1

What is an information system

Components of an information technology system
Hardware
Software
Network
User (end users and IT professionals such as technician and programmers)
Hardware
Input
utput
Storage
!
Grade
SOFTWARE
" software is a series of instruction that tells the computer what to do# Software is also called
program or computer program# In order for a computers$ hardware to work effecti%ely it needs
the support of the software# &or e'ample a printer is a computers$ hardware (ut whene%er it is
(eing installed it only work if the software store on the C) (or other storage) is working
effecti%ely#
Software can (e di%ided into two main categories*
1# "pplication software
!# System software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software is the name gi%en to the software that controls the hardware and how all other
software works# Systems software does not sol%e end users+ pro(lems# ,ather they ena(le the
user to make efficient use of the computing facilities for sol%ing their pro(lems# System software
manages the resources of a computer system- automates its operation- and makes easier the
Software
Application
Software
System
Software
General
Purpose
Custom
Written
Specialized
Customization
of
General
Purpose
Operating
System
Utility
Software
.
writing- testing and de(ugging of user+s programs# The most commonly used system software
are operating system (e#g# /indows !000- 1s# )S- UNI2- and 3inu') and utility software#
Operating system OS!
"n operating system may (e seen as a set of programs that has taken many functions once
performed (y human operators# The role of the operating system is therefore one of resources
management# It manages the processor- storage- input4out de%ices- data and other programs#
&unctions of the operating System
1# in multitasking where multiple programs can (e running at the same time- the S
determines which application should run- in what order and how much time should (e
allocated for each application (efore gi%ing another a turn#
!# it manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications
.# it handles input and output to and from attached hardware (peripheral) de%ices
5# it sends messages to the application or interacti%e users#
A""#$%AT$O& SOFTWARE
This is a defined program that ena(les the computer to carry out one or more specific tasks#
"pplication programs are written to sol%e end users pro(lems# &or e'ample- a user might want to
find the a%erage of a group of num(ers6 the user can enter this information in 1s# 7'cel and it
calculates the a%erage for them# "pplication programs falls into four main categories*
1# 8eneral 9urpose
!# Custom /ritten
.# Customi:ation of 8eneral 9urpose
5# Speciali:ed software
General "urpose
The most popular applications are those that are not specific to any organi:ation or (usiness and
can (e used (y anyone# These programs are known as general purpose software (ecause as
5
anyone in any field can use them# There are fi%e main type of general purpose software6 known
as the ;<ig &i%e+ types general purpose software#
'ig Fi(e
General "urpose
Software
E)amples "urpose
/ord 9rocessing 1s /ord- /ord9erfect-
3otus /ord9ro
/riting letters- documents-
memorandums and reports
Spreadsheet 1s# 7'cel- 3otus 1=!=.-
Corel >uattro 9ro
Used to do (udgets- forecasting- and
creation of graphs
)ata(ase 1anagement 1s# "ccess- &o'9ro-
&ilemaker 9ro
Used to store in an organi:ed manner-
searching- sorting- creating reports-
?ueries and forms
Communication 1SN messenger-
Netscape messenger- 1s#
utlook- Crosstalk
7na(les a computer to connect to a
telecommunication network
8raphics49resentation 1s# 9hoto editor- 1s#
9ower9oint- 3otus
freelance- Corel
9resentation
)eli%ering slideshows and presentation
to an audience6 painting and drawing6
creating and editing graphics
ne can purchase anyone of the (ig fi%e separately- for e'ample- 1s /ord only- or the can (uy
all fi%e in a group- e#g# 1s# ffice# /hen all (or some) of the (ig fi%e packages are com(ined it
is known as an $ntegrated Software*
Big Fie!
General Purpose
Software
Word
Processing
Spreads"eet
#ata$ase
%anagement
Communication
Grap"ics&
Presentation
@
"d%antages of general purpose software
1# relati%ely cheap
!# it is used (y almost anyone therefore one get help if it is needed
)isad%antages of general purpose
1# it might not suit the needs of the user as the software might not (e a(le to do what the
user want#
!# it might ha%e hidden pro(lems
%ustom Written Software
This term co%ers programs that ha%e (een created specially to meet the uni?ue needs of a
particular indi%idual or company# It is also known as +espo,e or tailor-made software# &or
e'ample- if you want a new suit you can (uy it at a store or make it for yourself# If you (uy it
then chances are someone will (e in the same suit as your- howe%er- if you get it made then you
can design it so that only you ha%e it# /hen you design it and get it made for you it is custom
written# The same principle can (e applied to computing where one can get an analyst to design a
system Aust for you#
"d%antages of custom written software
1# it meet the needs of the user
!# it can grow with the user
)isad%antages of custom written software
1# it takes a lot of time and money to de%elop
!# if the person who knows how to use the software is una(le to do so for some reason-
other might not know what to do#
.# it is difficult to get help as others are not aware of the software#
B
%ustomi.ation of General "urpose Software
Customi:ed general purpose software is generali:ed software that had (een tailored to meet a
user+ need# Imagine (uying an outfit in a department store that you like (ut not e'actly your fit#
/hat would you doC &ind a fashion designer who can adAust it to fit your si:e# Similarly- if you
find a general=purpose software that you like- (ut it needs some adAustment to suit your needs-
you can get it modified to meet your specific needs#
"d%antages of Customi:ation of 8eneral 9urpose Software
1# it is cheaper than custom written software
!# it meet the users need more than a general purpose software
)isad%antages of Customi:ation of 8eneral 9urpose Software
1# it might ha%e hidden pro(lems
Speciali.ed Software "ac,ages
This is a type of software that is written for a specific task or a specific discipline# 7'amples of
speciali:ed software packages are e'pert system- "utoC") and accounting software
D
$nformation Technology - Grade /0
Module / 1 $nformation Systems
Types of $nformation technology Systems
There are many types of IS that can assist us in our daily li%es# These include*
Transaction 9rocessing System (T9S)
1anagement Information System (1IS)
ffice "utomation Systems ("S)
)ecision Support System ()SS)
7'ecuti%e Information System (7IS)
7'pert System (7S)
Control and 1onitoring System (C1S)
)ate warehouses
Transaction "rocessing System T"S!
"lso called )ata 9rocessing System or operational system# T9S is used to collect- store-
modify- cancel and print accounting transaction and student records using an "ccounting
package and Student ,ecord system respecti%ely# Input into the system is transaction data#
The output consists of either detailed report or processed transactions# The data stored in
these systems form the (asis of other types of information systems such as 1IS- )SS and
7IS# T9S is typically used (y lower le%el managers# 7ach department usually has its own
T9S#
7arly T9S used (atch processing in which the data was gathered and processed at
periodic inter%als- such as once per week# /ith the rise of time sharing in the 1ED0+s online
processing system was de%eloped# nline processing allow personnel to enter transaction
data and see totals and other results immediately#
Management $nformation System M$S!
This is a computer (ased system that supports the information needs of different le%els of
management# This type of system is designed to help management make informed decisions#
1ost 1IS are designed to work with T9S# They produce reports that tell middle managers
how well they are meeting their goals# "lthough 1IS continue to play an important role in
organi:ation- they ha%e draw(acks# They generate predefined reports that may not contain
the information a manager wants# The information may not (e a%aila(le when it is needed-
1IS such as School "dministration System which uses the data collected (y the Student
records System- (ut manipulate that data to create reports for the principal and school (oard
so that they make routine decisions in response to structured pro(lems# Inputs into the system
are processed transaction and other internal data- which may come from other department#
The output consists of se%eral kinds of reports- for e'ample- summary report- e'ception
report and ad hoc reports# These systems are primarily used (y middle managers- and ena(le
them to staff and organi:e current (usiness acti%ities#
F
Office Automation Systems OAS!
&or e'ample a word processor or spreadsheet can (e used to enhance the work done (y an
admin assistant#
2ecision Support System 2SS! and E)ecuti(e $nformation System E$S!
"llow top managers to manipulate data directly- to incorporate data from e'ternal sources-
and to create models of ;what if+ scenarios# Inputs consist of some summari:ed reports6 some
processed transactions- other internal data as well as data that are e'ternal to the organi:ation#
The outputs are fle'i(le- ad hoc (on demand) reports- which top managers re?uire to help
them make decisions a(out unstructured pro(lems#
E)pert System ES!
