AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment1

AgeandSexDifferencesintheInfluenceofAttachmentRelationshipson
AdolescentPsychologicalHealth:AnAttachmentFunctionsApproach

RossB.Wilkinson
&
AnneMarieSarandrea

TheAustralianNationalUniversity
2005

Correspondenceto:DrRossWilkinson,SchoolofPsychology,Building39,TheAustralian
NationalUniversity,ACT0200,Australia.
Email:Ross.Wilkinson@anu.edu.au
Fax:+61261250499
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment2
Abstract
Thequalityofadolescentattachmentwithmothers,fathers,andpeers,andthe
impactoftheserelationshipsonpsychologicalhealthandselfesteemisexamined
inasampleof615highschoolstudents.Usinganattachmentfunctionsperspective,
itisarguedthatdifferentattachmentrelationshipshavedifferentaffectson
adjustmentdependingonageandgender.Theresultssupporttheviewthat
attachmentfunctionsdevelopinpeerrelationshipsbeforewithdrawingfrom
parentalrelationshipsandthatthisprocessoccursatdifferentagesandhas
differentconsequencesforselfesteemanddepressioninadolescence.
Unexpectedly,maternalattachmenthadagreaterimpactonpsychological
adjustmentforgirlswhilepaternalattachmenthadagreaterimpactforboys.Itis
concludedthatwhiletheattachmentfunctionsframeworkisusefulfor
understandingdevelopmentalchangesinattachmentnetworksduring
adolescence,furtherindividualdifferenceanddevelopmentalfactorsmayneedto
beconsidered.

AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment3
AgeandSexDifferencesintheInfluenceofAttachmentRelationshipson
AdolescentPsychologicalHealth:AnAttachmentFunctionsApproach
Adolescentsfacethechallengeofmarkedbiological,cognitive,andpsychological
changestakingplaceinanevolvingsocialenvironment.Ithasbeenarguedthatthese
changesincreasevulnerabilitytoexperiencingdeclinesinpsychologicalhealth(Adams&
Gullotta,1989;BrooksGunn&Petersen,1991;Weller&Weller,2000)and,althougha
rangeoffactorscontributetoadaptiveadjustmentinadolescence(Rutter,1990;
Serocynski,Jacuez,&Cole,2003),itisthequalityofinterpersonalrelationsthathasoften
beenidentifiedasakeydeterminant(Youniss&Smollar,1985).Parentalandpeer
relationshipsareoftenconsideredthemostcentralinadolescence,althoughtheirimpacts
onadolescentpsychologicalhealtharenotnecessarilythesame(Wilkinson,2004).
Traditionalviewsofadolescentparentrelationshipsarguethatadolescentsdesire
independencefromtheirparentsandthataprimarydevelopmentaltaskofadolescenceis
toachieveemotionalautonomyfromthem(Batgos&Leadbeater,1994;Erikson,1968).As
childrenenteradolescenceawidersocialnetworkbecomesavailableandmoresustaining
andsupportiverelationshipswithpeersandfriendsaredeveloped(Furman&
Buhrmester,1992;OKoon,1997;Youniss&Smollar,1985).Therehasbeenagrowing
recognitionoftheincreasedimportanceofextrafamilialrelationshipsthroughchildhood
andadolescenceandincreasedrecognitionthatpositiveandsupportiveparentalandpeer
relationshipsareadaptivefornormativechallengessuchasachievingindependence,self
reliance,andestablishingidentity(Allen,Hauser,Bell,&OConnor,1994;Allan&Land,
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment4
1999;Noller&Callan,1991;Steinberg&Silverberg,1986).
Attachmenttheory(Ainsworth,1989;Bowlby,1969/1997)providesatheoretical
frameworkforunderstandinghowthequalityofinterpersonalrelationshipsdevelopand
influencespsychologicalhealthacrossthelifespan.Thistheoryproposesthatcognitive
schemas(internalworkingmodels)developedduringinfancyandchildhood,basedon
experienceswithprimarycaregivers,influencecurrentandfuturerelationshipsand
psychologicaladjustment.Researchwithinfants,children,andbothyoungerandolder
adultshassupportedthecontentionthatpositivebeliefsandexpectationsabout
interpersonalrelationshipsareintimatelyinvolvedwithpsychologicalwellbeingand
adaptationwhilenegativebeliefsandexpectationsareimplicatedinpsychologicaldistress
anddysfunction(Bradley&Cafferty,2001;Higgins,2003;Shaver&Mikulincer,2002).The
existingbodyofliteraturealsosupportsalinkbetweentheperceivedqualityof
attachmentrelationshipsandmentalhealthoutcomesinadolescence(Armsden&
Greenberg,1987;Kobak&Sceery,1988;Raja,McGee,&Stanton,1992;Wilkinson&
Walford,2001;Wilkinson,2004).Theobjectiveofthisstudyistopresentandevaluatean
attachmentfunctionsperspectiveofkeyadolescentrelationshipsthatassistsin
understandinghowtheserelationshipsdevelopandchangethroughadolescence,and
howdifferentattachmentrelationshipshavedifferentimpactsonpsychological
adjustment.
AttachmentinAdolescence
Attachmenttheory(Ainsworth,1989;Bowlby,1969/1997)arguesthatintimate
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment5
relationshipsplayacentralroleinthedevelopmentofpersonalidentityandadaptive
interpersonalfunctioning.Earlyattachmentexperiencesarearguedtoinfluencethe
individualspatternofinterpersonalrelationshipsandfunctioningacrossthelifespanand
thereisabodyofresearchexaminingattachmentfrominfancythroughtoolderage
(Ainsworth,1979;Allen&Land,1999;Doherty&Feeney,2004;Hazan&Shaver,1987).
Thestudyofattachmentinadolescence,however,hasbeenconsideredparticularly
challengingandcomplexasitisduringthisperiodofdevelopmentthattheattachment
networkofindividualsexpandsbeyondtheimmediatefamilytoincludepeersand
romanticpartnersandattachmentorientationsbegintoshift(Hazan&Zeifman,1994).
Empiricalresearchhassupportedthecontinuedimportanceofparentalattachmentsfor
adolescentpsychologicalhealth.Inparticular,adolescentswhohavesecureattachments
withtheirparentsdisplayastrongersenseofidentity,higherselfesteem,greatersocial
competence,andbetteremotionaladjustment.Ontheotherhand,insecurelyattached
adolescentsdisplayhigherlevelsofdepression,anxiety,anddistress(Armsden,
McCauley,Greenberg,Burke,&Mitchell,1990;Rice,Cunningham,&Young,1997).Ina
studyofattachmentinearlyadolescence,Muris,Meesters,vanMelick,andZwambag
(2001)foundthathigherlevelsofparentalattachmentwereassociatedwithdecreased
anxietyanddepression.Similarly,WilkinsonandWalford(2001),inastudyofseniorhigh
schoolstudents,foundthatpositiveparentalattachmentwasassociatedwithincreased
positiveaffect,lifesatisfactionandhappinessanddecreasednegativeaffectandanxiety,
independentofpersonalityorlifeevents.
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment6
Alimitationofmanystudiesinthisarea,however,istheirfailuretodifferentiate
betweentherelativeinfluencesofmotherandfatherattachment.Researchhasshownthat
infantsformdifferentpatternsofattachmentwiththeirmotherandfather(Fox,Kimmerly,
&Schafer,1991)andthatthereisashiftintherelativeinfluenceofmotherchildand
fatherchildattachmentduringchildhood(Cohn,Paterson,&Chistopoulous,1991;
Kerns,Tomich,Aspelmier,&Contreras,2000).KernsandBarth(1995)foundthatmaternal
andpaternalattachmentsfosterdifferentchildcompetenciesandtheyarguethatgiventhe
changingnatureoftheparentchildrelationship,genderdifferencesinattachment
relatedbehavioursaretobeexpected.Beyondchildhood,DohertyandFeeney(2004)
foundthatdifferentaspectsofattachmentwereassociatedwithrelationshipswithmothers
andfathersacrossthelifespan.
Sexdifferencesmaybeexpectedinadolescentattachmentrelationshipswithparents
becauseofmaturationaldifferencesinthephysicalandsocialdevelopmentofboysand
girls.Whilearangeofstudieshavenotfoundsignificantdifferencesinreportsofoverall
parentalattachments(e.g.,Armsdenetal.,1990;Greenbergetal.,1983;Kenny&
Gallagher,2002;Rajaetal.,1992),othershavereportedthatgirlsrateattachmenttoparents
higherthandoboys(e.g.,Benson,Harris,&Rogers,1992;Papini,Roggman,&Anderson,
1991).Newman(1989)foundthatmothersanddaughtersbecameincreasinglycloseand
thatmothersandsonsbecameincreasinglydistantduringadolescence.Fatherrelationship
qualitywashigherforbotholdersonsanddaughters.Inalongitudinalstudy,Riceand
Mulkeen(1995)foundthatwhilethereweresimilarlevelsofmotherandfatherattachment
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment7
overall,differentpatternsofintimacyinmaternalandpaternalrelationshipsdeveloped
overtime.InastudyofattachmentandpsychologicalhealthinNorwegianandAustralian
adolescents,Wilkinson(2004)foundthatsexdifferencesinmeanlevelsofparental
attachmentsweregenerallysmallandonlywithlargesamplesizes(n>1500)didthey
becomesignificant.
Perhapsamoreimportantissuethantherelativelevelsofparentalattachmentistheir
differentialimpactonadolescentadjustment.Again,thelimitedresearchonthisissuehas
producedinconsistentresults.Allenetal.(1994)reportedthatfathershadagreaterimpact
onadolescentwellbeingthanmothers.Similarly,Riceetal.(1997)foundthatattachment
tofatherswasabetterpredictorthanmaternalattachmentofsocialadjustmentandself
efficacyforadolescentmales.However,forfemalesinthatstudy,bothparental
attachmentswerestrongpredictors.Inalongitudinalstudyofthetransitiontohigh
school,Kenny,Lomax,BrabeckandFife(1998)foundthatbothmaternalandpaternal
attachmentatgradeeightcontributedtochangesinpsychologicalwellbeingoneyear
laterformales,butnotforfemales.Ontheotherhand,KennyandGallagher(2002)found
thatforbothgirlsandboysthereweresimilarrelationshipsbetweenpaternaland
maternalattachmentandinstrumentalandsocial/relationalcompetence.
Thereareanumberofstudiesthathavefocussedonagedifferencesinparental
attachmentrelationships.Paterson,FieldandPrior(1994)foundthatwhilefemales
continuetoutilisetheirmothersforsupportinlateadolescence,malesdecreasedtheir
relianceonmothersforsupportandproximity.Contrarytothis,Papinietal.(1991)found
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment8
thatasgirlsmaturetheyperceivelessclosenesstobothparentswhileboysactuallyfeel
closertomothersandlessattachedtofathers.Othershaveshownthatolderadolescent
