arrival
Introduction
The increasing internationalization of business activities is transforming the nature of
managerial performance. Empirical evidence of the specific skills and knowledge
required of a successful expatriate manager have been documented in previous studies
(cf. Black et al., 1992; Black and Mendenhall, 1990; Brewster, 1991; Hannigan, 1990;
Selmer, 1995a; Tung, 1988). Although the lack of cross-cultural training may or may
not lead to premature returns among expatriates (cf. Tung, 1988; Harzing, 1995), many
intemational organizations do not provide systematic programmes for expatriate staff
(cf. Dunbar and Katcher, 1990; Mendenhall et al., 1987; Tung, 1988). Practice and
policy are ambivalent on the usefulness of such preparation, apparently assuming that
'good persons always manage' (Black and Mendenhall, 1990; Brewster, 1995).
If conducted at all, cross-cultural training is usually administered as logical and
convenient prior to departure from the home country and it has been argued that
anticipatory adjustment could lead to smoother and quicker actual adjustment (Black
et al., 1991).
Although most studies support the use of pre-departure cross-cultural training (cf.
Berry et al., 1993; Black and Mendenhall, 1990; Deshpande and Viswesvaran, 1992;
Gregersen and Black, 1992; Hammer and Martin, 1990; Naumann, 1993; Oddou, 1992),
evidence of its effectiveness remains inconclusive. Kealy and Protheroe (1996)
concluded that most of the studies which support the effectiveness of pre-departure
training used seriously deficient methodologies.
Pre-departure training is conducted apart from the actual experience of realities in the
host culture. Pazy and Zeira (1985) argued that post-arrival cross-cultural training has
potential impact on the performance of intemational managers. Such training has been
highly recommended (cf. Grove and Torbiorn, 1985; Gudykunst et al., 1996), but has
not been empirically investigated. It is plausible that cross-cultural knowledge and new
0958-5192 Routledge 1998
832 Jan Selmer, Ingemar Torbiorn and Corinna T. de Leon
behavioural skills can be facilitated by training, when conducted not only at the
preparatory stage but also throughout the expatriate assignment.
Theoretical framework
Training programmes at the organizational level are required for adequate cross-cultural
behaviours to occur at the individual level. Cross-cultural training should be designed
with regard to the psychological receptivity of the international manager, so as to
develop essential cognitive structures (Torbiorn, 1982, 1994; Grove and Torbiorn,
1985). The theoretical framework proposes that effective training occurs when the
cross-cultural content coincides in time with the psychological predispositions occurring
during the various phases of the adjustment process. Although the U-curve thesis
underpinning our theoretical framework has been criticized for being too generalized
(Fumham and Bochner, 1986) with conflicting empirical support (cf. Black and
Mendenhall, 1991; Church, 1982; Janssens, 1995; Selmer, 1997; Torbiorn, 1982), it is
firmly based on acceptable psychological constructs and constitutes a practical way to
structure a cross-cultural training approach.
Dynamics of adjustment
Social interaction is influenced by the individual's world view, comprised of values,
attitudes, opinion, ideas, and knowledge that have been accumulated from personal
experience. The operant frame of reference is a set of cognitive elements derived from
the individual's world view, which recommend or advise against a certain behaviour in
a specific situation. Cross-cultural adjustment ensues from the clarity of the expatriate's
operant frame of reference which functions as an internalized set of relevant norms, and
the applicability of personal behaviour in the host-culture.
The applicability of behaviour concerns the extent of appropriateness in the particular
social context. Within the home culture, habitual patterns of behaviour are effective.
When the expatriate moves to an unfamiliar host culture, habitual behaviours may be
inappropriate or even unacceptable in context of the local norms. Cross-cultural
adjustment would require the learning of new behaviours which are better suited to the
host culture.