"lso referred to as ;computerised e'pert+- that permit managers to make recommendations or
decisions (ased on data that they supply in the form of answers to ?uestions# This is any
software that simulates the reasoning process of human e'pert in a certain well=defined area#
It is interacti%e- that is- it responds to ?uestions- seeks clarification and makes
recommendations# &or e'ample 1GCIN which used to diagnose infectious disease6
9,S97CT, which is used to lacte mineral deposits6 ,7<7S (,esidential <urglary 7'pert
System) which is used (y detecti%es to in%estigate crime scenes6 and 1UCH,"H7, used (y
Aournalists doing in%estigati%e reporting#
7S is used at all le%els of management#
%ontrol and Monitoring System %MS!
C1S are to (e found in many electronic e?uipment and systems# These systems make our
li%es more comforta(le and safe# These systems e'ist in things such as microwa%es- o%ens-
air conditioning unit- traffic lights and washing machines# Typically used in manufacturing
companies to influence how processes ad%ance (y the use of data recei%e from sensors# C1S
is used at all le%els of management#
2ata Warehouse
This is a relational data(ase- which is created from the files and data(ase of multiple
information systems- to pro%ide managers with the information that they need to make (etter
decisions#
Speciali:ed Information Technology System (ITS)
There are some speciali:ed ITS systems that were designed to meet a specific need or a
group of people# The following ta(le list a few#
ITS system 8roup4Segment 9urpose
&light Simulator "irline and entertainment
industries
Training for pilots
8ames for rela'ation and fun
Internet "ll groups and sector 7=commerce- /e(sites- games-
chat room- e=mails etc
E
ptacon Iisually challenged persons Con%erts image of a letter or
sym(ol into a form that can (e
felt with a finger#
,o(otics 1anufacturing sector Increases producti%ity and
impro%es ?uality
Telemedicine 1edical Science )eli%ers health care o%er
communications links
Sa(re Tra%el Industry 1ake reser%ations for airline-
hotel or restaurant
8eographic Information
System (8IS)
<usiness Sector or
go%ernment
"nalyses the demographics of
target audiences6 chooses
location for new store or
school
7lectronic &unds Transfer
(7&T)
&inancial sector 9ro%ides electronic payments
and collections#
Selecting an appropriate ITS
)ifferent ITS may meet the need of different people# ne should therefore (e careful in
selecting the appropriate ITS# The following ?uestions can (e used in selecting the right ITS*
/hat are the needs of the userC
Is there an e'isting computer network or e?uipmentC If yes will it (e used or
replaced C
/hat are the types of hardware (e'isting or a%aila(le)C
/hat is the purpose of each hardwareC
/hat is the system specification for each type of hardwareC
/hat are the types of software (e'isting or a%aila(le)
/hat is the purpose of each software applicationC
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System )e%elopment life Cycle
Statement of the pro(lem
You need to e)plain what goes on at present and to state the pro+lems with the present
system* Remem+er that there is often more than one way to tac,le a pro+lem* You
should always identify3 and 4 e(aluate3 more than one way of tac,ling a pro+lem*
&easi(ility Study
The feasi+ility study is an initial study to determine whether a full scale systems analysis
should +e carried out* A feasi+ility report is produced3 outlining the proposed system3 its
o+5ecti(es and restraints3 how the wor, will +e done +y computer3 what e6uipment will
+e needed3 what changes in staffing will +e re6uired3 what effects it will ha(e on the
company as a whole and how much it will cost 7 amongst other things* The feasi+ility
report will recommend whether or not to continue with the pro5ect*
Feasi+ility is a measure of how suita+le the de(elopment of a system will +e to the company* A pro5ect that
is feasi+le at one point of the S2#% might +ecome infeasi+le at a later point* Thus3 systems analysts
fre6uently re-e(aluate feasi+ility during the S2#%*
11
A systems analyst typically uses four tests to e(aluate feasi+ility of a pro5ect8 operational
feasi+ility3 schedule feasi+ility3 technical feasi+ility3 and economic feasi+ility*
perational feasi(ility measures how well the proposed information system will wor,* Will
the users li,e the new system9 Will they use it9 Will it meet their re6uirements9 Will it cause any
changes to their wor, en(ironment9
Schedule feasi(ility measures whether the esta+lished deadlines for the pro5ect are reasona+le* $f a
deadline is not reasona+le3 the pro5ect leader might ma,e a new schedule* $f a deadline cannot +e
e)tended3 then the scope of the pro5ect might +e reduced to meet the mandatory deadline*
Technical feasi(ility measures whether the company has or can o+tain the hardware3 software3 and
people needed to deli(er and then support the proposed information system* For most system pro5ects3
the technology e)ists* :ardware and people typically are a(aila+le to support an
information system* The challenge is o+taining funds* to pay for these resources*
Economic feasi+ility addresses funding*
7conomic feasi(ility- also led cost;+enefit feasi+ility3 measures whether the lifetime
+enefits of proposed information system will +e greater than its lifetime costs* A systems
analyst uses many financial techni6ues3 such as return on in(estment and pay+ac,
analysis3 to perform the cost;+enefit analysis* $f systems analysts are not familiar with
these financial techni6ues3 they can as, for assistance from a financial analyst
"nalysis
The analysis stage may consist of data collection leading to a re6uirements specification
and a feasi+ility study3 although these may +e produced in parallel* $t is (ital to collect
(alid data during the analysis stage so that the final system reflects the desires of the end
user3 not the perceptions of the systems analyst 7 this is a tas, made particularly difficult
+y the fact that many customers are unaware of what is actually possi+le3 una+le to
specify what they want or are stuc, in the ways of an old and out of date system and
unwilling to change*
Two o+5ecti(es of data collection are to analyse in detail the re6uirements of the
proposed system and to gain a good understanding of the current ways of wor,ing* As a
result of the data collection and feasi+ility study report3 a re6uirement specification is
produced which not only considers the system in detail +ut also considers all the
elements of the process necessary for success 7 including tools3 facilities3 people3 other
resources and the timescale needed* At this point a time schedule may +e produced* This
is important for +ig pro5ects where financing may depend on the forecast date of
implementation* The end user wants to see when they will +egin to reap the profits of
their in(estment*
$n summary3 this phase studies how the current system wor,s3 determine the user4s
wants3 needs and re6uirements3 and recommends a solution*
%ommon methods of data collection di(ide into two areas8
/ <ualitati(e3 which are ways of collecting data concerned with descri+ing and relating
personal e)periences rather than-gathering raw data* E)amples are8
1!
a! inter(iewing current users - either one-to-one or in a group
+! o+ser(ing current systems
c! analysing current documentation*
0 <uantitati(e3 which focus on num+ers and fre6uencies* E)amples are
6uestionnaires*
Interviews
$nter(iews allow the e(aluation team to find out the points of (iew of participants3 staff
and others associated with the pro5ect* For e)ample3 inter(iews with pro5ect staff can
pro(ide information on the early stages of the implementation and pro+lems
encountered* An inter(iew3 rather than a paper and pencil sur(ey3 is used when one-on-
one interaction is important and when opportunities for follow-up are desired*
Two types of inter(iews are popular8
Structured inter%iews3 in which the inter(iewer as,s carefully worded pre-written
6uestions* $nter(iewers are trained to as, the specific 6uestions and are not e(en
allowed to simplify or re-phrase any 6uestion* This is to ensure consistency in
administering the inter(iew*
In=depth or unstructured inter%iews are such that the inter(iewer does not follow a rigid
form and may encourage free and open responses*
Ad(antages of inter(iews
/* "ermit face-to-face contact with respondents
0* "ro(ide opportunity to e)plore topics in depth
=* May allow the inter(iewer to e)plain or help clarify 6uestions3 increasing the li,elihood of
useful responses
>* May allow the inter(iewer to +e fle)i+le in administering inter(iew to particular indi(iduals
or circumstances
2isad(antages of inter(iews
/* E)pensi(e and time-consuming *
0* &eed well-6ualified3 highly trained inter(iewers
=* $nter(iewee may distort information through +ad memory3 selecti(e perceptions3 desire to please
inter(iewer
>* Fle)i+ility can result in inconsistencies across inter(iews
?* @olume of information too large8 it may +e difficult to transcri+e and reduce the data
Observation
O+ser(ation is useful for one or more indi(iduals to gather firsthand data on programs3
processes or +eha(iour +eing studied* $t pro(ides an opportunity to collect data on
procedures and to note interactions +etween employees* 'y directly o+ser(ing operations
and acti(ities3 you will understand how the pro5ect or procedure wor,s* O+ser(ational
approaches also allow the o+ser(er to determine potential pro+lems3 and learn how
efficient or willing participants or employees are a+out following procedures and
1.
