Application Note

HAEFELY TEST AG












Guide for using the
Transfer Function Method
for the Assessment of Power Transformers

Version 1.0



II




Date 16-01-2006
Author Prof. Dr.-Ing. Thomas Leibfried,
Insti tute of El ectri c Energy Systems and Hi gh-Vol tage Technol ogy, Universitt
Karlsruhe (TH)

Revision History
V1.0 2/2006 LWA Initial Version, Layout





















Note:
HAEFELY TEST AG accepts no responsibility for damage or loss that may result from errors within this
application note.
All rights reserved. No section of this manual may be reproduced in any form, mechanical or
electronic without the prior written permission of HAEFELY TEST AG.

2005, HAEFELY TEST AG, Switzerland


Contents
1 Some theoretical Basics of the Transfer Function
Method 1
RLC network representation of a power transformer .................................................. 1
Transfer Function of a linear and time invariant (LTI) system..................................... 2
Definition of transfer functions .................................................................................... 3
Methods of determining transfer functions.................................................................. 3
Measurement in the frequency domain excitation with sinusoidal voltage.......... 3
Measurement in the time domain excitation with impulse voltage ...................... 5
2 Evaluation of Transformers in Service using the
Transfer Function Method 7
Time Based Comparison ............................................................................................ 7
Phase Based Comparison.......................................................................................... 8
Type Based Comparison .......................................................................................... 11
3 Transfer Functions measured in the Test Lab and On-
site 13
Application: Detection of damages occurred during transportation........................... 13
Example: 350 MVA, 405/115/30 kV Power Transformer (YNyn0d5) ........................ 13
4 Transfer Functions measured after Manufacturing and
after Repair 3 years later 15
Example: 175 MVA, 520/11 kV Power Transformer (YNd11) ................................... 15
Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 17





1

1 Some theoretical Basics of the Transfer
Function Method
RLC network representation of a power transformer
The simple representation of a transformer, the voltage and current transfer from on side to the other
depending in the number of turns is well known and valid for rated frequency and some Hz more or less.
For higher frequencies a power transformer can be represented by a network consisting of R, L and C
elements. Such a model can be derived directly from the construction of the transformer. Each winding
is divided into several section. Thereby, a section can be a number of turns, one turn or even a part of a
turn. The more detailed a winding is modeled the more complex this network representation will be.
Each section consists of the following elements: a capacitance C
k
is the capacitance of the section to
ground, K
k
describes the capacitance coupling from each section to the adjacent sections, R
k
is the
ohmic resistance of the turns, L
kk
is the self-inductivity and L
jk
describes the inductive coupling to all
other sections. Thus, having a winding with 10 sections results in 10
2
= 100 coupling inductances. F
shows the RCL model for a two-winding transformer. There is an inductive coupling between all
inductances, further additionally coupling capacitances from each section from one winding to the
corresponding section of the other winding.

Figure 1 : RCL model of a two winding transformer
Although, it is very difficult to get the RLC values which describe the entire transformer up to highest
frequency, the RLC model is helpful for the following considerations.



2


Transfer Function of a linear and time invariant (LTI)
system
For the low voltages applied to the transformer for transfer function measurements the transformer core
does not come into saturation. Thus, the transformer can be regarded as a linear and time invariant
network.

Such a network can be describes by a transfer function consisting of magnitude and phase:

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
j p j p
Y p
H p H p e H p e
X p

= = =

Generally, a transfer function is defined to be the quotient of the Laplace transforms of a system
response Y(p) and a system excitation X(p). Further, the system response can be calculated out of the
system excitation x(t) and the impulse response h(t) applying Duhamels Integral:
{ }
with
and
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
y t h t x t h t x d
Y p h t x t H p X p
p j

= =
= =
= +

Here, h(t) denotes the impulse response of the system and p is the complex frequency with the real part
and the imaginary part . The transfer function H(p) is the Laplace transform of the impulse response
h(t).
A special case is given for
or 0 p j = =
since for p = j H(j) is nothing else than the Fourier transform of the impulse response h(t):

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
j j
Y j
H j H j e
X j

= =

In the following H(j) is referred to as transfer function

The transfer function of a linear and time invariant system is a comprehensive description of this
system. In the case of an electrical network, the transfer function depends on all network elements.
Thus, a change of the network elements results in a change of the transfer function.
This is the basic idea of the transfer function method as a way of detecting mechanical deviations of the
core-and-coil assembly of transformers. A mechanical deformation leads to a change of the capacitive
and inductive coupling of sections of a winding or between windings. According to the network theory a
change of network elements must result in a change of the transfer functions.




