A

SEMINAR REPORT
ON
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
COUNTERFORT RETAINING
WALL
Submitted By: -
PATIL SACHIN SARJERAO 5117
M.E. Civil
Under the guidn!e "#
PRO$.%.&.&UL&ARNI
%EPARTMENT O$ CI'IL EN(INEERIN(
)**+ , )**7
RAJARAM-APU INSTITUTE O$ TECHNOLO(./
RAJARAMNA(AR
K. E. Societys
Rajaa!"a#$ I%stit$te o& Tec'%o(o)y*
Rajaa!%a)a
%EPARTMENT O$ CI'IL EN(INEERIN(
Certifcate
Certifcate
This is to certify that PATIL SACHIN SARJERAO of M.E. Civil
(Structures) Engineering have successfully comleted the Seminar reort entitled
0ANAL.SIS AN% %ESI(N O$
COUNTER$ORT RETAININ( 1ALL2
In the partial fulfllment of Degree in the Civil
Engineering, of
Shivaji University, Kolhapur during aademi year !""#$
!""%&

Prof. D.K.Kulkarni
Prof,P.S.Patil
'uide
(&)&D&
AC&NO1LE%(EMENT
I have great honour and immense pleasure in expressing deep and
sincere gratitude to my guide.Mr.R.A.KANAI for his able guidance and
help towards the completion of the seminar report. He rendered generous
help and meticulously careful in going through manuscript and giving
valuable suggestions. He has definitely given us the assets of his
experience and skill.
Last, but not least I would like to thank all staff members of our
College who have helped me directly or indirectly towards completion of
seminar report.
!lace :
"ate : JA%HA' AMARSINH %EELIPRAO
B.E. (Mech)
CONTENTS
Sr. N" CHAPTER PA(E NO.
# $ntroduction and history #
% &eed of Turbo charging '
' (erating !rincile of turbo charger )
* Construction of turbo Charger #+
, -or.ing of turbo charger #%
/
"ifference bet0een a turbo charger and
suer charger
%+
1 2imitation of turbo charger %*
) 3lication of turbo charger %,
4 "eveloment of turbo charger %)
#+ !recaution of turbo charger '#
## Conclusion '#
#% 5eferences '%
1. INTRO%UCTION
1.1 -ering 3,
3 bearing is a device to ermit constrained relative motion bet0een t0o arts6
tyically rotation or linear movement. The bearings may be classified broadly
according to the motions they allo0 and according to their rincile of oeration.
1.) Hi4t"r5 nd devel"67ent3,
3n early tye of linear bearing 0as an arrangement of tree trun.s laid
do0n under sleds. This technology may date as far bac. as the construction of the
!yramids of 7i8a6 though there is no definitive evidence. Modern linear bearings use
a similar rincile6 sometimes 0ith balls in lace of rollers.
The first lain and rolling-element bearings 0ere 0ood6 but ceramic6 sahire or glass
can be used6 and steel6 bron8e6 other metals6 and lastic (e.g.6 nylon6
olyo9ymethylene6 teflon6 and :;M-!E) are all common today. $ndeed6 stone 0as
even used in various forms. Thin. of the <=e0elled oc.et 0atch<6 0hich incororated
stones to reduce frictional loads6 and allo0 a smoother running 0atch. (f course6 0ith
older6 mechanical timeieces6 the smoother the oerating roerties6 then the higher
the accuracy and value.
The 0ood can still be seen today in old 0ater mills6 and the 0ater itself
had a art to lay in the cooling>lubrication imlications6 of such natural and
commonly found6 bearing resources.
The rotary bearings are re?uired for many alications6 from heavy-
duty use in vehicle a9les and machine shafts6 to recision cloc. arts. The simlest
rotary bearing is the 4leeve 8ering6 0hich is =ust a cylinder inserted bet0een the
0heel and its a9le. This 0as follo0ed by the r"ller 8ering6 in 0hich the sleeve 0as
relaced by a number of cylindrical rollers. Each roller behaves as an individual
0heel. The first ractical caged-roller bearing 0as invented in the mid-#1*+s by
horologist @ohn ;arrison for his ;' marine time.eeer. This used the bearing for a
very limited oscillating motion but ;arrison also used a similar bearing in a truly
rotary alication in a contemoraneous regulator cloc..