carrying out tas,s* $n the analysis phase3 it can +e useful in determining whether or not
the pro5ect under in(estigation is +eing operated as planned*
Advantages of observation
/* "ro(ides direct information a+out +eha(iour of indi(iduals and groups
0* Permits the evaluator to interact and understand a situation or procedure
=* "ro(ides good opportunities for identifying une)pected outcomes
>* Ta,es place in a natural3 unstructured and fle)i+le setting
2isad(antages of observation
/* E)pensi(e and time consuming
0* &eeds well 6ualified3 highly trained o+ser(ers
=* May affect +eha(iour of participants8 persons +eing o+ser(ed may not +eha(e as in normal
conditions
>* $n(estigator has little control o(er situation
Analysis of documentation
E)isting records often pro(ide an insight into some procedures that cannot +e o+ser(ed
or noted in another way* This information can +e found in any written or recorded
material* 2ocuments may +e census and (ital statistics reports3 office records3 newspaper
archi(es and local +usiness records* They can help an e(aluator to gather information
a+out the larger community and rele(ant trends* Other types of documents include
mission statements3 annual reports3 +udgets3 minutes of meetings3 official
correspondence and demographic population! material* These are particularly useful
for descri+ing +usiness characteristics and identifying strengths and wea,nesses*
Furthermore3 they pro(ide a record or history not su+5ect to recall +ias faulty
memory!*
The usefulness of e)isting sources (aries3 depending on whether they are accessi+le and
accurate* Furthermore3 e)isting records can +e useful for ma,ing comparisons such as
comparing pro5ect proposals to implementation records3 or documentation of program
descriptions +efore and after implementation of pro5ect acti(ities*
Advantages of analyzing documents
/* A(aila+le locally
0* $ne)pensi(e
=* Aseful for determining (alue3 interest3 positions3 political climate3 pu+lic attitudes3 historical
trends or se6uences
>* "ro(ide opportunity to study trends o(er time
2isad(antages of analyzing documents
/* May +e incomplete
15
0* May +e inaccurate
=* #ocating suita+le documents may pose a challenge
>* Analysis may +e time-consuming
?* Access may +e difficult
Questionnaires
Sur(ey 6uestionnaires are of two types*
B pen=ended 6uestions as, the respondent to pro(ideC his or her own answer to the
6uestion*
The 6uestions are phrased so that the respondents are encouraged to e)plain their
answers and reactions to the 6uestion with a sentence3 a paragraph or e(en a page or
more3 depending on the sur(ey* $f you wish to find information on the same topic +ut
would li,e to find out what respondents would come up with on their own3 you might
choose an open-ended 6uestion li,e 4What types of 6uestions should +e gi(en in the
practical e)am94
B Closed ?uestions as, the respondent to select an answer from a list of responses*
The participants are allowed to choose from either yes;no3 true;false3 multiple choice
with an option for 4other4 to +e filled in3 or ran,ing scale response options* The most
common of the ran,ing scale 6uestions as,s the respondents to loo, at a statement such
as 4The practical e)am is the most interesting4 and then 4ran,4 this statement according
to the degree to which they agree 4$ strongly agree3 $ somewhat agree3 $ ha(e no opinion3
$ somewhat disagree3 $ strongly disagree4!*
You do not ha(e to use closed or open-ended 6uestions only* Many people use a
com+ination of closed and open 6uestions* $t is often a good idea to use closed 6uestions
at the +eginning of your sur(ey3 then allow for
more 4open4 answers once the respondent has +ecome comforta+le with the
6uestionnaire*
)esign
When designing a new computer system3 there will +e se(eral possi+le solutions3 all of
which must +e considered8 should the system +e central or distri+uted3 networ,ed or
stand alone3 use standard pac,ages or produce custom applications9 The design stage
therefore in(ol(es choosing a particular design and gi(ing clear reasons why you ha(e
chosen that as the +est solution* $t is good practice to ha(e at least three potential designs
hand-drawn or computer-generated! that clearly demonstrate your thin,ing and that
outline the tools and techni6ues you will use to sol(e the pro+lem*
$ncluded in the design section should +e a detailed testing plan showing what is to +e
tested and how the testing will +e carried out* You should also include a dataflow
diagram* You may also need to design a user guide3 e)plaining how to use the system*

1@
Testing
Whether your solution wor,s is o+(iously importantD Your testing should follow what
you planned in the design section* 2oes the formula in the spreadsheet actually wor,9
Were answers chec,ed against e)pected results or chec,ed manually using a calculator9
Again3 e(idence will need to +e produced -which shows that testing has ta,en place*
Write on annotate! each printout to e)plain what happened on screen*
Attention must +e gi(en to thorough testing +y other end users3 who may use +oth (alid
and in(alid data3 e)pected and une)pected input* System response to unusual
occurrence3 such as hardware failure3 must also +e tested* Testing should ensure that the
system not only responds correctly to (alid data +ut also deals appropriately with in(alid
data* $t is good practice to ,eep a record of what you do stage +y stage3 as well as
detailing any changes that you ma,e in the light of using the software! to your initial
design
Implementation
$mplementation is the process of ma,ing sure that the new information system is
operational and then allowing the users to ta,e o(er its operation* Asers must +e trained
to use the new system* 2ata must +e con(erted from the format used in the old system to
a format suita+le for the new system* A strategy must +e chosen for mo(ing users from
the old system to the new system* And once implemented3 the new system must +e
e(aluated*
7%aluation
The e(aluation section is really a post-implementation re(iew which allows you to gi(e a
+rief o(er(iew of the situation3 as well as to comment on whether you ha(e achie(ed all
the performance criteria* $n other words3 ha(e you achie(ed what you set out to do9
What do other people thin,9 For e)ample3 if you produced a leaflet for a school play3 did
it attract more people to a performance9 Good e(aluations often in(ol(e thoughts on
how a solution could +e impro(ed with3 say3 more time and money*
1aintenance
Once implemented the system will re6uire continual maintenance3 re(iew and
e(aluation3 all complemented +y complete documentation - this will help the
continuation of the cycle*
One further feature of the system analysis process is to 4 consider the social implications
of the operation of the system3 including necessary retraining3 re-staffing3 disruption
during installation3 running two systems in parallel and the process of changeo(er or
con(ersion from one system to the other*
1B
9roAect 1anagement
"ro5ect management is the
process of planning3 scheduling3 and then controlling the acti(ities during3 the S2#%* The
goal of pro5ect management is to deli(er an accepta+le system to the user in an agreed-upon
time frame3 while maintaining costs* To plan and schedule a pro5ect effecti(ely3 the pro5ect
leader identifies the following for the pro5ect8
E Goal3 o+5ecti(es3 and e)pectations of the pro5ect3 called the scope
E Re6uired acti(ities
E Time estimates for each acti(ity
E %ost estimates for each acti(ity
E Order of acti(ities
E Acti(ities that can ta,e place at the same time
Once identified3 the pro5ect leader usually records these items in a pro5ect plan* A
popular tool used to plan and schedule the time relationships among pro5ect acti(ities is a
Gantt chart* Effecti(e management of a software pro5ect depends on thoroughly planning the
progress of the pro5ect* The pro5ect manager must anticipate pro+lems which might arise and
prepare tentati(e solutions to those pro+lems* A plan drawn up at the start of the pro5ect should +e
used as the dri(ing force +ehind the pro5ect* The initial plan e(ol(es as added information is
recei(ed*
The "ro5ect "lan
The pro5ect plan sets out the resources a(aila+le to the pro5ect3 the wor, +rea,down and a
schedule for carrying out the wor,* "ro5ect plans usually includes the following8
E $ntroduction - This +riefly descri+es the o+5ecti(es of the pro5ect and set out the
constraints affecting the pro5ect management
E "ro5ect Organi.ation - This descri+es the way in which the de(elopment team is
organi.ed3 the people in(ol(ed and their roles*
E Ris, Analysis - This descri+es possi+le pro5ect ris,s and strategies to o(ercome them*
RMMM!