3


The reverse conclusion is that there is a change of the core-and-coil assembly of the transformer if the
transfer function of this transformer shows deviations in comparison to a reference function. For the
moment, it can be assumed that a reference function of the transformer without any defect is available.
This is the approach for using the transfer function for the assessment of the core-and-coil assembly of
power transformers.
Definition of transfer functions
Usually, there are several definitions of transfer functions possible. The kind and number of possible
transfer functions depend on the terminals of the transformer. One individual winding has usually two
terminals. Thus one transfer function could be the input impedance or input admittance (U
1
/I
1
or I
1
/U
1
),
the other one is the transfer Impedance or admittance (U
1
/I
2
or I
2
/U
1
).
In the case of a two winding transformer as shown in figure 1 the following transfer functions can be
defined when the exciting voltage is applied to the terminal 1.1:

1 2 2
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
out out in
U p I p I p I p
H p H p H p H p
U p U p U p U p
= = = =
The different transfer functions are sensitive against failures at different locations. It can be expected
that the transfer functions H
2
(p) and H
3
(p) have their main sensitivity in the case of failures in the area of
the winding end (1.2) or (2.2). The input impedance (transfer function H
4
(p)) should be very sensitive in
the case of a failure in the area of the winding entrance. The voltage ratio transfer function H
1
(p) might
show the highest sensitivity if a failure is located nearby terminal (2.1).
Some more transfer functions can be defined if terminals (2.1) and (2.2) are grounded and the current to
ground is measured. This test circuit corresponds very well to the test circuit commonly in use for the
impulse voltage test of power transformers. From that side, it is well known that this transfer function is
very sensitive with respect to deviations inside the transformer wherever they are located.
These considerations show the complexity of choosing the right transfer function to evaluate the
transformer condition. It is not yet fully investigated which transfer function is the best one in which
case. Generally, the following rule can be established: If a failure is assumed at a certain location,
system response as well as excitation should be measured as near as possible to that location and
compared with a corresponding reference function.
Methods of determining transfer functions
Measurement in the frequency domain excitation with sinusoidal voltage
For the measurement in the frequency domain special measuring systems are used. They provide a
sinusoidal voltage with variable frequency for the excitation of the transformer:

0 min max
mit ( ) ( ) sin( ) x t x t =
In general, the magnitude x
0
of the exciting signal depends on the frequency since there exist usually
frequencies with low impedance of the transformer.

The test object reacts with the system response according to

0 0
( ) ( ) sin( ( )) ( ) sin(2 ( )) y t y t y f f t f = + = +



4


Both signals are recorded by network analyzers or measuring systems designed especially for FRA
measurements.

The magnitude of the transfer function is the ratio of the magnitude of the sinusoidal signal, the phase
angle () is the phase angle difference of the system response y(t) with respect to the excitation signal
x(t). The measuring system provides magnitude and phase angle of the transfer function:

min max
( )
0 0
0 0
for all [ , ]
with
and
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
j
p j
H p H j H e
y y
H
x x

=

= =

= = =

.

Advantage: The big advantage is the simplicity of this method. Further, the signal calculation is
extremely simple. Thus, the method can be easily understood by both the test
engineer and his client, usually the owner of the transformer.

Disadvantage: In comparison to the impulse method, the exciting voltages have a relatively low
amplitude in the Volt range. This leads to relatively low system responses. Further,
network analysers are designed for measurements in the HF technique. However,
power transformers are extremely big objects in comparison to HF devices and for
network analyzers no special connection technique is available.
This situation is completely different in the case of measuring systems designed
especially for the FRA technique. Special measuring cable systems have been
developed to enable the handling of big test objects.