femalesperceivetheirfathersaslessavailablethandoyoungerfemales,andreportbeing
lessdependentontheirfathersthanmothers(Lieberman,Doyle,&Markiewicz,1999).A
longitudinalDutchstudy(vanWel,Linssen,&Abma,2000)foundthatinmidadolescence
therelationshipbetweengirlsandparentswaslesspositiveandhadgreaternegative
consequencesforpsychologicalwellbeingthanformales.Althoughtheparentalbond
increasedinlateadolescenceforfemales,overalltheycontinuedtohavelower
psychologicalwellbeingthanmales.
Despiteevidenceevidencethatparentsremaintheprimaryattachmentfiguresin
adolescence(Hazan&Zeifman,1994;Doherty&Feeney,2004),theequivocalresearch
findingsmakesitdifficulttoconcludethatthereiscertaintyabouttherelative
contributionsofmaternalandpaternalattachmenttothepsychologicalhealthof
adolescentsonsanddaughters.Further,thesepotentialdifferenceshavenotgenerally
beenexaminedinthecontextofthebroaderanddevelopingattachmentnetworkof
adolescents.Itiscentraltothedevelopmentalviewofattachmentthatadolescenceisseen
asaperiodwhereattachmentnetworksexpandbeyondtheimmediatefamily(Bowlby,
1988;Ainsworth,1989;Doherty&Feeney,2004).Severalstudieshavedemonstratedthat
closefriendsmayserveasimportantattachmentfiguresamongadolescentsandyoung
adults(Doherty&Feeney,2004;Hazan&Zeifman,1994;Trinke&Bartholomew,1997).
Buhrmester(1992)foundthatadolescentsnonfamilial,intimaterelationshipsare
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment9
characterisedbycloseaffectionalbonds,ageappropriateproximityseeking,separation
protest,securebase,andsafehavenbehaviouranalogoustoparentinfantattachment
patterns.HazanandZeifman(1994),ontheotherhand,foundthatduringadolescence
individualsparticularlylooktotheirpeersforcompanionship(proximityseeking)and
emotionalsupport(safehaven)butthatparentsarestillthemajorsourceofotheraspects
ofattachmentneeds.
Theimportanceofclosefriendshipsinadolescenceisdemonstratedbyevidencethat
positivepeerrelationshipsarelinkedtoincreasedpsychologicalhealthandselfesteem
andadecreasedriskofemotionalandbehaviouralproblems(Armsden&Greenberg,
1987;Youniss&Smollar,1985).Whilesomeauthorshaveconcludedthatpeerattachment
relationshipsaremoreimportantthanparentalrelationshipsforadolescentwellbeing
(e.g.,Laible,Carlo,&Raffaelli,2000),othershavearguedthatthequalityofparental
attachmentsremaincriticalforadolescentmentalhealth(Raja,etal.,1992).Armsdenand
colleagues(1990)comparedthesecurityofparentandpeerattachmentamongfourgroups
ofadolescents:clinicallydepressedadolescents,nondepressedadolescents,non
depressedpsychiatriccontrols,andadolescentswithresolveddepression.Theyfoundthat
depressedadolescentsreportedsignificantlylowerparentalattachmentthaneitherofthe
controlgroupsandlesssecurepeerattachmentthanthepsychiatriccontrolgroup.Ina
seriesofstudies,Wilkinson(2004)foundthatthequalityofparentalandpeerrelationships
impactedondifferentaspectsofadolescentpsychologicalhealth.Whilepositiveparental
attachmentwasdirectlyassociatedwithdecreaseddepressionandincreasedselfesteem,
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment10
selfesteemfullymediatedtherelationshipofpeerattachmenttodepression.
Overall,thereisadearthofresearchexaminingthejointimpactofparentalandpeer
attachmentonadolescentpsychologicalhealthoutcomesandthelittlethatthereishas
beeninconsistent.Inpart,thismaybeduetoafailuretotakeintoaccountshiftsin
adolescentattachmentsandfunctionsovertime.Accordingtothedevelopmentalviewof
attachment,thereareidentifiablechangesintheattachmentnetworksofindividuals
duringadolescence.HazanandZeifman(1994)foundthatfromchildhoodtolate
adolescencetheorientationoftargetsforattachmentfunctionsmovedfromparents
towardspeersandthatforolderadolescents(1517yearolds)therewasaclearpreference
forpeersfortheproximityseekingandsafehaven(emotionalsupport)functionsof
attachment.Infact,certainaspectsoffriendship,suchasintimacy,securityandtrust,
relevanttosecureattachments,maynotemergeasmajordimensionsofpeerrelationships
untiladolescence(Schneider,Atkinson,&Tardif,2001).AllanandLand(1999)arguethat
peersincreasinglytakeontheroleofattachmentrelationshipsbymidadolescenceandby
lateadolescencelongtermrelationshipscanbeformed(e.g.,romanticpartners)which
serveascompleteattachmentfigures.HazanandZeifman(1994),ontheotherhand,
arguethatacompletetransferofattachmentfunctionsdoesnotoccuruntilstable,sexual,
romanticrelationshipsdevelopinadulthood.
Thereisgoodevidence,then,thatpeersareincreasinglyutilisedasattachmentfigures
duringtheperiodwhenadolescentsareundertakingthetaskofdevelopingindependence
fromparents.However,althoughthischangeissometimesviewedasatransferof
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment11
attachment(e.g.,Doherty&Feeney,2004;Fraley&Davis,1997;Hazan&Zeifman,1997),it
doesnotseemtobethecasethatpreviousattachmentrelationshipsarecompletely
forsakenforthesenewfoundattachmentfigures.Researchindicatesthatfamilybondsare
nottotallysupplantedbyfriendshipsinadolescence(Blyth,Hill,&Thiel,1982;Greenberg,
etal.,1983;Patersonetal.,1994)anditcanbearguedthatthereisnotacomplete
withdrawalofattachmentfunctionsfromparentsinfavourofpeersduringadolescence.
Whilethereisadevelopmentalshiftofsomecomponentsofattachmentfromparentsto
peers,parentsremainprimaryattachmentfiguresuntillateadolescence(Hazen&
Zeifman,1994)andattachmenttoparentsremainsimportantintoadulthood.Positive
parentalrelationshipsmay,infact,providetheplatform(securebase)necessarytoinitiate
andmaintainhealthypeerrelationships(Ducharme,Doyle,&Markiewicz,2002).
ThePresentStudy
Whiletheevidenceisclearthatattachmentnetworksexpandbeyondtheimmediate
familyinadolescence,itisnotclearwhattheconsequencesofthisareforcurrentparental
relationshipsandpsychologicalhealth.Theobjectiveofthecurrentstudyistoexamine
howtherelationshipbetweenthematrixofmajoradolescentattachmentrelationshipsand
psychologicalhealthchangeswithageanddiffersaccordingtogender.Previousresearch
haslinkedselfesteemanddepressiontothequalityofeitherparentalorpeerrelationships
(e.g.,Patersonetal.,1994;Wilkinson,2004)buthasnotcomparedtherelativeinfluenceof
maternal,paternalandpeerattachmentsforadolescentsaccordingtosexandage.While
muchoftheliteratureontheseissueswouldappeartobeinconsistentorcontradictory,
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment12
somecoherencemaybegeneratedbyexaminingtheargumentsandevidencefroman
attachmentfunctionsframework(Doherty&Feeney,2004;Hazan&Zeifman,1994)
appliedtothedevelopmentalperiodofadolescence.Threemainprinciplesareproposed
basedonthisapproach:AttachmentExpansion,AttachmentWithdrawal,andAttachment
Priorities.
TheAttachmentExpansionPrincipleisbasedontheevidencethatasadolescents
matureitisnormativefortheattachmentnetworktobecomeextendedtoincludeclose
interpersonalrelationshipsbeyondthefamily.Theseextraparentalattachmentswill
usuallybewithpeerswhoaresimilarinage.Astheadolescentmaturesattachment
functionsdevelopandbecomemoreimportantintheserelationships.TheAttachment
WithdrawalPrinciplestatesthatthewithdrawalofattachmentfunctionsfromexisting
closeinterpersonalrelationshipsonlyoccursafterattachmentfunctionshavealready
developedintheextendedattachmentnetwork.Foradolescents,withdrawalof
attachmentfunctionsfromparentsoccurslaterinmaturation,afterattachmentfunctions
havebeeninitiallyestablishedandbeguntodevelopinpeerrelationships.Astheseother
relationshipscontinuetodeveloptheimportanceofexistingparentalattachmentswill
thendiminish.TheAttachmentPrioritiesPrincipleappliestothesequenceinwhich
attachmentfunctionsdevelopandwithdrawduringadolescence.Itsisarguedthatthe
differentattachmentfunctionsarearrangedhierarchicallyandthattheydevelopand
withdrawatdifferentstagesofmaturationaccordingtothishierarchy.Lesscentral
attachmentfunctionswilldevelopinnewrelationshipsfirstandalsowithdrawfrom
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment13
extantrelationshipsfirst.Theorderofpriorityforfunctionsfromlowesttohighestis:
proximityseeking,safehaven,separationprotest,andsecurebase.Asproximityseekingis
thefunctionwiththelowestpriorityitwillbethefirsttotransferandthenwithdraw.Safe
havenwilldevelopinnewrelationshipsandwithdrawfromexistingrelationshipsafter