E :ardware and Software Re6uirements - This descri+es the hardware and software
re6uired to carry out de(elopment* $f hardware is to +e +ought3 then estimates of
the prices and deli(ery schedule should +e included*
E Wor, +rea,down - This descri+es the +rea,down of the pro5ect into acti(ities and
identifies the milestones end point of a software process acti(ity! and deli(era+les a
pro5ect result that is deli(ered to the customer! associated with each acti(ity*
E "ro5ect schedule - This descri+es the dependencies +etween acti(ities3 the estimated time
re6uired to reach each milestone and the allocation of people to the (arious acti(ities*
E Monitoring and Reporting mechanisms - This descri+es the management reports that
should +e produced3 when these should +e produced and the pro5ect monitoring
mechanism used*
"ro5ect Scheduling
1D
The systems analyst4s first decision is to separate the total wor, in(ol(ed in a pro5ect into
separate se6uential acti(ities and 5udge the time re6uired to complete these acti(ities*
8antt Chart
A Gantt chart is an easy way to schedule tas,s* A Gantt chart3 de(eloped +y :enry #* Gantt3
is a +ar chart that uses hori.ontal +ars to show pro5ect phases or acti(ities* The left side3 or
(ertical a)is3 displays the list of re6uired acti(ities* A hori.ontal a)is across the top or
+ottom of the chart represents time*
Time estimates assigned to acti(ities should +e realistic* $f they are not realistic3 the
success of a pro5ect is in 5eopardy from the +eginning* When pro5ect mem+ers do not
+elie(e a schedule is reasona+le3 they may not participate to the full e)tent of their
a+ilities* This could lead to missed deadlines and deli(ery dates*
Once a pro5ect +egins3 the pro5ect leader monitors and controls the pro5ect* Some
acti(ities will ta,e less time than originally planned* Others will ta,e longer* The
pro5ect leader may reali.e that e)cessi(e time has +een de(oted to a particular acti(ity*
Thus3 the team will not +e a+le to meet the original deadline of the pro5ect* $n these
cases3 the pro5ect leader may e)tend the deadline or may reduce the scope of the
system de(elopment* $f the latter occurs3 the users will recei(e a less comprehensi(e
system at the original deadline* $n either case3 the pro5ect leader re(ises the first
pro5ect plan and presents the new plan to users for appro(al* $t is crucial that
e(eryone is aware of and agrees on any changes made to the pro5ect plan* *
Ad(antages of Gantt chart
E $ts simplicity
E Allows for worthwhile communication with end users
E The +ars representing acti(ities are drawn to scale3 therefore it is easy to see the time spans
1F
"rogram documentation
2ocumentation is the collection and summari.ation of data and information* $t includes
reports3 diagrams3 and programs* This is an important part of the software engineering
designing! process* There are different ways of program documentation in program
de(elopment*

System documentation
This is written +y technical people for technical people and is concerned with how the
program wor,s* $t gi(es details of program design3 maintenance procedures3 specifications3
system re6uirements3 peripheral de(ice specification and so on* The system documentation
allows the software to e(ol(e3 as different programmers can understand and modify the
program as part of the system de(elopment life cycle* $t therefore encompasses all of the
documents descri+ing the implementation of the system from the re6uirements
specification to the final acceptance test plan8
2ocuments descri+ing the design
2ocuments the implementation
2ocuments descri+ing testing
One of the ma5or difficulties with system documentation is consistency in descri+ing the
system*
%omponents of the system documentation include8
The re6uirements definition and specification*
An o(erall system specification showing how the re6uirements are +ro,en into a set
of interacting programs* This document is not re6uired when the system is
implemented using only a single program*
For each unit3 a description of its operation*
A comprehensi(e test plan descri+ing how each program unit is tested*
A test plan showing how the testing of all modules together integration! is carried
out*
An acceptance test plan3 de(ised in con5unction with the system user* This should
descri+e the tests which must +e satisfied +efore the system is accepted*
The document for programmer system documentation! is called Technical Manual* This
document indicates how the program was written so that further modifications can +e
facilitated* $t includes8
/* the algorithm
0* the program codes
=* test data and results
>* any special peculiarities a+out the program
?* data file structures
F* diagnosis of faults*
1E
2ocumentation for the Aser Aser documentation!
The document for the user of the program is called the AserGs Guide or AserGs Manual*
Aser documentation is concerned with what the program does and how the end user ma,es
the program do what it is supposed to do* $t is the usually the first contact that the user has
with the system* $t may gi(e details of how to input3 how to format3 output3 how to access
features of the program and how to interpret any system messages*
Aser documentation should +e structured in such a way that it is not necessary to read all
+efore starting to use application* $t should pro(ide an accurate initial impression of the
system* Fi(e common components of user documentation are8
/* a functional description 1 this e)plain what the system does
0* an installation document- which e)plain how to install the system and tailor it for
particular hardware configurations* This document also suggests how to reco(er
from errors and +asic pro+lems when things go wrong* $t should also ha(e lots of
illustration and e)amples*
=* an introductory manual 1 which e)plains in simple terms3 how to get started with
the system*
>* a reference manual 1 which descri+es in details all system facilities a(aila+le to the
user and how these facilities can +e used* This manual assumes that the user is
familiar with the system and understands its concepts and terminology*
?* an optional system administratorGs guide which e)plain how to react to situations
which arise while the system is in use* $t also carries out system house,eeping tas,s
such as ma,ing a system +ac,up*
$n short Aser documentation includes8
/* the computer hardware re6uirements
0* the computer software re6uirements
=* how to install the program
>* how to start the program
?* what input is needed and the output that is generated
F* how to use menus and features of the program
H* the maintenance of data files
I* trou+leshooting and correcting errors
!0
%omputer-aided Software Engineering %ASE! tools
CASE Tools
1any systems analysts use computer software to assist in the S)3C# %omputer-aided software
engineering (C"S7) products are software tools designed to support one or more acti%ities of the S)3C# The
purpose of these products is to increase the efficiency and producti%ity of the proAect de%elopment team#
Some C"S7 tools e'ist separately# ne package might (e a dictionary and another allows you to create
drawings# The most effecti%e tools- howe%er- are integrated (&igure 15=!@)# Integrated case products- sometimes
called I=C"S7 or a C"S7 work(ench- include the following capa(ilities#
J 9roAect ,epository K Stores diagrams- specifications- descrip= =L tions- programs- and any other deli%era(le
generated during the S)3C#
J 8raphics K 7na(les the drawing of diagrams- such as )&)s and 7,)s#
J 9rototyping K Creates models of the proposed system#
J >uality "ssurance K "naly:es deli%era(les- such as graphs and the data dictionary for accuracy#
J Code 8enerators K Create actual computer programs from design specifications#
J Housekeeping K 7sta(lishes user accounts and pro%ides (ackup and reco%ery functions#
C"S7 tools support a %ariety of
S)3Cs# )epending on the one your
company uses- you can customi:e the
C"S7 tools so all deli%era(les such
as )&)s and 7,)s use consistent
terms#
!1
"rototypes
Prototyping
1any systems analysts today use prototypes during detailed design# " prototype is a working model of
the proposed system# The systems analyst actually (uilds a functional form of the solution during design# The
main ad%antage of a prototype is users can work with the system (efore it is completed K to make sure it
meets their needs#
The Iendor 1aintenance &orm shown in &igure 15=!! on the pre%ious page is a prototype# nce users appro%e a
prototype- system de%elopers can implement a solution more ?uickly than without a prototype# In many cases-
prototyped systems do not re?uire a programmer for implementation# The systems analyst can con%ert the
working model to the actual solution# The process of de%eloping applications with prototypes is a part of rapid
application de(elopment RA2!* The ne't chapter discusses ,")#
Some systems analysts use prototyping during the design phase# thers (egin earlier in the S)3C K
during analysis or e%en planning# <eginning a prototype too early- howe%er- might lead to pro(lems# /hen the
de%elopment team sees a working model so early in the S)3C- they tend to skip critical analysis and design
steps and o%erlook key features in the proposed solution#
" common pro(lem with prototypes is they ha%e inade?uate documentation- or worse- none at all#
9rototyping can (e an effecti%e tool if the de%elopment team and the users discipline themsel%es to follow all
acti%ities within the S)3C# 9rototyping should not eliminate or replace acti%ities K Aust impro%e the ?uality of
these acti%ities#
!!
&low Charting
&low charts show a se?uence of steps in%ol%ed in a process# They are made up of (o'es of
standard shapes linked to show the order of processing # 7ach (o'
Contains a (rief note stating what the operation is# /hen applica(le further e'planation can
(e gi%en alongside#
There are two types of flow chart*
1# system flow chart
!# program flow chart
system flow chart
these show the computer system- o%erall# This includes a description of*
1# inputs M including collection and preparation of data
!# processes M calculations- sorts- merges- etc
.# files M the (acking store and files used
5# outputs M reports- listing etc#
The standard sym(ol used in system flow chart are shown (elow
9rogram flow chart
These show the se?uence of operations carried out (y a computer program# "n outline flow chart
shows*
1# the start and end of a program
!# the input4output operations
.# how the data is processed
5# the main section of the program#
Input4output
Se?uential
access
storage
9rocess operation
on data
)ispla
y
docume
nt
n line
storage
1agnetic
disk
1anual input
1anual
operation
1agnetic
tape
"dditional
comment
!.