-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1/f
1
t

Transformer
1
N
1
U
1
V
1
W
complex RLC network

u (t)
1



0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4
f
H(f )
MHz

-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
3.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4
f
(f)
MHz
rad

exciting signal
(variable frequency, f
1
)
magnitude

phase angle
H

(f
1
)
(f 1)
f 1 f 1

-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
(1-H(f
1
))
1/f
1
t

system response
u (t)
2

1

1
(f )/2 f

Figure 2 : Transfer function measurement in the frequency domain using a network analyser






5

Measurement in the time domain excitation with impulse voltage
Measurement in the time domain means that the transformer is excited with am impulse voltage which
excites the transformer over a wide frequency range at the same time. Both, the impulse voltage and
the system response are recorded by a digitizer. The sampling frequency must be high enough or an
anti-aliasing filter must be used in order to ensure that the nyquist theorem is fulfilled.

The following steps have to be carried out (Figure 3):
anti aliasing filtering of the analogue signals or using a sampling frequency high enough to fulfil the
nyquist theorem,
sampling of the analogue signals and storage of the sampled values,
windowing of the signals in order to ensure a complete decay of the signal at the end of the record,
applying of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to both, the excitation signal and the system response
and calculation of the spectra of the time domain signals in the frequency domain,
calculation of the quotient of the spectra of excitation signal and system response, called transfer
function.
Very often, the exponential function with the parameter A is used as window function. The windowed
waveforms of voltage and current are given by

1
0 1 2
k
A
N
w,m m
w,m m
u ( k ) u ( k ) e k , , ,...,N m U,V,W
i ( k ) i ( k )

= = =
=

where k is the index of the samples and N is the number of samples. After this step, the FFT (Fast
Fourier Transform) algorithm is applied to the windowed waveforms and the transfer function is the
quotient of the two spectra.

{ } { }
0 1 2 1
w,m w,m m m
m
m m
m
U ( n) FFT u ( k ) I ( n) FFT i ( k ) k, n , , ,...,N
I ( n)
TF ( n) TF ( n) m U,V,W
U ( n)
= = =
= = =





6



0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
0 50 100 150
t
[s]
kV
1
N
1
U
1
V
1
W


0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 MHz
(k )
-1

-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
3.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.4 MHz
rad
anti aliasing filterung, sampling, windowing,
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), calculation of the quotient
T
2
= 80 s
T
1
= 600 ns
u (t)
1
H(f )
(f)
f
f
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
A
0.10
0 50 100 150 [s]
i(t)
t
magnitude
phase angle
system response exciting signal
Transformer
complex RLC network

Figure 3 : Transfer function measurement in the time domain using an impulse measuring system




7

2 Evaluation of Transformers in Service
using the Transfer Function Method
The transfer function method bases on the principle of comparing two (or more) transfer functions. One
(or more) transfer functions act as reference function. There are 3 methods of comparing transfer
functions:
Time based comparison
Phase based comparison
Type based comparison
The intensity and the kind of differences as well as the frequencies at which they occur provide
information about a possible mechanical deviation of the core-and-coil assembly.
Time Based Comparison
Time Based Comparison of transfer functions means that transfer functions measured on different dates
but on the same transformer at the same phase are compared. The comparison provides information
about possible differences occurred in the time interval between the two measurements.
The use of the Time Based Comparison requires access to the transformer in regular time intervals, e.
g. one year. Fehler! Verweisquelle konnte nicht gefunden werden. Shows the transfer functions of
one winding block (phase W) of a 200 MVA power transformer. The three transfer functions measured
in a time interval of one year show almost no deviations. This proves that there was no change of the
core-and-coil assembly in between September 1994 and September 1996.
However, there are minor deviations between the transfer functions clearly visible. The main reason for
these deviations are small changes in the test set-up, since all other measuring conditions are identical
such as the temperature, the tap changer position and the location of the transformer as well as the
measuring system used during the 2 years.