In the home culture, the individual believes his world view is an accurate guide for
his behaviour. The expatriate confronts the foreign environment with the implicit and
explicit assumptions of his idiosyncratic perspective. Clarity of the frame of reference
is the extent to which the certain set of cognitive elements drawn from the individual's
world view is unanimous in recommending a type of behaviour as 'normative'; that is,
clarity is the degree of consistency between manifest behaviour and the operant frame
of reference.
When experiences are consistent with one's cognitive representation of society, one's
behaviour is regarded as socially acceptable and interpersonally effective. However, the
clarity of the frame of reference deteriorates if personal behaviours are proven to be
unsuitable in a particular host culture. With the observation that behavioural tendencies
are not consistent with local norms, confidence in the operant frame of reference is
progressively undermined.
In the home culture, both the applicability of habitual behaviour and clarity of the
operant frame of reference are high. Figure 1 depicts the process of cross-cultural
Sequential cross-cultural training 833
adjustment that occurs during an expatriate assignment. Over time, the applicability of
habitual behaviour derived from the home culture decreases (A), while the applicability
of new behaviours learned from the host culture increases (B).
During the initial phases of the expatriate assignment, the applicability of habitual
behaviour is reduced, while the clarity of the operant frame of reference remains high
because of an inherent ethnocentricity. The individual retains his confidence in the
operant frame of reference derived from the home culture, since 'exotic' or 'quaint'
cultural differences have no implications for the idiosyncratic world view. As the
cross-cultural experience continues, the clarity of the home-culture frame of reference
is substantially lowered, frequently being disconfirmed by actual experience.
Although the applicability of new behaviours gradually increases, the operant frame
of reference becomes increasingly unclear, because the expatriate's world view is
confused by new cognitive elements from the host culture. A state of normlessness
occurs, since habitual as well as new behaviours get equivocal support from a hybrid
frame of reference. The uncertainty of the cross-cultural experience at this stage
corresponds to the symptoms and reactions of culture shock (Oberg, 1960).
Later in the assignment, the expatriate's world view has accommodated new
cognitive elements from the foreign culture. An individual develops a flexible
orientation that supports different behaviours as more appropriate in the particular host
culture. The operant frame of reference changes, in that home-country elements are less
dominant than those from the host culture in defining 'normative' behaviour. While in
the host culture, the restructuring of the operant frame of reference is confirmed by the
applicability of new behaviours. The expatriate's interpretations and manifest
behaviours become more firmly connected to the host culture rather than the home
High
Applicability
of behaviour
in host
culture
abitual behaviour (A) New behaviour (BI
\.y'
Clarity of operant
frame of reference
(HOME-culture
dominance)
Clarity of operant
frame of reference
(HOST-culture
dominance)
Low
(Pre-departure) (Culturally adjusted)
Time
Figure 1 Applicability of behaviour and clarity of operant frame of reference over time
during expatriate period
834 Jan Selmer, Ingemar Torbiorn and Corinna T. de Leon
culture, eventually resulting in the successful adjustment of the international
manager.
Phases of adjustment
Figure 2 depicts the development over time of the applicability of new behaviours and
the clarity of an emerging frame of reference derived from the host culture. The
relationship between applicability and clarity indicates four distinct phases in the cross-
cultural adjustment process: (1) Ethnocentric phase (high clarity - low applicability),
(2) Culture-shocked phase (low clarity - low applicability), (3) Conformist phase (low
clarity - high applicability) and (4) Adjusted phase (high clarity - high
applicability).
'Mere adequacy' refers to the minimum levels of cognitive clarity and behavioural
applicability which an individual considers to be necessary for cultural adjustment. As
the level of mere adequacy is set in the home-culture context, an expatriate could
initially resist lowering his minimum standards, so as not to compromise entrenched
principles and ideals. However, insofar as the newcomer can attribute his social
inadequacies to complex situational factors in the host culture, rather than to personal
deficiency, the level of mere adequacy is lowered.