" detailed program flow chart shows all the operation carried out (y a computer program- step
(y step# In theory- it should (e sufficiently detailed for the program code to (e written directly
from it# Hence a detailed program flow will represent an algorithm# The standard flow charting
sym(ols are shown (elow*
Start4stop
process
Connecto
r
Input4out
put
9redefined
process
)ecision
!5
System proposal
Test plans
%on(ersion plans
!@
Entity relationship 2iagrams
,elational )ata(ase use two=dimensional ta(les- called relations- to store data# 7ntities
(ta(les) are linked to each other (y common data fields# )<1 software will allow you to (uild a
relationship (etween a pair of entities using the common data field#
7ntity=relational diagrams (7,)s) illustrate the logical structure of data(ases# That is- they
are used to*
Identify the data that must (e captured- stored and retrie%ed for the particular application
Identify the data re?uired to deri%e and report on the performance measures that an
organi:ation should (e monitoring# 7,) ha%e three (asic components* entities- attri(utes
and relationships#
There are potentially three types of relationship which can e'ist (etween two different entities*
ne=to=one relationship
ne=to=many relationship
1any=to=many relationship
2rawing an entity-relationship ER! diagram
The steps to (e used in drawing 7, diagrams are as listed (elow*
Identify the entities
&ind the relationship pairs# Not e%ery pair of entities is related
Com(ine the relationship in one diagram and la(el each relationship#
7'ample
!B
1# " school wishes to de%elop a data(ase to hold details on its staff- students- forms-
su(Aects and students grade# )raw the 7=, diagram to represent this system#
!# ,ead the following scenario and draw a diagram showing the relationship (etween
entities#
" hospital keeps information on its operations# 7ach ward has se%eral (eds and is staffed
(y nurses# " nurse is assigned to a single ward#
7ach patient is assigned to a single (ed and is under the care of a single consultant# 7ach
consultant is responsi(le for a num(er of patients#
!D
2F2s
"rocess models
O+5ect models3
2ecision ta+les;trees
"rogramming #anguages
"suedocodes
!F
User Interfaces
The interaction between end-users and the computer is said to take place at
the Human Computer Interface (HCI). The term Human Computer
Interface is meant to cover all aspects of this interaction not !ust the
hardware. "f particular interest is what makes one HCI better than another
one.
"ne of the most important features normall# re$uired in an HCI is that it be
user friendl#. %s the name su&&est a user-friendl# interface is one that the
end-user 'nds helpful eas# to learn and eas# to use. It is eas# reco&ni(e
unfriendl# interfaces but not so eas# to desi&n one that is certain to be user
friendl#.
)hat makes an HCI user friendl#* There is no simple answer but the
followin& points are important.
a. It should be relativel# eas# for the user to start usin& the s#stem.
b. %s far as possible the s#stem should be self-contained so that the user
is not forced into accessin& manuals or dealin& with thin&s that should
be kept outside the s#stem.
c. The amount of e+ort and information re$uired of the user to &et the
s#stem to complete re$uired tasks should be kept to minimum.
d. The user should be insulated from une,pected or spurious s#stem
actions. This includes protection a&ainst bein& the cause of a s#stem
failure and implies that the s#stem should also be robust and reliable.
e. The s#stem should be able to ad!ust to di+erent levels of e,pertise
between users and as users &row in competence.
f. The user should be made to feel in control of what is &oin& on.
&. The s#stem should behave in a lo&ical and consistent manner enablin&
the user to reason about what is &oin& on and appl# what has been
learned.
"f course these points are rather &eneral in nature. )e now turn to a
number of speci'c practical issues.
Types of interface
There are man# di+erent t#pes of user interfaces available. The# ma# be
broadl# classi'ed as follows-
a. Command .riven Interfaces
b. /enu .riven Interfaces
c. .irect /anipulation Interfaces
!E
d. 0ser Interface /ana&ement 1#stem (0I/1)
e. 1pecial 2urpose Interfaces.
3ote. In some situations two di+erent kinds of interfaces ma# be
combined e.&. a menu interface with command options.
Command driven interfaces
"ne of the lon&-established methods b# which user can interact with the
computer is b# the use of commands. Commands enable the user $uickl#
and simpl# to instruct the computer what to do. However the# re$uire the
user to alread# have a knowled&e of what commands are available what
the# do and the rules &overnin& how the# should be t#ped so the# are more
suited to e,perienced users than the end-user is a technical person such as
a computer operator or pro&rammer or where the end-user continuall#
works with the same pro&ram and therefore can &ain master# of the
commands.
Advantages of command driven interface
o 4aster to use once #ou have learnt the commands
o 4or computer pro&rammer command driven interfaces are cheaper to
implement.
Disadvantages of command driven interface
o It is sometimes di5cult to remember all the commands therefore
users have to constantl# refer to the software user manual
o 6estrict the user to usin& onl# the ke#board as the interfacin& devices
while with other interfaces a wide variet# of input devices can be used.
o Commands must be entered at a special location on the screen and in
a set format.
Menu-driven interfaces
/enus provide another popular form of user interface. There are man#
di+erent alternative forms of menu. The simplest menus provide the user
with a number of options and a simple means of selectin& between them.
The user is presented with a choice and therefore does not have to
remember an# commands. The interface is therefore suitable for be&inners
and infre$uent users. %ll the user has to do is to make a choice. % special
t#pe of menu called a pop-up menu an additional submenu pops up as a
selection is made.
Help is normall# made available to the user of a menu-driven s#stem b#
means of screens of information that can temporaril# be called up and
displa#ed on the screen durin& normal activities. It is best if the help
information displa#ed is as speci'c as possible the user7s current activit#.
.0
Help screens are normall# activated b# a special ke#. 1ome ke#boards even
have a ke# labeled H892. 1imilar facilities are often available in command-
driven s#stems and are invoked b# t#pin& a command such as H892.
Pull-down menus are a special t#pe of menu used in windowin& and were
brie:# introduced. 1ome variations on the same idea are pop-up menus
and below an item on the screen in order to elicit a choice from the user.
Advantages of menu driven interfaces
o The user is presented with a list of option to choose from the# don7t
need to remember commands
o 4ree from t#pin& errors because user does not have to t#pe
commands.
o % wide variet# of input devices can be used to interface with a menu.
Disadvantages of menu driven interface
o 1everal steps re$uired to issue a command.
o "nce user has learned the menu s#stem it is bothersome to have to
wait on the packa&e to present the $uestions before commands can be
entered.
Grapical User Interface
% ;raphical 0ser Interface (;0I commonl# pronounced &ue#) is an HCI
based upon a &raphical displa#. ;0Is are most commonl# found on
workstations or 2Cs 'tted with &raphics adapters able to support hi&h-
resolution &raphics. % ;0I is a variation of the menu-driven s#stem of
selectin& commands with the use of the mouse. This s#stem populari(ed b#
the %pple /acintosh uses a &raphical user interface. This consists of icons
and pop-up and drop-down menus. A mouse is used to clic! on an
icon to e"ecute some operation or select options from a pop-up or
drop-down menu#
Advantages of GUIs
o 0ser friendliness results in less an,iet# on the part of the user.
o Icons<s#mbols easier to reco&ni(e and provide the user with a conte,t.
o 4ewer command error.
o 6educe t#pin&.
Disadvantages of GUIs
o /a# consume more screen space
.1
o 4or pro&rammers the desi&n of ;raphical 0ser Interface is more
comple,
o Clickin& an icon can produce une,pected results because of a lack of
icon standard
o Increase use of computer memor# can lead to slower processin&.

.!
%omputer 'ased Tools
Computer <ased tools are general purpose application software that can (e used for the
collection and storage of information and data- analy:ing data and for presenting information in a
suita(le manner# These applications are refereed to as tools they are used to sol%e simple
pro(lems that may arise in your (usiness and personal life# Such tools include a spreadsheet-
data(ase management system- a word processor and multimedia presentation software#
Spreadsheet
"n application program in which data (numerical and string) are arranged in rows and columns
of cells for manipulation and analysis# )ata manipulation can (e in the form of user=defined
formulas or predefined functions# " spreadsheet also facilitates the creation of graphs and charts
from the data in the cells#
2ata+ase Management System 2'MS!
" Software package that pro%ides data management facilities- such as creation of a data(ase-
retrie%al and manipulation of data- data(ase security and ensuring data integrity#
Word "rocessor
"pplication which pro%ides you with the tools necessary to create and edit and format te't
documents- such as letters- memorandums- resumes- etc#
Multimedia "resentation Software
" computer software package allows you to create and edit slides- handouts- notes- and outlines#
This software also facilitates the presentation of slides in a linear manner#
%riteria for Selecting a Tool
Nature of Solution
Type of "nalysis ,e?uired
Type of )ata
Type of Storage
Type of ,etrie%al
Type of 9rocessing
Type of ,eports
..