proximityseekinghasbeenestablished.Thelasttodevelopandwithdrawwillbesecure
base.Thiswillonlyhappenaftertheestablishmentofstableromanticrelationshipsin
adulthood.
Basedontheseprinciplesanumberofhypothesescanbegeneratedwithregardtothe
specificpsychologicalhealthimpactsofageandsexdifferencesinrelationshipsduring
adolescence.Firstly,becauseproximityseekingdevelopsearlyinnewextrafamilial
relationships,andbecauseproximityseekinghasaprimaryimpactonthedeveloping
identityoftheadolescent,wepredictthatthequalityofpeerrelationshipswillhavea
similarandsignificantinfluenceonselfesteemforbothyoungerandolderadolescence.
However,basedonthenotionthatattachmentfunctionswithdrawfromexisting
relationshipsonlyaftertheydevelopinnewrelationships,thequalityofparental
attachmentwillhavealargerinfluenceonselfesteemforyoungerthanolderadolescents.
Differenthypothesesaregeneratedwithregardtodepressionbecauseemotional
support,thesafehavenfunction,hasamajorroleinamelioratingthepresenceof
depressivesymptoms.Basedontheargumentthatsafehavenfunctionsdevelopinnew
relationshipslaterinmaturation,wepredictthatpeerrelationshipswillhavealarger
influenceondepressionforolderadolescentsthantheywillforyoungeradolescents.
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment14
Further,becausethereisadelaybetweenthedevelopmentoffunctionsinnew
relationshipsandtheirwithdrawalfromexistingparentalrelationships,parental
attachmentwillhaveaninfluenceondepressionirrespectiveoftheadolescentsage.
Similarhypothesescanbegeneratedwithregardtosexdifferencesbyconsideringthe
maturationaldifferencebetweenadolescentgirlsandboys.Itisarguedthatbecausegirls
aremorephysicallyandsociallymaturethanboysofanequivalentage,thepatternof
relationshipsbetweenpeerandparentalattachmentsandpsychologicaloutcomesforgirls
willbemorelikethatforolderadolescents,whileforboysitwillbemorelikethatfor
youngeradolescents.
Method
Participants
Participantswere615(291females,324males)volunteerhighschoolstudentsattending
eitherprivate(60%,n=369)orpublic(40%,n=246)schoolsintheAustralianCapital
Territory.Agesforgirlsrangedfrom14to18.5years(Mean=16.5,SD=0.94)andforboys
rangedfrom13.5to18.7years(Mean=16.4,SD=0.80).Participantspredominantlylived
inintactfamilies(76%)with16%fromsingleparentfamiliesandafurther8%fromother
situations.Forthisgroupofadolescentsthemajorityofparentswereemployedand,based
onoccupationalstatus,wereofmiddletouppersocioeconomicstatus.Amajorityof
respondentswereEuropeanAustralians(83%)orAsianAustralians(11%).
Measures
Aquestionnairepackagethatincludedthefollowingmeasureswasadministered.
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment15
Attachment.Qualityofadolescentattachmentwasassessedusingamodifiedversionof
theInventoryofParentandPeerAttachment(Armsden&Greenberg,1987).15itemseach
separatelyassessedmother,fatherandpeerattachmentquality.Respondentsratedeach
itemusingafivepointscalerangingfromalmostneverornever(1)toalwaysoralmost
always(5)toindicatethedegreetowhichtheitemsweretrue.Scalescoreswerethesum
ofitemsandhighscoresindicatedgreaterperceivedattachmentthanlowscores.Internal
consistencyonthe15itemmeasures(MotherAttachment=.91;FatherAttachment,=
.92;PeerAttachment,=.85)werecomparabletoArmsdenandGreenberg(1987).
Depression.A10itemscalewasusedtoassessdepressivesymptomatologyduringthe
pastmonth(Wilkinson,2004).Exampleitemsinclude,IvefeltsadorunhappyandIve
hadtroubleconcentrating.Respondentswereaskedtoindicatehowoftentheyhad
experiencedthatsymptominthelastmonthusinga3pointscale(1=never,2=someof
thetime,3=alotofthetime).Thescalescorewasderivedbysummingitemsandhigher
scoresindicategreaterdepression.Internalconsistencyofthescalewashigh(Cronbachs
=.81).
SelfEsteem.Selfesteemwasmeasuredusingthe16itemSelfLiking/SelfCompetence
ScaleRevised(SLSCR)(Tafarodi&Swann,2001).Thismeasureassessesselfesteem
identifiedasthepersonalappraisalofoneselfinrelationtosocialvaluesandworth(Self
Liking)andthevalueofqualitiesthatreflectabilitiesandskills(SelfCompetency).Afive
pointratingscalewasusedtoindicatetheextenttowhichparticipantsagreedwitheach
itemdescription(1=stronglydisagreeto5=stronglyagree).AnoverallSelfEsteem
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment16
scorewascalculatedbysummingtheitemsandhigherscoresindicatehighselfesteem.
Basedonthecurrentsample,thereliabilityoftheoverallscalewashigh(Cronbachs=
.90).
Procedure
Informationaboutthestudywasdistributedtotheschools,parents,andstudents.Both
parentalandindividualconsentwasattainedbeforestudentsparticipated.The
questionnairebookletswereadministeredbytheresearcherstoclassesofstudentsin
normalclasstime.
Results
Resultsarepresentedinthreeparts.Firstly,preliminaryanddescriptivestatisticsare
presented.Secondly,2X2multivariateanalysesofvariance(MANOVA)areemployedto
assessSexandAgemainandinteractioneffectsonthepsychologicalhealthand
attachmentvariables.Thirdly,themainandinteractionseffects(forSexandAge)ofthe
attachmentvariablesonpsychologicalhealthareexaminedthroughaseriesofmultiple
regressionanalyses.
Twocaseswereidentifiedasoutlierswithextremescoresononeormorevariablesand
threecaseswereidentifiedasmultivariateoutliersusingtheproceduresoutlinedby
TabachnickandFidell(1996).Thesecaseswereexcludedfromfurtheranalysisleavinga
totalof610casesinthesample.Inordertoinvestigateagedifferences,participantswere
dividedintoyounger(14to16.49years,n=309)andolder(16.5to18.5years,n=301)
groupsonthebasisofamediansplit.Meansandstandarddeviationsforthevariablesof
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment17
interestcategorisedbySexandAgearepresentedinTable1.
Twoseparate2X2MANOVAswereconductedtoexaminedifferencesinmeanlevels
ofpsychologicalhealthandattachment.Firstly,DepressionandSelfEsteemwerespecified
asdependentvariablesinrelationtoSex(FemaleversusMale)andAge(Youngerversus
Older)asindependentvariables.Thereweresignificantdifferencesbetweenmalesand
females,F(2,605)=22.19,p<.001,WilksLambda=0.93,partial
2
=.07,andbetween
youngerandolderadolescents,F(2,605)=7.28,p<.001,WilksLambda=0.98,partial
2
=
.02.TheinteractionbetweenSexandAgewasnotsignificant.ThefollowupFtests
revealedthat,consistentwithpriorresearch,adolescentfemalesscoredhigheron
Depression(M=19.49),F(1,606)=10.84p<.001,
2
=.02,andloweronSelfEsteem(M=
48.96),F(1,606)=44.41p<.001,
2
=.07,thanadolescentmales(M=18.43and54.28
respectively).Further,youngeradolescentsreportedsignificantlylessDepression(M=
18.36),F(1,606)=13.98p<.001,
2
=.02,andmoreSelfEsteem(M=52.66),F(1,606)=6.79
p<.009,
2
=.01,thenolderadolescents(M=19.56and50.58respectively).Therewereno
significantinteractioneffects.
InthesecondMANOVA,Mother,Father,andPeerAttachmentwereenteredas
dependentvariableswithSex(FemaleversusMale)andAge(YoungerversusOlder)as
independentvariables.Thereweresignificantdifferencesbetweenmalesandfemales,
F(3,588)=58.91,p<.001,WilksLambda=0.77,partial
2
=.23,andbetweenyoungerand
olderadolescents,F(3,588)=4.09,p=.007,WilksLambda=0.98,partial
2
=.02.The
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment18
interactionbetweenSexandAgewasnotsignificant.FollowupunivariateFtests
revealedthat,inlinewithpreviousresearch,adolescentfemalesscoredhigheronPeer
Attachment(M=58.22),F(1,590)=151.23,p<.001,
2
=.20,thanmales(M=49.56)and
youngeradolescentsreportedslightlylessPeerAttachment(M=53.08),F(1,590)=8.45,p
<.01,
2
=.01,thanolder(M=54.70)adolescents.Contrarytoexpectations,therewereno
significantdifferencesforeitherMotherorFatherAttachmentwithregardtoSexorAge.
Therewerenosignificantinteractioneffects.
MultipleRegressionAnalysis
Priortoconductingthemultipleregressionanalyses,thezeroordercorrelations
betweenthevariableswereexamined(Table2).ThecorrelationbetweenDepressionand
SelfEsteemwasstrongandnegative(r=.541)asexpected.TherelationshipbetweenSex
andPeerAttachment(r=.445)indicatedthatyoungwomenreportedhigherqualityof
peerrelationshipsandwasconsistentwiththeMANOVAresults.Alloftheattachment
variablesweresignificantlyassociatedwiththepsychologicalhealthvariablesof
DepressionandSelfEsteem.FatherAttachmenthadthestrongestrelationshipwith
Depression(r=.354)whileMotherAttachmentwasmoststronglyassociatedwithSelf