The initial period after arrival is psychologically equivalent to the pre-departure
situation, characterized by low psychological receptivity. At the ethnocentric phase,
since the operant frame of reference is derived from the home culture, experiences in
the host culture are interpreted as deviations from the 'correct' behaviour. Culture shock
is a defensive coping mechanism which, in distorting reality, supports temporary
High
Low
Clarity of operant
frame of reference
. ( | A- B| in Figure 1)
Applicability of
new behaviour (B) ^
Level of mere adequacy
Ethnocentric Culture-shocked Conformist Culturally Time
adjusted
Phase 1 2 3
Figure 2 The cross-cultural adjustment process
Sequential cross-cultural training 835
cognitive clarity, slowing down the entry of new cognitive elements from the host
culture. Eventually, the expatriate resolves the cognitive ambiguity, accommodating
host-culture perspectives into his world view and adjusting his behaviour to be more
congruent with local norms.
Actual experience of the new culture over time would expose the individual to many
unfamiliar stimuli or impressions that promote restructuring of the frame of reference.
The accommodation of new cognitive elements from the host culture would gradually
predispose the individual to re-orient interpretations and behaviours to suit the different
social context better. The dynamics of cross-cultural adjustment suggest that the
effectiveness of training differs at the various phases of the foreign assignment,
according to the changing psychological receptivity of expatriates.
Sequential training
Cross-cultural training aims to increase the applicability of new behaviours which are
more appropriate to the host culture. However, an individual's capacity for efficient
learning, ebbs and flows during the expatriate period. Therefore, cross-cultural training
should be sequential, progressing in steps starting at pre-departure and continuing to
the post-arrival phases. Sequential training would provide continuous guidance for the
incremental restructuring of the expatriate's operant frame of reference towards greater
consistency with the host culture.
The timing and content of cross-cultural training should be designed to correspond to
the adjustment phases, such that leaming occurs as the expatriate loses confidence in the
operant frame of reference, expands his world view, structures a new frame of
reference, learns new social skills and regains confidence in his interaction with host
nationals on the job. Specific training modes and content are recommended for the four
steps of sequential cross-cultural training: pre-departure training, training at the
ethnocentric phase, training at the culture-shocked phase, training at the conformist
phase.
In the fourth phase of cross-cultural adjustment, the individual should have achieved
clarity in a restructured frame of reference and confidence in the applicability of new
behaviours. Finally feeling 'at home' in the host-culture, the expatriate is prone to
'independent self-learning'. The need for externally administered training is weaker
than in previous phases, since continuous leaming occurs without requiring much
refiection.
Pre-departure training
During the ethnocentric phase, the psychological predisposition of individuals restricts
the in-depth understanding of a particular culture not yet experienced, simply because
the cross-cultural context is not a priori of great salience. Learning cross-cultural
content is impeded, since the home-country setting does not fully replicate the
dimensions of the authentic host-culture. Exposure to implicit cultural differences is too
short and transitory to encourage substantial restructuring of the trainee's frame of
reference. Trainees are rarely able to grasp in abstraction and recall later in practice the
new social skills.
Pre-departure programmes could focus instead on essential information on local
conditions. However, prior to departure, factual information about a foreign country is
'unlikely to enable one to make sweeping modifications in his or her habitual patterns
of activity' (Grove and Torbiom, 1985: 223). Training material should include didactic
836 Jan Selmer, Ingemar Torbiorn and Corinna T. de Leon
exposure to the cross-cultural adjustment process, underlining the normal and
constructive phases that emerge after the initial strains of culture shock.
Preparatory activities should emphasize the initial adjustment problems due to an
inadequate frame of reference. Grove and Torbiorn (1985) reported that there were few
premature returns or complaints from Swedish expatriates in Saudi Arabia who were
told during pre-departure training that the cross-cultural experience would be deeply
disturbing. Lowering the trainee's level of mere adequacy will reduce future
frustrations, as the expatriate will be aware that personal behaviour will be inconsistent
with local practices. The individual should develop realistic expectations of initial
social inadequacies, increasing the tolerance for cognitive ambiguity. The expatriate
should anticipate changes in the operant frame of reference, so as to reduce anxiety.