Figure 4 : Time Based Comparison: Transfer functions of winding block W of a 200 MVA, 220/110 kV power
transformer
A transformer being in service for a number of years can only be evaluated if a transfer function
measurement for the comparison is available. However, usually this is not the case. Thus, the Time
Based Comparison can not be applied for the assessment of aged transformers.
If a new transformer is installed, it would be of great use to measure the initial transfer function just
after the installation of the transformer. This transfer function can be used for the comparison with
measurements taken later on.



8


Phase Based Comparison
Phase Based Comparison means that transfer functions measured on different phases but at the same
time on the same transformer are compared with each other. The idea behind this comparison method
is that the windings of different phases or winding blocks are manufactured using the same drawings.
This means the winding construction should be identical besides of the following aspects. There might
occur principal deviations between the three transfer functions of the three phases:
Deviations caused by manufacturing tolerances of the three windings,
Deviations due to different geometry and length of the connections from the windings to the tap
changer,
Deviations due to the fact that the winding blocks of the three phases are located in-line in the tank.
Thus, the middle phase (usually phase V) has stray capacitances towards the other two winding blocks
whereas the outer winding locks are only coupled to the middle block. But even the outer windings
blocks show no symmetry. Usually on one side the tap changer is mounted caused by manufacturing
tolerances of the three windings. Thus, the arrangement of the winding blocks in a transformer tank
shows no perfect symmetry.

Figure 5 : Typical arrangement of the windings in the tank of a three phase transformer

At present, it is not clear which of these reasons for deviations of transfer functions are dominant.
Further, it is not clear which kind of deviations are caused by the mentioned principal non-idealities.
If an aged transformer has to be evaluated the Phase Based Comparison is the only way since usually
no transfer function from a measurement performed years or months before the actual measurement is
available. Thus, the Phase Based Comparison is of great importance in practice.

As a first example, the transfer functions calculated from the neutral current and the voltages applied to
the HV terminal of phases U, V and W of a 125 MVA power transformer (240/53 kV) are regarded. One
HV terminal after the other is excited by the input voltage whereas the other HV phases are grounded
(figure 6a). The transfer functions of the three phases
with
N
k
k
I ( f )
TF( f ) k U,V,W
U ( f )
= =
show a good match up to a frequency of about 600650 kHz (figure 6b). Beyond a frequency of about
700 Hz there are deviations between all transfer function clearly visible. Since this transformer was new
and the measurements have been taken directly after the erection on-site, a damage of the transformer
can be excluded in this case. Thus, the deviations at higher frequencies are caused by the three
aspects mentioned above.





9

a.
b.
Figure 6 : Phase Based Comparison: Transfer functions of a 125 MVA, 240/53 kV power transformer (Yd5), tap
changer position 1
a. Circuit diagram with the measured quantities
b. Transfer functions, calculated from the neutral current to ground and the voltage applied to the HV
terminal of the phases U, V and W







10


a.
b.
Figure 7 : Type Based Comparison: Transfer function measurement of a 110 MVA (110/10,5 kV) power transformer
a. Circuit diagram with the measured quantities
b. Plot of the transfer function, different frequency ranges

Figure 7 shows another example: the Phase Based Comparison of a 110 MVA power transformer. The
HV terminals were excited one after the other by a sinusoidal voltage with variable frequency and all
other terminals were grounded via a rogowski coil. The transfer functions of the three phases are almost
identical in the frequency range from about 20 kHz to 500 kHz. However, beyond a frequency of about
500 kHz the transfer functions show deviations. The transformer was scrapped directly after the
measurements. During scrapping material samples have been taken and the core-and-coil assembly