/ord 9rocessing
.5
Spreadsheet
" spread sheet is a program designed to create ta(les and financial schedules (y allowing the
user to enter data into cells (rows N columns)
Features of spreadsheet
1# Ta(les
!# Charts
.# <uilt= in functions
5# multi worksheet
@# "uto fill
B# import from other packages
D# 1acros= set of operations that accomplish a specific task#
F# Statistical analysis capa(ilities M 7#g# %ariance of analysis
E# )ata(ase management M creating simple data(ase
Ad(antages of using a spreadsheet
1# spreadsheet hide mathematical formulae ;under+ the num(ers- so that some of the
num(ers you are seeing on the screen are actually generated (y underlying formulae#
!# (uilt=in function allow you to ?uickly and easily create comple' formulae
.# the capa(ilities to recalculate comple' ta(les of num(ers make spreadsheet ideal for
what=if scenarios#
5# you can create a %ariety of charts and ta(les using (uilt=in wi:ard
2isad(antages of using a spreadsheet
1# can+t store a large data(ase
!# if one formulae is wrong it could cause the entire spreadsheet to contain wrong
information#
.# a simple mistake can erase a formulae that completely distort the spreadsheet#
%omparison +etween spreadsheet and data+ase
1# (oth allow one to work data in rows and columns
!# spreadsheet use worksheet while data(ase use ta(les
.# (oth used for storing and analy:ing data
5# spreadsheet offer greater fle'i(ility in
(uilding formulae
performing what=if analysis
generating charts
manipulating rows and columns
@# data(ase is ideal for
data entry
(uilding ?ueries
generating formatted reports
storing large num(er of data
de%eloping information systems
.@
(uilding relationship among ta(les
.B

.D
Standard Notation
Ta(les are often used to represent the structure of an enyity# "nother method that can (e used is
called standard notation#
StudentOid Name "ddress )< &orm
01!. Ste%en Clarke Hingston 1arch 10- 1EE0 B
th

This could (e written in standard notation as*
STU)7NT (StudentOId- Name- "ddress- )<- &orm)
Normali:ation
This is the process- which ensures that a data(ase is structured in the most efficient manner6
comple' ta(les (usually un=normali:ed) are transformed into a set of smaller- sta(le data
structures# Ta(les should (e organi:ed in such a way that*
No data is unnecessarily duplicated (i#e# the same data held on more than one ta(le)6
)ata is consistent throughout the data(ase
The structure of each ta(le is fle'i(le enough to allow you to enter as many or as few items
as re?uired6
The structure should ena(le user to make all kinds of comple' ?ueries relating data from
different ta(le#
The normalisation process is accomplished in three steps*
1# &irst Normal &orm (1N&) M a ta(le is in 1N& if it contains no repeating attri(utes or groups
of attri(utes#
!# Second Normal &orm (!N&) M a ta(le is in its !N& if it is in 1N& and no column that is not
part of a primary key is dependent on only a portion of the primary key#
.# Third Normal &orm (.N&) M a ta(le in its .N& contains no non=key dependencies#
.F
<uestions
Show how the following would (e5 held in a data(ase in the .N&
1# Sample of information in a student data(ase
STU)7NT
Student
&um+er
Student
&ame
2O' Se) %ourse
&um+er
%ourse &ame #ecturer
&um+er
#ecturer
&ame
1!.5@ Heathcote- , !0=0F=F. 1 7CBB@5 "=3e%el Computing T.5@!BD 8lo%er- T
!!5.. Head- P 1.=0!=F. & 7CBB@5
H1DD@B
")11!1
"=3e%el Computing
"=3e%el 1usic
9ottery
T.5@!BD
TDD..@1
TFDB@51
8lo%er- T
,eader- <
)ay- S
DDDFF Hargra%e- , 1.=0E=@5 1 <1..E0
H1DD@B
HNC <usiness TDDDD@F
TDD..@1
Newman-9
,eader- <
! #7ach month- the sales manger of "<C 3td recei%es a sales report- which is structured as
follows*
S"37SO)7T"I3S
Salesman
Num(er
Salesman
Name
Sales
,egion
Customer
Num(er
Customer
name
/4house
num(er
/4house
3ocation
Sales
"mount
111 ,# /alters 7ast 11110
111.0
1115@
111D0
"<C Co
P Q P 3td
Super 1art
C+s 8rocery
100
110
110
1!0
Thomas
9ortland
9ortland
St# 1ary
100-000
@0-000
!00-@00
1@-000
!!! ,# 9arkins /est !!!0@
!!!50
!!!B0
,C 1art
H Q Sons
The &ish Co#
!00
!00
!10
Hano%er
Hano%er
Negril
.0-000
1@@000
@00000
... &# /alcolm North ...01 Super Ialu .@0 St# "nn 1!0000
.E
.# " car rental company keeps details on its clients and %ehicles# " sample of the data in the
unnormalised state is as follows*
HI,7O)7T"I3
Client
Num(er
Client
Name
8ender )< 14I
,egistration
1ake 1odel )ate
Hired
)ate
,eturned
10!5 Nelson-
3
1 !0#10#.5 F0BB "P
1B5@ ")
&ord
Toyota
Capri
9rado
!#!#0!
1@#@#0!
1#.#0!
15#F#0!
!!@B &oster-
N
& D5F5 <2
0!5B "7
.F55 )1
Isu:u
&ord
1a:da
8emini
7scort
B!B
5#@#0! 15#F#0!
1!#@#0!
D#11#0!
.0.. DDDD ), Toyota Corona 1#1#0! 1#D#0!
5# you wish to store on a data(ase the compact dics in your own personal music- collection# In
addition you wish add new disc- to remo%e C)s that you ha%e gi%en a away- and to print out
the rele%ant information from time to time#
Suggest steps that you may do to construct your data(ase#
@# /hat is meant (y the term ;normalisation+C (!
marks)
(() the following fields are part of a ta(le* lastname- firstname- age- salary# /hat data type is
likely to (e associated with 7"CH fieldC (5
marks)
(c) 8i%e N7 reason why the data type for 7"CH of the following were selected# (5
marks)
(i) last name
(ii) salary
B# (a) In relation to data(ases- what is ;normalisation of data+C (!
marks)
50
(() )escri(e T/ stages of normali:ation# (5
marks)
(c) "ssess the following ta(les that are represented in standard notation# Identify the normal
form that 7"CH ta(le is in# 8i%e N7 reason to Austify your answer#
(i) STU)7NT (student Num(er- student Name- 87N)7,- )<- Course Num(er)
(ii) CU,S7 (course num(er- course name- lecturer id- lecturer name)# (5
marks)
F# Normailsation is the process of analy:ing data to create a most effiecient data(ase (y splitting
a structure into a set of smaller data structures so as to eliminate data redundancy#
(a) 7'plain the concept ;first normal form+ (! marks)
(() the following is a data(se structuire that descri(es attri(utes in a school li(rary loan
system# "rrange the structure so that the data would (e in fisrt and second normal form#
<HSONO3"N (StudentNum(er- Studentnamne#- "ddress- 8ender- <ookNum(er-
<ooktitle- "uthornum(er- "uthorName)# (F marks)
51
Information Systems
" set of defined procedures- either automated or manual- that determines how information is
collected- processed- and presented within an organi:ation# "n information system consists of
data- computers systems- procedures- and people strategically com(ined to manage an
organi:ation+s financial- non=financial information- or a com(ination of (oth#
" manual information system consists of people- procedures and
data# " computer system is not used in the collection- processing
or presentation of information# The procedures defined (y the
system are carried out manually (y the persons in%ol%ed# &or
e'ample- a li(rary that uses ?ueue cards to alpha(etical store the
information and location of its (ooks- the information of the
mem(ers and to record the (ooks (orrowed (y it mem(ers# This
would (e a manual information system as there is no use of
computers#
"n automated information system would in%ol%e the use of a computer system to aid in the
processing of information# The computer may (e in%ol%ed in all or some of the operations of the
information system# &or e'ample- a hospital that maintains a computeri:ed data(ase of its
patients and all there rele%ant information#
9ro(lem Sol%ing Stages for )e%eloping an Information System
2efinition of a pro+lem8
In order for someone to sol%e a pro(lem they must first know what the pro(lem is# )efining the
pro(lem in%ol%es presenting a general o%er%iew of the situation (y identifying all the rele%ant
personnel (entity) and their processes (procedures)# That is- gi%e a detailed description of the
pro(lem 4 situation#
"ro+lem analysis8
This is the su(=di%ision of the entire pro(lem into smaller units to take a closer look at the
acti%ities within each entities of the pro(lem identified# The pro(lem may further (roken down
into separate departments- or the different acti%ities of the System#
Generation and E(aluation of "ossi+le Solutions8
In this stage all the possi(le solutions for the pro(lem are identified and further e%aluated (ased
on their strengths- weaknesses and appropriateness#
Selection of Solution8
The ne't stage in%ol%es selecting the most appropriate solution from the one identified and
e%aluated in the pre%ious stage#
$mplementation8
The final stage of pro(lem sol%ing is to implement the solution identified- either in modules of a
full implementation all at once# "fter Implementation the solution is tested to ensure full
5!
functionality# This stage also in%ol%es an ongoing maintenance of the information system after
full implementation#
5.