3n early e9amle of a 0ooden ball bearing (see rolling-element
bearing)6 suorting a rotating table6 0as retrieved from the remains of a 5oman shi
in 2a.e &emi6 $taly. The 0rec. 0as dated to *+ BC. 2eonardo da Ainci is said to have
described a tye of ball bearing around the year #,++. (ne of the issues 0ith ball
bearings is that they can rub against each other6 causing additional friction6 but this
can be revented by enclosing the balls in a cage. The catured6 or caged6 ball bearing
0as originally described by 7alileo in the #/++s. The mounting of bearings into a set
0as not accomlished for many years after that. The first atent for a ball race 0as by
!hili Aaughan of Carmarthen in #14*.
Briedrich BischerCs idea from the year #))' for milling and grinding
balls of e?ual si8e and e9act roundness by means of a suitable roduction machine
formed the foundation for creation of an indeendent bearing industry.
The initials of the names<Bischers 3utomatische 7uDstahl.ugelfabri.<
or <Bischer 3.tien-7esellschaft< became a logo 0hich 0as registered on %4 @uly6
#4+,. $n #4/% it got the loo. it still has today6 and it finally became an integral art of
the comany in #414.
The modern6 self-aligning design of ball bearing is attributed to Sven
-ing?uist of the SEB ball-bearing manufacturer in #4+1.
1.9 PRINCPLE O$ -EARIN(3,
-ering #ri!ti"n3,
2o0 friction bearings are often ?uite imortant for efficiency and 0ear
and to ermit high seeds. Essentially6 bearings can reduce friction by shae6 or by its
material6 or by introducing a fluid bet0een surfaces.
-5 4h6e6 finds an advantage by reducing contact surface6 such as using
a shere to roll anything on. -5 7teril6 e9loits the nature of the bearing material
used. 3n e9amle 0ould tyically be the various lastics that have self-lubricating
roerties. -5 #luid6 e9loits the lo0 viscosity of a layer of fluid6 such as a lubricant
or as a ressurised medium to .ee the t0o solid arts from touching.Combinations of
shae and roerties6 can even be emloyed 0ith the same bearing. 3n e9amle of
this is 0here the cage is made of lastic6 and it searates the rollers>balls6 0hich
reduce friction by their shae and finish.
1.: T.PES O$ -EARIN(S3,
Common tyes of bearing used for various motions include
a) 2$&E35
b) 3F$32
c) 5(T35G
d) 53"$32

There are many tyes of bearings6 each used for different uroses. These
include ball bearings6 roller bearings6 ball thrust bearings6 roller thrust bearings and
taered roller thrust bearings.
1.:.) -ll -ering43 ,
-ll 8ering46 as sho0n belo06 are robably the most common tye
of bearing. They are found in everything from inline s.ates to hard drives. These
bearings can handle both radial and thrust loads6 and are usually found in alications
0here the load is relatively small.

1.:.1 T.PES O$ -EARIN(3,

Cutaway view of a ball bearing
$n a ball bearing6 the load is transmitted from the outer race to the ball and
from the ball to the inner race. Since the ball is a 46here6 it only contacts the inner and
outer race at a very small oint6 0hich hels it sin very smoothly. But it also means
that there is not very much contact area holding that load6 so if the bearing is
overloaded6 the balls can deform or s?uish6 ruining the bearing
1.:.9 R"ller -ering43,
5oller bearings li.e the one illustrated belo0 are used in alications li.e
conveyer belt rollers6 0here they must hold heavy radial loads. $n these bearings6 the
roller is a cylinder6 so the contact bet0een the inner and outer race is not a oint but a
line. This sreads the load out over a larger area6 allo0ing the bearing to handle much
greater loads than a ball bearing. ;o0ever6 this tye of bearing is not designed to handle
much thrust loading.