Esteem(r=.325).TherelativelylowintercorrelationsbetweenMother,Father,andPeer
Attachmentrevealthatthereisagreatdealofintraindividualvariationinthequalityof
theseclosepersonalrelationshipsinadolescence.
Thefocusoftheregressionanalyseswasonexaminingthehypothesiseddifferencesin
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment19
theeffectsofindividualindependentvariablesonpsychologicaloutcomesfordifferent
groupingsofadolescents.Thus,separatemodelsregressingrelevantcontrol(eitherSexor
Age)andattachmentvariables(Mother,Father,andPeer)onthetwooutcomemeasures
(DepressionorSelfEsteem)weredeveloped;onesetforyoungerandolderadolescents
(Table3),andtheotherforboysandgirls(Table4).Plannedcomparisonsofrelevant
weightswerethenconductedusingtheFisherZprocedureandconfirmedby
comparisonsoftheslopes(Howell,2002).
AgeDifferences
Resultsfortheseparateregressionmodelspredictingselfesteemforyoungerandolder
adolescentsarepresentedinTable3.Maternalattachment,sex,peerattachment,and
paternalattachmentallsignificantlypredictedselfesteemforyoungeradolescents,inthat
orderofmagnitude.Atotalof30%ofthevarianceinselfesteemscoreswasaccountedfor.
Forolderadolescents18%ofthevarianceinselfesteemscoreswasaccountedforbysex,
PeerAttachment,andMotherAttachment.FatherAttachmentdidnotsignificantlypredict
selfesteemforolderadolescentsinthecontextoftheotherrelationshipvariables.When
comparingthetwogroups,consistentwiththehypotheses,maternalattachmenthada
significantlygreaterpositiveimpactonselfesteemforyoungerthanolderadolescents,
andpeerattachmentratingshadasimilarimpactonselfesteemscoresforbotholderand
youngeradolescents.Ontheotherhand,contrarytopredictions,paternalattachmentdid
nothaveastrongerrelationshipwithselfesteemforyoungerthanolderadolescents.
Table3alsopresentstheregressionmodelsforthetwoagegroupswhenpredicting
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment20
depression.Fortheyoungergroup,alloftheindependentvariables,exceptforPeer
Attachment,weresignificantandnegativepredictors.Atotalof23%ofthevariancewas
accountedfor.Fortheoldergroup,alloftheindependentvariablesweresignificant,
negativepredictorsbutslightlylessvarianceindepressionwasaccountedfor(17%).In
supportofthepredictions,peerattachmentratingshadastrongeramelioratingeffecton
depressionforolderthanyoungeradolescents.Aspredicted,therewasnosignificant
differenceintheroleofparentalattachmentindepressionforthetwogroups.
SexDifferences
Theresultsforthemodelspredictingselfesteemseparatelyformalesandfemalesare
presentedinTable4.Agehadnosignificantimpactonselfesteemforeithermalesor
females.Foryoungwomen,whilematernalandpeerattachmentqualitybothimpacted
positivelyonselfesteemscores,thequalityoftheirrelationshipwiththeirfatherwasnota
significantpredictor.Themodelforgirlsaccountedfor22%ofthevarianceinselfesteem
scores.Foryoungmen,allthreeattachmentvariablesweresignificantpredictorsofself
esteemandofaroundasimilarmagnitude.Intotalthemodelaccountedfor15%ofthe
varianceinthedependentvariable.Theresultsoftheregressionweightcomparisonsdid
notsupportthepredictionswithregardstoparentalattachments.MotherAttachmentwas
amoreimportantpredictorofSelfEsteemforfemalesthanmales.FatherAttachmentwas
notsignificantlydifferentinthetwomodels.Ashypothesised,thePeerAttachmentweight
wasnotsignificantlydifferentinthemodelsforboysandgirls.
FromTable4itcanbeseenthatforadolescentgirlsalloftheattachmentrelationships
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment21
werenegativelyassociatedwithdepressionandtherewerenoageeffects.Ofthepredictor
variables,maternalattachmentevincedthelargestrelationshipwithdepression.Overall,a
modest24%ofthevarianceinDepressionscoreswasaccountedforinthemodel.Forboys
thesituationwasalittledifferentinthatonlypaternalandpeerattachmentqualitywere
significantpredictorsandneitheragenormaternalrelationshipqualitysignificantly
impactedondepression.Thesetoffourindependentvariablesaccountedfor18%ofthe
variance.Aspredicted,PeerAttachmentwasamoreimportantpredictorofdepressionfor
femalesthanmales.Contrarytothepredictions,MotherAttachmenthadasignificantly
greaterimpactondepressionforfemalesandFatherAttachmenthadasignificantly
greaterimpactondepressionformales.
Discussion
Theresultsofthisstudyprovideevidencethatthereareageandgenderdifferencesin
thewaythatdifferentattachmentrelationshipsimpactonpsychologicalhealthin
adolescents.Theapplicationofanattachmentfunctionsanalysistotheserelationshipsand
theirrolesinpsychologicaladjustmentwaslargelysupported.Thepredictionsgenerated
fromthethreeprinciplesofAttachmentExpansion,Withdrawal,andPrioritieswith
regardtotheinfluenceofmother,father,andpeerattachmentonpsychologicalhealthand
selfesteemweresupportedwithrespecttoagedifferences.However,thepredictionsfor
genderdifferenceswereonlysupportedforpeerandnotparentalattachment.
Studiesthatassessadolescentpsychologicalhealthtypicallyfindthatgirlsreportmore
depressionandlessselfesteemthanboysandtheresultsofthisstudyarenodifferent.
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment22
Thesedifferencesdonotappeartobeafunctionofstageofadolescence,however,as
neitherdepressionnorselfesteemdeterioratedspecificallyforgirlscomparedtoboys.
Overall,youngeradolescentsreportedlessdepressionandhigherselfesteem,supporting
theviewthattheexperienceoftheadolescentbecomesincreasinglyaffectedbyself
doubts,negativeviewsofselfandtheworld,andincreasedperceptionsofstressand
hopelessnessastheymovetowardsadulthood.
Alsoconsistentwithpreviousresearch,increasedlevelsofpeerattachmentwerefound
forbotholderadolescentsandforgirls.Olderadolescentsreportedhigherlevelsofpeer
attachmentthanyoungeradolescents,supportingtheviewthatasadolescentsdevelop
attachmentnetworksbegintoexpandbeyondtheimmediatefamily.Girlsalsoreported
higherlevelsofpeerattachmentthanboys,againconsistentwiththematurationalviewof
increasingattachmentnetworks.Thissexdifferencewassimilarforbotholderand
youngeradolescentsindicatingthatgirlsdidnotbecomedifferentiallymoreorientated
towardspeersthanboys.Contrarytopredictions,however,thisincreaseinpeer
attachmentdidnotappeartobeassociatedwithdecreasesinparentalattachments.
Neithermaternalnorpaternalattachmentdeterioratedaseitherafunctionofageor
gender.Olderadolescents,althoughreportinghigherlevelsofpeerattachment,didnot
reportlowerlevelsofparentalattachment.Thus,itcanbearguedthatthedevelopmentof
new,extraparentalattachmentrelationshipsinadolescencearenotattheexpenseofthe
qualityofexistingcloseinterpersonalrelationships.Further,unliketheevidencefrom
somepreviousresearch(e.g.,Papinietal.,1991),adolescentgirlsdidnotreportanyless
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment23
qualityofrelationshipwitheitherparentthanadolescentboys.Therewasnoevidencefor
eitherasameoroppositesexbiaswithregardtochildparentattachmentquality.Again,
thesefindingsdonotsupporttheviewthatmaturationalaffectsareresponsibleforthe
deteriorationofestablishedattachmentsinfavourofnewinterpersonalattachments.
However,thequestionofdifferencesintherelativeimportanceoftheserelationshipsis
notaddressedbyanexaminationofthemeanlevelsofattachmentratings.Rather,
differencesintheassociationoftheserelationshipswithpsychologicaloutcomeindices
cangiveabetterindicationoftheirrelativeimportanceforadolescentadjustment.
Theinitialexaminationofthebivariatecorrelationspriortotheregressionanalyses
revealedthat,asexpected,therelationshipbetweenDepressionandSelfesteemwas
inverseand,thoughmoderatetostrong(r=.54),nothighenoughtoindicatethatthese
measureswereassessingthesameconstruct.Thecorrelationsalsoindicatedthatthe
qualityofattachmentmeasuresevincedweaktomoderaterelationshipswithdepression
andselfesteem.Therelationshipsbetweenthethreemeasuresofattachmentwere
surprisinglylow(r<.3),indicatingthattherewereconsiderableintraindividualvariations
intheresponseswithregardtorelationshipqualitywithmothers,fathers,andpeers.The
lackofrelationshipbetweentheseindicatorsofattachmentqualityprovideevidencethata
relianceonglobalmeasuresofattachmentsecurity/insecuritymaybeproblematicfor
understandinghownetworksofcloseinterpersonalrelationshipsimpactonadolescent