Pro$lem %olving %tages for Developing an
Information %ystem
9ro(lem sol%ing deals with how organi:ation inefficiencies and how they can (e impro%ed to
increase output within a company (y de%eloping an information system# 7%ery company already
has an information system- e%en if they don+t ha%e any computers or technological e?uipment
(manual information system)#
An information system is a set of predefined procedures that determines
how data is passed within a company. The information system
determines how data is collected, processed and then presented.
Technically- you might (e upgrading rather than de%eloping# 7ither way the following fi%e stage
model is used to guide the de%elopment process of an information system#
2efinition of a pro+lem8
In order for someone to sol%e a pro(lem they must first know what the pro(lem is# )efining the
pro(lem in%ol%es presenting a general o%er%iew of the situation (y identifying all the rele%ant
entity and their processes#
"n entity can (e representati%e of an indi%idual 4 customer- employee or department# " process is
a predefined procedure that is carried out (y employees 4 departments# " process can also (e
%iewed as the relationship (etween the entities#
The pro(lem definition should e'plain all
rele%ant (usiness operations to show how
information is collected- processed- and
dispensed within the company to highlight the
inefficiencies of the current system#
"ro+lem analysis8
"naly:ing the pro(lem is to further su(=di%ision
of the entire pro(lem into smaller units to take a
closer look at the acti%ities within each entity of
the within the (usiness to ha%e a (etter
understanding of the pro(lem# This should gi%e
you an idea of what is (eing done (y each
department 4 employee and how they are doing
it# The pro(lem usually lies in the how#
Generation and E(aluation of "ossi+le
Solutions8
In this stage all the possi(le solutions for the
pro(lem are identified and further e%aluated (ased on their strengths- weaknesses and
appropriateness# The rele%ant hardware- software and networking components will (e e'amined
to determine there appropriateness#
55
The ne't stage selection of solution in%ol%es selecting the most appropriate solution from the
one identified and e%aluated in the pre%ious stage# The most appropriate hardware- software and
networking components will (e selected for implementation#
The final stage of pro(lem sol%ing is to implement the solution identified- either in modules of a
full implementation all at once# "fter Implementation the solution is tested to ensure full
functionality# This stage also in%ol%es an ongoing maintenance of the information system after
full implementation#

$dentifying a pro+lem
Identifying an organi:ation with an information
system pro(lem can (e an easy task if you know
what to look for# The pro(lem may e'ist in one of
three areas within the company* technology-
organi:ation- or people# The pro(lems (eing
e'perienced is not necessarily limited to one area-
it might (e a com(ination of any two or all three
areas#
Technological pro(lems can arise as a result of
outdated e?uipment- inappropriate networking- or
lack of technology within the company- a manual
information system# Inappropriate software as a
result of poor design or a comple' user interface
can also (e considered a technological pro(lem#
5@
$nformation Technology - Grade /0
Module / 1 $nformation Systems
2O%AME&TAT$O& OF $&FORMAT$O& SYSTEMS
Se%eral tools are a%aila(le for documenting the flow of information within an organi:ation- from
a simple descripti%e method to a diagrammatic model# &or e'ample- using short statements to list
the set of acti%ities to (e performed within a department of an organi:ation is an e'ample of a
simple descripti%e method#
2ata Flow 2iagrams 2F2s!
" data flow diagram- also known as )&)- is a graphical representation of the information flow
within a system# It is an e'ample of a diagrammatic model# " data flow diagram can also (e used
for the %isuali:ation of data processing (structured design)# It is common practice for a designer
to draw a conte't=le%el )&) first which shows the interaction (etween the system and outside
entities# This conte't=le%el )&) is then Re'plodedR to show more detail of the system (eing
modelled# /ith a dataflow diagram- users are a(le to %isualise how the system will operate- what
the system will accomplish and how the system will (e implemented# ld system dataflow
diagrams can (e drawn up and compared with the new systems dataflow diagrams to draw
comparisons to implement a more efficient system# )ataflow diagrams can (e used to pro%ide
the end user with a physical idea of where the data they input- ultimately has an effect upon the
structure of the whole system from order to dispatch to restock how any system is de%eloped can
(e determined through a dataflow diagram#
Types of 2F2
In analysing a (usiness- se%eral sets of )&)s are drawn# Initial )&)s might model the e'isting
system (flaws and all)- while later )&)s may model a solution to the pro(lem (eing analysed#
&or these solution )&)s a logical and physical )&) is drawn# 9hysical )&)s represent physical
files and transactions- while logical or conceptual )&)s can (e used to represent (usiness
functions or processes#
%omponents of a 2F2
" data flow diagram illustrates the processes- data stores- and e'ternal entities in a (usiness or
other system and the connecting data4resource flows#
The four components of a data flow diagram ()&)) are*
7'ternal 7ntities (represented (y a s?uare or o%al)
9rocesses (represented (y a rounded rectangle)
)ata Stores (represented (y an open ended narrow rectangle)
)ata &lows (represented (y an arrow)
,esource &lows
2ata Flow 2iagrams 1 2iagram &otation
There are only fi%e sym(ols that are used in the drawing of (usiness process diagrams (data flow
diagrams)# These are now e'plained- together with the rules that apply to them#
5B

This diagram represents a (anking process- which maintains customer accounts# In this e'ample-
customers can withdraw or deposit cash- re?uest information a(out their account or update their
account details# The fi%e different sym(ols used in this e'ample represent the full set of sym(ols
re?uired to draw any (usiness process diagram#
E)ternal Entities
"n e'ternal entity is a source (where the data comes from) or destination (where the data go) of a
data flow which is outside the system (ut interacts with the system (e#g#- person- department or
organisation)# /hen modeling a )&)- the designer is not interested in the inner workings of the
e'ternal entity- (ut only what data is produced4needed (y the entity# The sym(ol used to
represent an e'ternal entity is a s?uare or o%al#
Diagrams used to represent external entities
"rocess
" process shows a transformation or manipulation of data flows within the system# " process is a
manual or computeri:ed routine that changes data (y performing a calculation- updating
information- sorting a list- and so on# There are two ways in which a process is represented- one
with a rounded rectangle- which is num(ered and la(eled with a %er( phase (e'cept for the
process num(ered 0- which gi%es the system+s name)# Two- with a rectangle that has three parts
an identification num(er- a location that appears to the right of the identifier which descri(es
where in the system the process takes place and a descripti%e title placed in the centre of the (o'#
The process shows a part of the system that transforms inputs into outputs6 that is- it shows how
one or more inputs are changed into outputs#
Diagrams used to represent a process
Student
Customer
!