3 variation of this tye of bearing6 called a needle 8ering6 uses cylinders 0ith a very
small diameter. This allo0s the bearing to fit into tight laces.
1.:.9 Needle 8ering3,
3 &eedle 5oller bearing
&eedle roller bearings use very long and thin cylinders. Since the
rollers are thin6 the outside diameter of the bearing is only slightly larger than the hole
in the middle. ;o0ever6 the small-diameter rollers must bend sharly 0here they
contact the races6 and thus the bearing fatigues relatively ?uic.ly.
1.:.: T6ered r"ller 8ering 3,
Taered roller bearing
Taered roller bearings use conical rollers that run on conical races. Most roller
bearings only ta.e radial loads6 but taer roller bearings suort both radial and a9ial
loads6 and generally can carry higher loads than ball bearings due to greater contact
area. Taer roller bearings are used6 for e9amle6 as the 0heel bearings of most cars6
truc.s6 buses6 and so on. The do0nsides to this bearing is that due to manufacturing
comle9ities6 taered roller bearings are usually more e9ensive than ball bearingsH
and additionally under heavy loads the taered roller is li.e a 0edge and bearing loads
tend to try to e=ect the rollerH the force from the collar 0hich .ees the roller in the
bearing adds to bearing friction comared to ball bearings.
1.:.5 S6heri!l r"ller 8ering43,
Sherical roller bearings
Sherical roller bearings use rollers that are thic.er in the middle and thinner
at the endsH the race is shaed to match. Sherical roller bearings can thus ad=ust to
suort misaligned loads. ;o0ever6 sherical rollers are difficult to roduce and thus
e9ensive. 3nd6 the bearings have higher friction than a comarable ball bearing since
different arts of the sherical rollers run at different seeds on the rounded race and
thus there are oosing forces along the bearing>race contact.
1.:.+ -ll Thru4t -ering3,
-ll thru4t 8ering4 li.e the one sho0n belo0 are mostly used for
lo0-seed alications and cannot handle much radial load. Barstools and 2a8y Susan
turntables use this tye of bearing.
1.:.7 R"ller Thru4t -ering3 ,
R"ller thru4t 8ering4 li.e the one illustrated belo0 can suort large
thrust loads. They are often found in gear sets li.e car transmissions bet0een gears6
and bet0een the housing and the rotating shafts. The helical gears used in most
transmissions have angled teeth -- this causes a thrust load that must be suorted by
a bearing.
Roller thrust bearing
1.:.+ Other t56e43,
Most rolling-element bearing designs are for rotating or oscillating
loads6 but there are also linear bearing designs. 3 common e9amle is dra0er-suort
hard0are. 3nother e9amle is a bearing for a shaft 0hich moves a9ially in a hole.
39ial-motion bearings often 0or. li.e the stone-and-log e9amle6 0ith a ath0ay so
rolling elements that fall off the end are ushed around to the other end6 and the load
rolls on to it. These are called re!ir!ulting bearings.
1.5 %ESI(N O$ -EARIN(3,
Tyical rolling-element bearings range in si8e from #+ mm diameter to
a fe0 metres diameter6 and have load-carrying caacity from a fe0 tens of grams to
many thousands of tonnes.
3 articularly common .ind of rolling-element bearing is the ball
bearing. The bearing has inner and outer races and a set of balls. Each race is a ring
0ith a groove 0here the balls rest. The groove is usually shaed so the ball is a
slightly loose fit in the groove. Thus6 in rincile6 the ball contacts each race at a
single oint. ;o0ever6 a load on an infinitely small oint 0ould cause infinitely high
contact ressure. $n ractice6 the ball deforms (flattens) slightly 0here it contacts each
race6 much as a tire flattens 0here it touches the road. The race also dents slightly
0here each ball resses on it. Thus6 the contact bet0een ball and race is of finite si8e
and has finite ressure. &ote also that the deformed ball and race do not roll entirely
smoothly because different arts of the ball are moving at different seeds as it rolls.