adjustment.
Overall,theresultsoftheregressionanalysesreplicatedpreviousresearch
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment24
demonstratingthatbothparentalandpeerrelationshipqualityhavepositivebutmodest
affectsonpsychologicalhealthandselfesteeminadolescence.Theamountofvariance
explainedbyanysingularattachmentmeasurewhenpredictingeitheroftheseoutcomes
rangedfromalowof0.3%toahighof9.7%.However,theresultsalsoindicatethatthese
impactsonpsychologicaladjustmentvaryasafunctionoftheaspectofpsychological
healthassessed,thesexoftheadolescent,andtheirage.Whencomparingthemodelsfor
predictingeitherselfesteemordepressionacrossageandsex,themodelsforyounger
adolescentsandforfemalesexplainedthemostvariance.
AgeDifferences
Therewasclearsupportforthehypothesisedmaturationaldifferencesintheinfluence
ofattachmentrelationshipsonpsychologicaladjustment.Peerattachmentshadasimilar
andsignificantinfluenceonselfesteemforbothagegroupssupportingtheviewthatthe
proximityfunctionhademergedintheserelationshipsbyearlyadolescence.Evidenceof
thehypothesisedwithdrawaloftheproximityfunctionwasalsoconfirmedinthat
maternalattachment,whilestillasignificantpredictorofselfesteemforbothyoungerand
olderadolescents,wassignificantlylessimportantforselfesteeminolderadolescents.
Therewasalsosomeevidenceofwithdrawaloftheproximityfunctionevidentinthe
relationshipofpaternalattachmenttoselfesteeminthatfatherattachmentwasa
significantpredictorofselfesteemforyoungeradolescentsbutnotolderadolescents.
However,acomparisonofthecoefficientsfoundthemnottobesignificantlydifferent.It
maybearguedthatmoreweightshouldbeplacedontheevidencewithregardto
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment25
maternalthanpaternalattachment.Althoughoftenacontentiousissueindevelopmental
psychology,theattachmentliteraturehasgenerallyarguedthatmothersaregenerally
preferredastheprimaryattachmentfigurebyinfantswhenavailable,eventhoughthey
maynotbeasresponsiveorsensitivetothechildsneedsasothersintheirenvironment
(Karen,1995).TrinkeandBartholomew(1997)andDohertyandFeeney(2004),intheir
studiesofhierarchiesinadolescentandadultattachmentnetworks,foundthat
participantsconsistentlyrankedmothersabovefathersintermsoftheattachment
relationship.
Furthersupportfortheapplicabilityoftheprinciplesofattachmentexpansion,
withdrawal,andprioritiesemergedfromtheagecomparisonswhenpredicting
depression.Consistentwiththeviewthatthesafehavenfunctionemergesinnew
relationshipslaterindevelopment,thequalityofpeerattachmentswasnotpredictiveof
depressionforyoungeradolescentsbutwasforolderadolescents.Further,thedifference
intheweightswasalsosignificant.Forolderadolescentspeerrelationshipscometohave
bothsafehavenandproximityfunctionsandare,thus,moreimportantforemotional
adjustmentthanforyoungeradolescents.
Theroleofparentalattachmentswerealsoasexpectedwithregardtoagedifferencesin
thepredictionofdepression.Bothmotherandfatherattachmentweresignificant
predictorsofdepressionandthemagnitudeoftheserelationshipsweresimilaracrossage
groups.Therewasatrendforbothtohaveagreaterimpactondepressionforyounger
adolescents.Thisisconsistentwiththepredictionsinthatthedevelopmentalwithdrawal
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment26
offunctionsfromparentalrelationshipsareexpectedtobegradual.Thesafehaven
functionwouldbeexpectedtohavebegunbeingwithdrawnintheolderadolescents
althoughthiswillnotbeasadvancedasitisfortheproximityseekingfunction.Ifwe
extrapolatethefindingswemightexpectthatforolderadolescentsmovingintoyoung
adulthood(18to20years),thewithdrawalofsafehavenwouldbemoreadvancedandthe
qualityofparentalrelationshipswouldhavesignificantlylessimpactondepression.
SexDifferences
Theresultswithregardtosexdifferencesweresurprisingandonlypartiallysupportive
ofthehypotheses.Inparticular,whilethedifferencesintherelationshipofpeer
attachmenttotheoutcomevariableswereconsistentwiththepredictions,thedifferences
intheimpactofparentalattachmentsonselfesteemanddepressionwereinconsistent
withtheoreticalexpectationsandindicatethatfurtherprocessesneedtobeconsidered.
Thehypotheseswithregardtosexdifferenceswerefoundedonthenotionthatthereare
maturationaldifferencesbetweengirlandboyadolescentsandthatthesematurational
differencesmayaccountfordifferencesinthepatternofrelationshipsbetweenclose
interpersonalrelationshipsandpsychologicalhealthoutcomesthathavepreviouslybeen
observed.Contrarytotheexpectationthatparentalattachmentshouldbelessimportant
whenpredictingselfesteemforfemales,becausemoreoftheproximityseekingfunction
wouldhavebeenwithdrawnfromparentsforgirlsthanboys,theweightformother
attachmentwasnotsignificantlydifferentforthemodels.Infact,therewasatrendfor
motherattachmenttobemoreimportantforgirlsthenboys.Ontheotherhand,consistent
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment27
withexpectations,fatherattachmentwasasignificantpredictorofselfesteemforboysand
notgirlsalthoughtheweightswerenotstatisticallydifferentwhencompared.Thefactthat
attachmenttopeerswasasignificantpredictorofselfesteemandofasimilarmagnitude
forgirlsandboyswasconsistentwiththehypotheses.
Theunexpectedpatternofresultswithregardtotheparentalattachmentratingswere
evenmorepronouncedinthemodelspredictingdepression.Thepredictionforthismodel
wasthatparentalattachmentsshouldhaveasimilarandsignificantimpactondepression
forgirlsandboysbecausethesafehavenfunctiondoesnotwithdrawfromparentsuntil
laterindevelopment.Theresultsforbothmotherandfatherattachmentwerecontraryto
this.Motherattachmentwasasignificantlybetterpredictorofdepressionforgirlsandwas
notasignificantpredictorofdepressionforboysatall.Fatherattachmentwasa
significantlybetterpredictorofdepressionforboys,althoughitwasstillsignificantinthe
modelforgirls.Similartothecaseforselfesteem,however,thepredictionswithregardto
peerattachmentqualityweresupported.Peerattachmentwasamoreimportantpredictor
ofdepressionforgirlsthanboys.Further,peerattachmentdidnotcontributesignificantly
tothepredictionofdepressioninthemodelforboys.
Integration
Tosummarise,theresultssupporttheviewthattheproximityseekingfunction
developsearlierinpeerrelationshipsandwithdrawsearlierfromparentalrelationships
thanthesafehavenfunctionduringadolescence.Peerscometoinfluenceadjustmentby
theirabilitytomeettheproximityfunctionsquiteearlyinadolescence.Astheadolescent
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment28
maturesandthesafehavenfunctiondevelopsintheirexpandedattachmentnetwork,peer
relationshipscometoplayanincreasinglyimportantroleinpsychologicalhealth.
Althoughparentsbecomelessimportantforselfconceptastheadolescentmatures,they
continuetoplayanimportantrolebymeetingotherfunctionsofattachmentrelationships
fortheiradolescentchildren.
Genderdifferencesintheinfluenceofmotherandfatherrelationshipsonpsychological
healthandselfesteem,however,maybeamorecomplexprocessandentailmorefactors
thanattachmentexpansionandwithdrawal.Previousresearchinthisareahaspainteda
confusedpictureofadolescentparentrelationships.Someevidencehasindicatedthat
girlsbecomeincreasinglyalienatedfromparentswhileboysbecomeclosertotheirmother
anddistantfromtheirfather(Papinietal.,1991),whileotherresearchhasfoundthe
opposite(e.g.,Riceetal.,1997).Thisinconsistencymay,inpart,beattributedto
developmentaldifferencesinthesamplesinvestigatedandtoafailuretoconsidersimilar
kindsofoutcomeswithrespecttotheserelationships.Researchthathasexaminedtherole
ofparentalrelationshipsonidentitydevelopmentinadolescencehasgenerallyfoundthat,
forbothgirlsandboys,relationshipswithmothersplayamoreimportantrole(Benson,et
al.,1992;Matos,Barbosa,DeAmeida,&Costa,1999).However,theextenttowhich
identityfactorsthengoontoinfluencepsychologicalhealthandadjustmenthasnotbeen
examined.
Thereissurprisinglylittleresearchthathasfocussedongenderdifferencesinthe
impactofparentalrelationshipsonadolescentadjustmentandthelittlethatthereishas
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment29
oftenfocussedonsamplesofseparatedandintactfamilies(e.g.,Bishop&Ingersoll,1989).
Theevidencereportedhereindicatesthatmoreworkneedstobedonetoclarify