7nroll
student
,
,
5D
2ata Store
" data store is a holding place for information within the system# It is represented (y an open
ended narrow rectangle# )ata stores may (e long=term files such as sales ledgers- or may (e
short=term accumulations* for e'ample (atches of documents that are waiting to (e processed#
7ach data store should (e gi%en a reference followed (y an ar(itrary num(er# It could represent
the data (eing held manually or on a computer# <asically- a data store is a logical collection of
data#
Diagram used to represent data store

2ata flow
" data flow shows the flow of information from its source to its destination# " data flow is
represented (y a line- with arrowheads showing the direction of flow# Information always flows
to or from a process or a data store and may (e written- %er(al or electronic#
Resource Flow
" resource flow shows the flow of any physical material from its source to its destination# &or
this reason they are sometimes referred to as physical flows# The physical material in ?uestion
should (e gi%en a meaningful name# ,esource flows are usually restricted to early- high=le%el
diagrams and are used when a description of the physical flow of materials is considered to (e
important to help the analysis#
RA#ES OF 2ATA F#OW 2$AGRAMS
E)ternal Entities
It is normal for all the information represented within a system to ha%e (een o(tained from-
and4or to (e passed onto- an e'ternal source or recipient# These e'ternal entities may (e
duplicated on a diagram- to a%oid crossing data flow lines# /here they are duplicated a stripe is
drawn across the left hand corner# The addition of a lowercase letter to each entity on the
diagram is a good way to uni?uely identify them#
)1 Student+s ,ecords
,
Diagram used to represent data flow
Diagram used to represent resource flow
5F
"rocesses
/hen naming processes- a%oid glossing o%er them- without really understanding their role#
Indications that this has (een done are the use of %ague terms in the descripti%e title area = like
$process$ or $update$# The most important thing to remem(er is that the description must (e
meaningful to whoe%er will (e using the diagram#
2ata Flows
)ou(le headed arrows can (e used (to show two=way flows) on all (ut (ottom le%el diagrams#
&urthermore- in common with most of the other sym(ols used- a data flow at a particular le%el of
a diagram may (e decomposed to multiple data flows at lower le%els#
2ata Stores
7ach store should (e gi%en a reference letter- followed (y an ar(itrary num(er# These reference
letters are allocated as follows*
$)$ = indicates a permanent computer file
$1$ = indicates a manual file
$T$ = indicates a transient store- one that is deleted after processing#
In order to a%oid comple' flows- the same data store may (e drawn se%eral times on a diagram#
1ultiple instances of the same data store are indicated (y a dou(le %ertical (ar on their left hand
edge#
Rules go(erning how the diagram components relate to each other
2ata Flows
&or data flows the rules are as follows*
)ata flows and resource flows are allowed (etween e'ternal entities and processes# )ata flows
are also allowed (etween different e'ternal entities# Howe%er- data flows and resource flows are
not allowed (etween e'ternal entities and data stores#
"rocesses
&or processes the data flow rules are as follows*
)ata flows and resource flows are allowed (etween processes and e'ternal entities and (etween
processes and data stores# They are also allowed (etween different processes# In other words
processes can communicate with all other areas of the (usiness process diagram#
2ata Stores
&or data stores the data flow rules are as follows*
)ata flows and resource flows are allowed (etween data stores and processes# Howe%er- these
flows are not allowed (etween data stores and e'ternal entities or (etween one data store and
another# In practice this means that data stores cannot initiate a communication of information-
they re?uire a process to do this#
2ata Flow 2iagrams 1 %onte)t 2iagrams #e(el J 2iagram!
The first step in constructing )&)s is to draw a conte't diagram# " conte't diagram is a top=le%el
%iew of an information system that shows the system+s (oundaries and scope# To draw a conte't
5E
diagram- you start (y placing a single process sym(ol in the centre of the page# The sym(ol
represents the entire system- and you identify it as process 0# Then you place the entities around
the perimeter of the page and use data flows to connect the entities to the central process# Gou do
not show any data stores in a conte't diagram (ecause data stores are internal to the system# In
drawing the conte't diagram you should only (e concerned with the most important information
flows# Remember that no data flow process diagram is the definitive solution - there is no
absolute right or wrong.
Data Flow Diagrams Context Diagrams

%onte)t 2iagram E)ample
The conte't diagram shown on this screen represents a (ook lending li(rary# The li(rary recei%es
details of (ooks- and orders (ooks from one or more (ook suppliers# <ooks may (e reser%ed and
(orrowed (y mem(ers of the pu(lic- who are re?uired to gi%e a (orrower num(er# The li(rary
will notify (orrowers when a reser%ed (ook (ecomes a%aila(le or when a (orrowed (ook
(ecomes o%erdue# In addition to supplying (ooks- a (ook supplier will furnish details of specific
(ooks in response to li(rary en?uiries#
Note- that communications in%ol%ing e'ternal entities are only included where they in%ol%e the
$system$ process# /hilst a (ook supplier would communicate with %arious agencies- for e'ample-
pu(lishers and other suppliers = these data flow are remote from the $system$ process and so this
is not included on the conte't diagram#
2ata Flow 2iagrams 1 #e(el / 2iagrams

@0
The le%el 1 diagram shows the main functional areas of the system under in%estigation# "s with
the conte't diagram- any system under in%estigation should (e represented (y only one le%el 1
diagram#
There is no formula that can (e applied in deciding what is- and what is not- a le%el 1 process#
3e%el 1 processes should descri(e only the main functional areas of the system- and you should
a%oid the temptation of including lower le%el processes on this diagram# "s a general rule no
data flow diagram should contain more than 1! process (o'es#
The le%el 1 diagram is surrounded (y the outline of a process (o' that represents the (oundaries
of the system# <ecause the le%el 1 diagram depicts the whole of the system under in%estigation- it
can (e difficult to know where to start#
Some additional guidelines for creating 2F2s8
1# "ll processes must ha%e at least one data flow in and one data flow out#
!# "ll processes should modify the incoming data- producing new forms of outgoing data#
.# 7ach data store must (e in%ol%ed with at least one data flow#
5# 7ach e'ternal entity must (e in%ol%ed with at least one data flow#
@# " data flow must (e attached to at least one process#
B# Two entities- or two data stores- or an entity and a data store or %ice %ersa- cannot (e
connected together with a data flow#
D# Choose meaningful names for processes- flows- stores- and e'ternal entities#
F# Num(er the processes#
E# "%oid o%erly comple' )&)s- do not cross lines#
10# 1ake sure the )&) is internally consistent and consistent with any associated )&)s#
11# The general principle in )ata &low )iagramming is that a system can (e decomposed
into su(systems- and su(systems can (e decomposed into lower le%el su(systems- and
so on#
1!# 7ach su(system represents a process or acti%ity in which data is processed# "t the
lowest le%el- processes can no longer (e decomposed#
1.# 7ach process in a )&) has the characteristics of a system#
15# )ata enters the system from the en%ironment6 data flows (etween processes within the
system6 and data is produced as output from the system#
%lass Acti(ity
Use the )ata &low )iagram (elow to answer the following ?uestions#
1# How many processes are in the diagramC
!# 8i%e the names of two of the processes#
@1
.# /hat action is done to (ill amountC
5# /hat is (ill amountC
@# How many data stores are in the diagram
B# Name an e'ternal entity#
@!
E)ample of a 2ata Flow 2iagram
This data flow diagram represents a system used in a %ideo rental store#
Iideo &ile )1
Iideo
1em(er
1
8et Iideo
)etails
1
Compute
<ill Total
1
8et
1em(er
)etails
1
8et
9ayment
1
9rint
,eceipt
1em(er
1em(er &ile )1
Iideo ,ecord
Iideo
Num(er
Iideo
)etails
1em(er
)etails
<ill Total
1em(er
Num(er
1em(er
,ecord
1em(er
,ecord
9ayment
)etails
9ayment
@.
2ata Flow 2iagrams 1 "ractices E)ercises
<uestion /
" student completes an application to (ecome a mem(er of a li(rary# The student takes the
application to the li(rarian who checks the form and then issue a mem(ership card# The
completed application is stored as 1em(er ,ecord in file- named 1em(er &older#
To (orrow (ooks- a mem(er takes the (ooks and his mem(ership card to the li(rarian# She
updates her cards in the <ook &older#
/hen a mem(er returns the (orrowed (ooks to the li(rary- the li(rarian updates her records#
New (ooks come into the li(rary periodically# The li(rarian records the rele%ant details on cards-
which are stored in the <ook &older#
Reuired! "onstruct a "onte#t $iagram %&evel '( and then a &evel ) diagram.
<uestion 0
Gou ha%e an address (ook in which you keep details of your friends# &rom time to time- you will
make amendments such as change of address or telephone num(er for ;old+ friend or add details
for ;new+ friends# In addition- a friend may re?uest that you get the address or telephone num(er
(from the address (ook) of another contact#
Reuired! "onstruct a "onte#t $iagram %&evel '( and then a &evel ) diagram.
@5

$nformation Technology - Grade /0
Module / 1 $nformation Systems
Opportunities arising from the use of information technology
learning = disco%ering knowledge
Training M
7ntertainment
Communication
Career opportunity
$mpact of $nformation Technology
rganisational impact
automation
Introducing information Technology

Societal impact
Po( skills
Po( opportunity
,etraining
9ri%acy M mo%ie enemy of the state with will smith
Sur%eillance
Security
Commercial transaction
7ntertainment
Culture
7conomic opportunities
9olitics
7commerce
7=(usiness
7=go%ernance
7=learning
7=surgery
7thical- legal and political consideration
Copyright
Intellectual and property
9roprietary data and software
9ropaganda
@@
Computer fraud
Industrial sa(otage
Computer %iruses
7lectronics ea%esdropping
3itigation
ffice politics
1onopolies
Technology transfer
Cultural (iases
9olitical de%elopment
Trade "greements