Prior to departure, trainees have inadequate experience or knowledge to identify
critical issues about the host culture. Due to the abstracted 'foreignness', there is little
opportunity for them to be highly involved in the conduct of the training, and they rely
on the trainer's direction. None the less, intercultural training should 'reduce the
confident ethnocentrism of the mono-cultural person . . . disturb and challenge his or her
explicit and implicit beliefs about how human beings relate to one another' (Grove and
Torbiom, 1985: 219).
Training in the ethnocentric phase
Upon arrival in the host country, expatriates are caught up in hectic familiarization and
difficult socialization (Selmer, 1995b). If encouraged to take time off to participate in
post-arrival training, the trainees themselves would suggest many of the concerns to be
discussed. Personal experiences in the new cultural context would generate self-
motivation, as well as high involvement and deep commitment to the rationale of cross-
cultural training as a tool for adjustment.
Training immediately after arrival should enhance cultural awareness and lower
ethnocentrism. Culture-contrast methods would be the most appropriate to highlight
similarities and differences in the fundamental values and characteristics of home and
host cultures (cf. Stewart and Bennett, 1991; Althen, 1988). Learning is likely to be
most effective when the expatriate's reliance upon home-culture views has weakened
and openness to the new culture has heightened. Based on cultural relativism, the
culture-contrast mode of learning introduces the concept of culture and the nature of
cultural differences (Brislin et al, 1983). Fact-oriented training is also useful, especially
concentrating on the immediate implications of the transition for one's daily life at
home and at work.
Training in the culture-shocked phase
During the culture-shocked phase, cross-cultural training would be most effective. The
operant frame of reference simultaneously recommends incompatible behaviours, but
the cognitive inconsistency and ambiguity (Grove and Torbiorn, 1985) increases the
motivation to expand one's world view. Confidence in one's cross-cultural capabilities
is still low, due to a lack of 'tools' with which to integrate the myriad host-culture
elements into a coherent frame of reference.
The training during this period should facilitate cognitive restructuring by providing
explanations of actual cross-cultural experiences. Exercises should elicit experi-
mentation with new behaviours which could develop into interpersonally effective
Sequential cross-cultural training 837
performance on the job. Expatriates can begin to function efficiently in the new social
environment, without having first to know everything about the host country, by
learning how to learn about the new culture (Kolb and Fry, 1975; McCaffery,
1986).
Culture-shock training should provide the tools for sorting out the many experiences
and impressions of the host culture. Since intercultural difficulties are usually due to
ignorance of local norms, activities should attempt to supplement the expatriate's
repertoire of social skills (Fumham and Bochner, 1986). Both didactic and experiential
techniques of training would be advisable, following Harrison's (1992, 1994)
recommendation to use a combination of methods. Experiential learning is the
technique with the greatest potential for increasing applicability of behaviours in
the host culture; that is, the involvement of the trainee is high when role-plays,
simulations, situation exercises are more appropriately implemented in the indigenous
setting (Brislin et al., 1983).
Training in the conformist phase
The conformist phase is another suitable period for cross-cultural training, but with a
different focus. Although the new behaviours are motivated by an emerging frame of
reference that has accommodated host-culture norms, the individual has not yet gained
sufficient confidence in behaving differently from his usual self. The training at this
phase should focus on 'learning by doing as the host-culture members do' . Culturally
sensitive skills would be efficiently learnt by actual practice on the job, which in turn
would provide trainees with objective reactions from significant others.
The interactional mode of learning occurs through structured or unstructured
situations for interaction between trainees and host nationals and/or experienced
expatriates (Brislin et al., 1983). Long-term effects of training at the conformist phase
are probable, due to the immediacy of application. The immediate transfer of learning
to practice reinforces the behavioural skills, such that cross-cultural competencies are
quickly incorporated in the personal repertoire of conduct. Sorcher and Spence's (1982)
longitudinal study found more positive effects after twenty weeks than immediately
after the training, presumably resulting from practice of what had been learned.