associationsbetweenthesexofchildandthesexofparentintermsoftheimpactofthese
dyadicrelationshipsonadjustmentwithinintactfamilies.Importantly,thefindingswith
regardtotheroleofsamesexchildparentqualityofrelationshipneedstobereplicated.
Additionally,individualdifferencesshouldbeconsideredinfutureresearch.Fraleyand
Davis(1997)arguethatindividualattachmentpropensities,suchasattachmentstyle,
mediatethedevelopmentandtransferofattachmentfunctions.Theyfoundthatyoung
adultswithsecurerelationshipexpectationsweremorelikelytoexplorepeerrelationships
andtoentersuccessfullyintonewattachmentrelationships.Itislikelythatattachment
style,asanindicatorofstable,generalrelationshipexpectations,affectsthetrajectoryof
attachmentfunctiondevelopmentandwithdrawal.Adolescentswithaninsecurestylewill
feellessabletoexplorenewrelationshipsand,thus,thedevelopmentandwithdrawalof
attachmentfunctionsinpeersmaybeimpeded.
Itisimportanttoconsiderwhethertheresultsofthedifferencebetweenmeansand
regressionanalysesareconcordant.Thefactthatoveralllevelsofpeerattachmentquality
werehigherforgirlsandlowerforyoungeradolescentsisconcordantwiththeregression
findingswithregardtodepressionbutnotselfesteem.Peerattachmentwasamore
importantfactorindepressionforolderadolescentsthanyoungeradolescentsandforgirls
ratherthanboys.However,peerattachmentwasequallyimportantforselfesteem
regardlessofageorsex.Withrespecttoparentalattachment,theresultsofthetwo
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment30
analyticapproachesarealsodiscordant.Themeansanalysisshowednosignificant
differencesforeitherageorsex.However,thereweresignificantdifferencesintheimpact
ofparentalattachmentonselfesteemanddepressionforgirlsandboysandforyounger
andolderadolescents.InanoverviewofthesexdifferenceliteratureSteinberg(1987)has
commentedthatthefatherdaughterrelationshipinadolescenceisunliketheotherthree
dyadsofparentadolescentrelationship.Hearguesthatwhilethemotherdaughter
relationshipismarkedbyemotionalintensity,thefatherdaughterrelationshipisan
outliermarkedbyitsblandnessandlowlevelsofinteraction(pp.196).Whiletheresults
ofthisstudydonotsupportthisconclusionwithregardtoselfreportedlevelsof
relationshipquality,theydosupportthenotionthatforgirlsthematernalrelationshipis
moreimportantforselfesteemandwellbeingthantheirrelationshipwiththeirfather.
Suchfindingshighlighttheimportanceofgoingbeyondthesimpleanalysisofrelative
differencesinratingsofrelationshipquality.Examiningdifferencesinthepredictive
powerofrelationshipqualitymeasurescanleadtoadifferentinterpretationand
appreciationofitsrelativeimportanceinthepsychologicalhealthofadolescents.
Limitations
Thisstudyusedacrosssectionalapproachandthisnaturallylimitsconclusionswith
respecttocausalinferences.Alongitudinaldesignthatenabledananalysisofintra
individualchangesinrelationshipsfromearlytolateadolescencewouldclearlybeamore
potentmethodforrevealingdevelopmentalchanges,particularlyifamoreextended
periodofadolescenceandyoungadulthoodwascovered.Althoughtheagerange(14to
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment31
18.5years)employedinthisstudywasappropriatetoitsaims,therewouldbebenefit
fromconsideringawideragerangetoallowfurtherexplicationofthedevelopmentand
withdrawalofthefullrangeofattachmentfunctions.Futureresearchshouldexamine
longitudinalchangesintheimpactoftheseimportantattachmentsrelationshipsfromthe
beginningsofpubertyataround12yearstothebeginningsoflifeasayoungadultafter
highschool(18to21years).Althoughthebeginningofadolescenceisusuallydefinedby
changesassociatedwithpuberty,theendofadolescenceissociallydefined.Thereis
increasingevidencethatformanyfamiliesinwesternsocietiesanextendedadolescenceis
occurring.Comparedtopreviousgenerations,childrenincreasinglyliveathome,donot
marry,anddonothavechildrenoftheirownuntiltheyareolder(Kimmel&Weiner,
1995).Whethersuchanextendedadolescenceentailsaconcomitantextendedperiodof
parentalattachmentandunderdevelopedpeerrelationshipsremainstobedetermined.
Althoughanattachmentfunctionsanalysishasbeenappliedinthisstudyitisthecase
thatindirectratherthandirectmeasuresofthesefunctionswereemployed.Tofully
evaluatetheimpactofthedevelopingextendedattachmentnetworkinadolescence,and
anyaccompanyingchangesinattachmentfunctions,furtherresearchshouldemploydirect
measuresassessingthecontributionofthefourattachmentfunctionsineachclassof
relationship.Previousattemptstodothiswithadolescents(e.g.,Paterson,Pryor,and
Field,1995)havebeenunsatisfactorybecausethemeasuresemployedhavenotseparated
outtheattachmentfunctionsadequatelyandhaveinappropriatelyoperationalisedtheir
assessment.Itwouldalsobebeneficialtogobeyondthetwoindicesofadjustment
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment32
assessedhereandexamineawiderrangeofpossibleoutcomes,suchassocialcompetence,
schoolattitudesandadjustment,sexualactivityandrisktaking.Itislikelythatattachment
relationshipswillvaryintheirimportancefordifferentclassesofoutcomeandthese
effectswillchangeasafunctionofadolescentdevelopment.
Thisstudyhaslimitedtheexaminationoftheadolescentattachmentnetworktoparents
andpeersbuttheimportanceofotherrelationships,suchassiblings,bestfriendsand
romanticrelationships,shouldalsobeconsideredfromthisperspective.Thereissome
evidencethatpeerattachmentsandbestfriendattachmentshaveindependentinfluences
onadolescentadjustment(Wilkinson&Parry,2004).Theroleofromanticrelationshipsin
adolescenceremainscontroversial.Someauthorshavearguedthattheyhaveanimportant
positiveroleinpsychologicalhealth(e.g.,Collins,2003)whileothershavefoundthatthey
canhavepredominantlynegativeimpactsonadolescentwellbeing(e.g.,Davila,
Steinberg,Kachadourian,Cobb,&Fincham,2004).Itislikelythatbyassessingattachment
functionsassociatedwithparticularkindsofromanticrelationshipsinadolescencetheir
roleinadaptiveadjustmentcanbeclarified.
Conclusions
Theattachmentliteraturehastendedtobedominatedbyresearchfocussingon
attachmentstylesandprimaryattachmentrelationships.Thereareconsiderablebenefitsto
begainedbybroadeningtheaspectsofattachmentprocessesinvestigatedandexpanding
theapplicationofattachmentconceptstoawiderrangeofrelationshipsacrossthe
lifespan.Theattachmentfunctionsperspectiveprovidesausefulframeworkfor
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment33
understandingwhydifferentkindsofrelationshipswillhavedifferentrolesin
psychologicalhealthandadjustment.Whenplacedinthedevelopmentalcontextof
adolescence,thechangingrolesofparentalandpeerrelationshipsbecomerevealedand
theevolvingpatternofrelationshipscanbeseenasanetworkofsupportingattachment
relationships.Althoughadolescentsdevelopnewrelationshipsthatbegintoprovidesome
ofthebenefitsofpsychologicalattachments,particularlywithregardtothematuringself
concept,parentsclearlyremainimportantassourcesofemotionalsupportthroughtolate
adolescence.Althoughmuchoftheliteraturehasemphasisedtheprimacyofmaternal
relationships,theevidencefromthisstudyindicatesthatpaternalrelationshipsarealso
importantfortheselfesteemandpsychologicalhealthofadolescence,particularlyboys.
Thereisanincreasingdebateabouttherolesofmothersandfathersincontemporary
families.Byoverlookingthespecificcontributionsofdifferentaspectsofattachmenton
differentkindsofoutcome,weruntheriskofunderestimatingtheimportantcontributions
thattheserelationshipscanmaketoapositiveexperienceofadolescence.
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment34
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AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment42
Table1
MeansandStandardDeviationsforDepression,SelfEsteem,Maternal,Paternal,andPeer
AttachmentbyAgeandSex
Younger Older
M SD n M SD n
Depression
Female 18.97 3.90 137 20.00 3.80 152
Male 17.74 3.84 172 19.11 4.25 149
SelfEsteem
Female 49.89 9.73 137 48.02 9.52 152
Male 55.43 10.42 172 53.13 9.56 149
MotherAttachment
Female 54.38 12.85 135 54.44 13.15 149
Male 53.89 10.82 166 52.81 12.22 144
FatherAttachment
Female 47.21 12.89 135 46.83 14.58 149
Male 50.63 11.33 166 46.92 12.74 144
PeerAttachment
Female 57.41 8.18 135 59.03 8.03 149
Male 48.76 8.66 166 50.37 9.26 144
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment43

