Bios 1083 Chapters 19 and 20

Chapter 19
Viruses only replicate in host cells.
Viruses that infect bacteria cells are called bacteriophages.
Viruses are composed of a protein capsid with !" or #!" $ouble
stranded or single%stranded& in the 'iral core or center.
(ome 'iruses will ha'e membrane en'elopes from their host in which they
insert their 'iral glycoproteins) which they use to bind and enter their host
cells.
*f a 'irus reproduces rapidly+this will ,ill the host cell+,nown as the lytic
cycle.
*f a 'irus reproduces slowly and -ust buds off from the host cell+does not
,ill the host cell+,nown as the lysogenic cycle.
(ome 'iruses $.erpes family& become dormant $hiding in neuronal cell
bodies& for se'eral months to years. .erpes simples+cold sores that
reoccur or chic,en po/ 'irus will lie dormant and cause (hingles as we get
older.
C."012# 20
Reproductive Cloning in Animals-Dolly in 1997
Reproductive cloning of animals is occurring quite frequently these days.
The following are the steps to clone an animal (as they did in Dolly):
1. Remove the haploid nucleus from a donor egg cell
2. Add somatic cell nucleus, which is diploid, for example a cheek cell nucleus.
3. Place the somatic cell diploid nucleus into the donor egg cell. By putting a
diploid nucleus from the cheek cell into an egg, we fool the egg into thinking it
has been fertilied.
4. !e give the donor egg with the cheek cell nucleus a little electric shock with a
microelectrode. "he egg thinks it has been fertilied and will start dividing into #,
$, %, &', (#, '$, cells etc. by mitosis.
5. )ells grow in culture to produce an early embryo *blastocyst stage, which is a
hollow ball of cells+. "he blastocyst is the stage that implants in the uterus. ,n
this case, the cloned embryo is implanted into a surrogate mother to produce a
clone of the cheek cell donor. "he baby will look like the organism who donated
the cheek cell *not the egg donor+, because all the genes on the chromosomes
came from the cheek cell.
The blastula contains embryonic stem cells (the same embryonic stem cells as
discussed in the political debates). Embryonic stem cells are immortal cells and they
are totipotent, this means they have total potential to become any cell type, neuron,
muscle, blood, liver, pancreas etc. which is why medical researchers want to use
them to treat various diseases. In a heart attac, heart muscle cells die, embryonic
stem cells could be used to grow new heart cells. -mbryonic stem cells are immortal,
which means they can grow in a culture dish forever as long as someone feeds them and
takes care of them, or they can be froen in liquid nitrogen to be used later.
!dult stem cells (from the bone marrow) and umbilical cord stem cells are
multipotent, they have the potential to form many cell types, but not all cell types.
Primarily, they can form different types of blood cells and immune cells.
The world scientists and governments have agreed that it is unethical to clone
humans.
"ecombinant D#! Technology$ A set of laboratory techniques for combining genes
from different sources.
D#! carrying the gene of interest is taen from the cell of one organism and
inserted into the D#! of a host cell. %or e&ample, human insulin. The human gene
was spliced into a bacteria plasmid and reinserted into bacteria. The bacteria mae
human insulin for our use.
Transgenic organism: A host that carries recombinant ./A *genes+ acquired from a
different species.
A few of the products that we now grow in bacteria0
1umalin in bacteria2diabetes treatment
1uman 3rowth 1ormone2hormone deficiency treatment
-rtythropoitin2anemia treatment
4accine Production
II. 'enetically (odified foods)
,n #55#, roughtly half of the American crops of soybeans and corn were genetically
modified.
'enetically modified rice*3olden rice genetically modified to produce high levels of
beta2carotene, the precursor of vitamin A for countries *half the world population+ that eat
rice as a staple diet. 4itamin A is essential in preventing blindness.
+otatoes2that have cholera protein pieces in them in the hope they can be used as a
vaccine for people in countries that have problems with cholera.
%arm !nimals and ,+harm !nimals$*"ransgenic plants are in use today, transgenic
animals are still in the testing phase. 6heep that carry a human blood protein which can
be harvested from the sheep7s milk and used in the treatment of cystic fibrosis.
I. "ecombinant D#! Techni-ues:

.ectors such as plasmids from bacteria and harmless viral capsules are used to
insert 'enes.
/cientists use restriction en0ymes to cut the genes and mae the D#!$s 1oin together.
"estriction en0ymes cut double*stranded D#! into pieces of different lengths.
Bacteria take up the plasmid with the new gene, then we clone the bacteria. 8ind the
protein we want.
..D#! %ingerprinting)
The nucleotide se-uence for each individual is uni-ue unless you are an identical
twin.
2se restriction en0ymes to cut up the D#! to mae genetic marers and run gel
electrophoresis to separate the genetic marers based on si0e. ! gel has little pores
in it and when we run D#! through it, the smaller pieces move towards the bottom
and the larger ones stay towards the top. 3ecause no 4 people (unless you are an
identical twin) has identical genes. "estriction en0ymes cut the D#! into fragments
of different si0es that will mae uni-ue genetic marers to each individual.
!e cut the D#! into fragments called genetic marers with restriction en0ymes and
run them on a gel. "his is the same procedure we use for ./A fingerprint analyses.
"he shortest fragments can penetrate the gel faster than the larger fragments. "he
shortest fragment is at the bottom of the gel and the largest ./A genetic marker fragment
is at the top of the gel.
This procedure is also used to identify victims in a tragedy. 2sed to identify victims
of 5677, and 8urricane 9atrina
VI. 8uman 'ene Therapy: ! #on harmful virus is used as a vector.
/cientists can remove the genetic material from the virus that maes it
harmful to our cells and replace it with human genes that can correct the
genetic abnormality. 8uman cells do not tae up plasmids very well,
which is why we use a harmless virus as a vector.