11

was inspected, especially the windings. There was no mechanical deformation visible. Thus, it can be
stated that the aspects mentioned above must be the reasons for the deviations of the transfer functions
at higher frequencies.
Many other transformers have been investigated in the past using the Phase Based Comparison. In all
cases a frequency limit was found up to which the transfer functions of the three phases are in a very
good match. Beyond this frequency limit there is a clearly visible deviation between the transfer
functions which is with high probability not caused by any mechanical deformation of the core-and-coil
assembly.
Type Based Comparison
The Type Based Comparison is an alternative to the Phase Based Comparison and the only possible
way of comparison in the case of single phase transformers.
In the case of the Type Based Comparison, transfer functions measured on two different transformers
but on the same phase and at the same time are compared. Idea behind this method is that two
identical transformers are manufactured using the same drawings. Thus, it is basically nothing else than
comparing different phases of one transformer. However, it must be sure that there are no even minor
manufacturing details which are different. Very often, the manufacturer realizes improvements in some
details in order to reduce the effort for manufacturing.
Another aspect is that measurements of the same phase (winding block) can be compared. Thus,
deviations due to different geometry and length of the leads from the windings to the tap changer and
deviations due to asymmetrical the in-line arrangement of the winding blocks of the different phases
in the tank
can be excluded. Only manufacturing tolerances are remaining as main cause of transfer function
deviation.
The transfer functions

and Transformer 1, Transfomer 2
N
k
U
k
US,U
k
US,U
k
I ( f )
TF( f ) k
U ( f )
I ( f )
TF( f )
U ( f )
= =
=

of the two transformers show an almost perfect match up to a frequency of about 650 kHz. Beyond this
frequency, especially the transfer function calculated from the neutral current and the exciting voltage
shows huge deviations. At these frequencies there are only minor deviations of the voltage ratio transfer
functions.
Obviously, the main reason for these deviations are manufacturing tolerances and possible deviations
of the measuring set-up mounted on the two transformers.

For both, the Phase Based Comparison and the Type Based Comparison, there exists obviously a
maximum frequency up to which the match of transfer functions is quite perfect without a damage inside
the transformer under test. However, beyond this limit, there are deviations of the transfer functions
which can not only be caused by mechanical defects of the core-and-coil assembly of the transformer.



12


a.
b.
Figure 8 : Type Based Comparison: Transfer functions of winding block U of a 125 MVA, 240/53 kV power
transformer (Yd5), tap changer position 14
a. Circuit diagram with the measured quantities
b. Plot of the transfer function, different frequency ranges





13


3 Transfer Functions measured in the Test
Lab and On-site
Application: Detection of damages occurred during
transportation
From time to time transformers are damaged during transportation from the manufacturer to on-site
after successful testing. Especially long distance transports by ship can be critical. For that reason a
possible movement of the transformers is monitored by shock recorders which measure the
acceleration of the transformers. If no shock was recorded, the probability of an internal damage is very
low. However, if an event was recorded, it has to be decided whether this shock caused damage or not.
For that reason, the transfer function method can be used.
Example: 350 MVA, 405/115/30 kV Power Transformer
(YNyn0d5)
On a 350 MVA interconnection transformer the comparison of transfer functions calculated from impulse
measurements taken in the HV test lab of the manufacturer and some weeks later on site was
performed.

Some important aspects have been taken into consideration:
The tap changer position (13) was the same for both measurements.
The sensors and the measuring system used for both measurements was the same.
The configuration of all terminals of the transformer was exactly identical for both, the
measurements in the test lab and on-site.

Another aspect is of major importance: the grounding condition. The term grounding condition
comprises the location(s) and number of connections to ground as well as the kind of ground wire which
is used. The grounding condition has an effect on the transfer function which can not be neglected.
Thus, it must be done whatever is possible to ensure that the connection to ground was made in the
same manner in the test lab and on site.

However, in spite of all efforts in practice it is quite impossible to realize the same grounding condition in
the test lab and on-site. On-site there are e.g. connections of cables for controlling the tap changer drive
or other accessories of the transformer. Usually, the grounding system in the HV test lab is realized as a
copper mesh or even copper plates equipped with several buried ground electrodes. The electrical
behavior of such a grounding system is completely different to the grounding system of a substation
which has also buried ground electrodes but no ground mesh.

For low frequencies up to some 100 kHz, the effect of deviations of the grounding system realized in the
test lab and on-site on transfer function measurements can be neglected. However, the higher the
frequency the higher is the effect of the grounding system on the measurements. Therefore, also on this
case some deviations have to be expected beyond a certain frequency limit.