Table2
Correlations,Means,StandardDeviations,andInternalConsistenciesforVariablesintheAnalysis
Variable 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
1.Sex
2.Age





.086*
3.Depression .142** .117** .823
4.SelfEsteem .266** .113** .541** .904
5.MotherAttachment .031 .016 .308** .325** .912
6.FatherAttachment .073 .096* .354** .271** .299** .919
7.PeerAttachment .445** .126** .145** .103* .257** .183** .847
Mean 16.47 18.91 51.78 53.79 47.99 53.53
StandardDeviation 0.87 4.02 10.24 12.33 12.94 9.62
NoteInternalconsistencies(Cronbachsalpha)onthediagonal,*p<.05,**p<.01
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment44

Table3
MultipleRegressiononSelfEsteemandDepression:YoungerversusOlderAdolescents
Variables Younger Older
B(SE) B(SE) z
SelfEsteem

Sex 4.112(.717) .323* 4.610(.741) .375*

MotherAttachment .178(.028) .329* .077(.028) .158*
2.21

FatherAttachment .074(.027) .143* .046(.026) .102 0.05

PeerAttachment .147(.039) .219* .127(.040) .199* 0.25
Depression
Sex 1.230(.463) .157* 1.535(.487) .191*
MotherAttachment .083(.018) .249* .052(.018) .164* 1.08
FatherAttachment .093(.018) .288* .062(.017) .209* 1.02
PeerAttachment .030(.024) .072 .086(.026) .207*
1.67

NoteSelfEsteemYoungermodelR
2
=.30,OldermodelR
2
=.18.Depression
YoungermodelR
2
=.23,OldermodelR
2
=.17.*p<.05.

Criticalvalueforone
tailedFishersz=1.65atp<.05.
AgeandSexDifferencesinAttachment45

Table4
MultipleRegressiononSelfEsteemandDepression:FemaleversusMaleAdolescents
Variables Females Males
B(SE) B(SE) z
SelfEsteem
Age .485(.345) .074 .476(.410) .063
MotherAttachment .149(.025) .312* .087(.027) .169* 1.84
FatherAttachment .033(.025) .075 .095(.030) .191* 1.43
PeerAttachment .179(.043) .235* .104(.038) .155* 1.00
Depression
Age .475(.214) .116 .268(.274) .053
MotherAttachment .092(.017) .308* .026(.021) .074
-2.95

FatherAttachment .047(.015) .168* .121(.020) .358*

2.47

PeerAttachment .092(.026) .193* .025(.025) .055

1.70

NoteSelfEsteemFemalemodelR
2
=.22,MalemodelR
2
=.15.DepressionFemale
modelR
2
=.24,MalemodelR
2
=.18.*p<.05.

CriticalvalueforonetailedFishersz=
1.65atp<.05.

CriticalvaluefortwotailedFishersZ=1.96atp<.05.