Cross-cultural adjustment entails the reconstruction of one's operant frame of
reference, due to the actual experience of cultural differences. Achieving a satisfactory
way of relating in everyday life in a foreign culture does not imply full commitment to
local values and norms, but rather an open-minded acceptance of the relative,
situational appropriateness of human behaviour. The learning experience adds new
ways of thinking and seeing others and oneself, without threatening the one's cultural
roots. Cross-cultural training extends the expatriate's behavioural repertoire to
accommodate foreign contexts, but new behaviours will not occur inappropriately when
among fellow-nationals or after repatriation (Bochner, 1986; Fumham and Bochner,
1986).
Implications
The relevance of sequential cross-cultural training has three pre-conditions: first, the
model assumes that the individual encounters a vastly different social environment,
such that the expatriate has no option but to accommodate a great number of previously
838 Jan Selmer, Ingemar Torbiorn and Corinna T. de Leon
unknown situations. Second, the transfer to the foreign culture is relatively sudden, not
necessarily unexpected but within a short period of time. The model has limited
application when the expatriate has had a series of on-site experiences which permitted
gradual adjustment into the host-culture. Third, although expatriate assignments are
temporary, the model assumes that the individual remains in the host culture long
enough for the frame of reference to be restructured and the new behaviours to be
learned.
In designing sequential training, logistical problems are reduced in joint sessions
conducted for expatriates from several organizations operating within the same host
culture. Sharing and learning from each other's experiences would not be possible in
individual training. A multi-organization structure for sequential training could lead to
synergistic effects: for example, the establishment of interpersonal networks among the
expatriate managers.
Cross-cultural training conducted sequentially throughout the ethnocentric, culture-
shocked and conformist phases of adjustment would establish a direct link between
learning and the trainees' actual experiences. Experiential and interactional techniques
should provide a comprehensive knowledge structure by which to understand the nature
of the host culture. Sharing and discussion of cross-cultural experiences among
expatriates gives validity to the individual's observations and reactions. Group
discussion would provide encouragement for a shift in the individual's frame of
reference as well as the reinforcement of new social skills.
Greater concern at headquarters about expatriate performance could enhance
organizational learning for corporate cross-cultural competence. A programme for
sequential training would emphasize 'competence procurement': that is, finding,
keeping, creating, moving and using professional competence (cf. Torbiorn, 1997). An
understanding of the dynamics of cross-cultural adjustment will improve the appraisal
of local talent, produce greater acceptance of international assignments, enhance
organizational commitment, facilitate home-country readjustment and reduce turnover
among repatriated managers (cf. Gregersen, 1992; Oddou, 1992).
Conclusions
Evidence on the effectiveness of pre-departure training remains inconclusive. The
propositions on sequential cross-cultural training suggested that timing and content
should be consistent with the psychological receptivity of the expatriate, as it develops
throughout the foreign assignment. The programme recommends the sequencing of
appropriate training methods at different training periods, so that learning from one
phase enhances the learning in later phases.
Torbiorn (1982) showed that the expatriate's frame of reference shifts in orientation
away from home-culture to host-culture dominance, usually after four to seven months
of the foreign assignment. However, a corresponding shift in receptivity to specific
host-culture content in training has yet to be proven. The benefits of sequential training
throughout the period of expatriate assignments have yet to be empirically
demonstrated.
To meet the stipulated criteria for research reliability a field experiment is planned to
test the long-term effects of sequential cross-cultural training on job interaction skills of
expatriate business managers. Empirical verification has not yet been done, as it
requires a longitudinal investigation. The attempt would be the first rigorous
Sequential cross-cutturat training 839
experimental research responding to the long-term training needs of the intemational
business community.
Jan Selmer
Hong Kong Baptist University
Ingemar Torbiorn
Stockholm University
Corinna T. de Leon
Hong Kong
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