14


Terminal 1V of the YNyn0d5 transformer was excited by an impulse voltage. The neutral current of the
HV winding to ground, the exciting voltage at terminal 1V and the transferred voltage to terminal 2V
were measured. The transfer functions

2
1 2
1 1
and
N V
V V
U ( f ) I ( f )
TF( f ) TF( f )
U ( f ) U ( f )
= =
are shown in figure 9. TF
1
shows a good match up to a frequency of about 450 kHz. Beyond this
frequency limit deviations of the two transfer functions are clearly visible. TF
2
shows almost no
deviations up to 1 MHz.

Figure 9 : Comparison of transfer functions of a 350 MVA, 405/115/30 kV interconnection transformer measured in
the HV test lab of the manufacturer and some weeks later on-site, tap changer position 13





15

4 Transfer Functions measured after
Manufacturing and after Repair 3 years
later
Example: 175 MVA, 520/11 kV Power Transformer
(YNd11)
The 175 MVA power transformer was manufactured and tested in 1997. Three years later, in 2000,
the transformer was damaged by a short circuit. It was decided to exchange all winding, the
destroyed one of phase U and also the other ones. After the repair, the transformer was tested once
again.
The electrical test comprises besides the AC tests an impulse test with full waves. In the test lab,
the impulse voltage applied to the HV terminals 1U, 1V and 1W as well as the impulse current from
the LV winding to ground was measured. The test circuit (parameters of the impulse generator, HV
divider, shunt, ground connection, connections from the impulse generator to the transformer) was
the same in both cases. Voltage and current was recorded with the Haefely HIAS 742 impulse test
system. It worked with a sampling rate of 60 MS/s (60 MHz). Figure 10 shows the recorded
waveforms when testing of phase 1U and in figure 11 the transfer functions of the three phases
calculated out of the impulse voltages and currents are shown.

Figure 10 : Impulse test of a 175 MVA power transformer with full waves after manufacturing and after repair 3
years later
The voltages and currents measured during the impulse test are used to calculate the transfer
functions. The oscillations in the impulse current are completely decayed at the end of the record.



16


Thus, there is no need for applying a window function to the impulse current. However, the impulse
voltage must be multiplied with a window function since the impulse voltage is not fully decayed at
the end of the record. The impulse voltage is multiplied with an exponential window function. The
windowed waveforms of voltage and current are given by

1
4
0 1 2
k
N
w,m m
w,m m
u ( k ) u ( k ) e k , , ,...,N m U,V,W
i ( k ) i ( k )

= = =
=
,
where k is the index of the samples and N is the number of samples. After this step, the FFT (Fast
Fourier Transform) algorithm is applied to the windowed waveforms and the transfer function is the
quotient of the two spectra.

{ } { }
0 1 2 1
w,m w,m m m
m
m m
m
U ( n) FFT u ( k ) I ( n) FFT i ( k ) k, n , , ,...,N
I ( n)
TF ( n) TF ( n) m U,V,W
U ( n)
= = =
= = =


It is well known that especially the impulse current depends strongly on the test circuit arrangement.
The location of the current measuring shunt, the HV divider and the ground connections are not
changed during the impulse test. However, the connection of the impulse generator is changed from
one HV terminal to the other. This changes the currents flowing into the grounding system and
therefore, also the impulse current is changed, in particular at higher frequencies beyond a few 100
kHz. This explains the differences of the transfer functions of phases U, V and W beginning from
about 500 kHz.




17

Conclusions
The transfer functions from the impulse test in 1997 after manufacturing of the transformer and in
2000 after repair shows almost no deviations at all. Obviously, manufacturing tolerances do not play
a major role. Otherwise, the differences of these transfer functions would be higher.



Figure 11 : Transfer functions calculated from the voltage and current of the impulse test of a 175 MVA power
transformer with full waves after manufacturing and after repair 3 years later
a. Phase U,
b. Phase V
c. Phase W