Thus6 there are oosing forces and sliding motions at each ball>race contact. (verall6
these cause bearing drag.
1.5.1 L"d 8ering nd 6er#"r7n!e !6!itie43,
Bearings vary greatly over the forces and seeds that they can
suort.Borces can be radial6 a9ial (thrust bearings) or moments erendicular to the
main a9is.The ma9imum seeds that rotational bearings can suort also vary6
generally erformance is defined in terms of the roduct I"&I 0here " is the diameter
(often in mm) of the bearing and & is the rotation rate in revolutions er minute.
1.5.)-ering #ilure3,
5olling-element bearings often 0or. 0ell in non-ideal conditions. But
sometimes minor roblems cause bearings to fail ?uic.ly and mysteriously. Bor
e9amle6 0ith a stationary (non-rotating) load6 small vibrations can gradually ress
out the lubricant bet0een the races and rollers or balls (Balse brinelling). -ithout
lubricant the bearing fails6 even though it is not rotating and thus is aarently not
being used. Bor these sorts of reasons6 much of bearing design is about failure
analysis.
There are three usual limits to the lifetime or load caacity of a bearing:
abrasion6 fatigue and ressure-induced 0elding. 3brasion is 0hen the surface is
eroded by hard contaminants scraing at the bearing materials. Batigue is 0hen a
material brea.s after it is reeatedly bent and released. -here the ball or roller
touches the race there is al0ays some bending6 and hence a ris. of fatigue. Smaller
balls or rollers bend more sharly6 and so tend to fatigue faster. !ressure-induced
0elding is 0hen t0o metal ieces are ressed together at very high ressure and they
become one. 3lthough balls6 rollers and races may loo. smooth6 they are
microscoically rough. Thus6 there are high-ressure sots 0hich ush a0ay the
bearing lubricant. Sometimes6 the resulting metal-to-metal contact 0elds a tiny art of
the ball or roller to the race. 3s the bearing continues to rotate6 the 0eld is then torn
aart6 but it may leave race 0elded to bearing or bearing 0elded to race.
3lthough there are many other aarent causes of bearing failure6
most can be reduced to these three. Bor e9amle6 a bearing 0hich is run dry of
lubricant fails not because it is <0ithout lubricant<6 but because lac. of lubrication
leads to fatigue and 0elding6 and the resulting 0ear debris can cause abrasion. Similar
events occur in false brinelling damage.
1.+ Prin!i6le4 "# "6erti"n3,
There are at least si9 common rinciles of oeration:
sliding bearings6 usually called <bushings<6 <=ournal bearings<6 <sleeve
bearings<6 or <lain bearings<
rolling-element bearings such as ball bearings and roller bearings
=e0el bearings6 in 0hich the load is carried by rolling the a9le slightly off-
center
fluid bearings6 in 0hich the load is carried by a gas or li?uid
magnetic bearings6 in 0hich the load is carried by a magnetic field
fle9ture bearings6 in 0hich the motion is suorted by a load element 0hich
bends.
1.7 MA(NETIC -EARIN(3
Magnetic Bearing
Magnetic Bearing technology relies on attraction roerty of
magnets as in case of active bearings or reulsive roerty as in case of reulsive
bearings. $n reulsive Bearings6 the shaft is fitted 0ith a disc or ring of magnet 0hich
has outer diameter of one ole and another ring of magnet of another ole as
suorting member6 this tye is not used as the shaft ositioning is not accurate and
controlled. $n attractive tye6 The shaft is made of ferromagnetic material and the
bearing is made u of electromagnetic coils =ust as in a dc machine6 number of oles
deending uon the number of directions along 0hich control is re?uired.
Mgneti! 8ering 454te74 in!"r6"rte 9 di4tin!t te!hn"l"gie43
Bearings J sensors are the electromechanical hard0are by 0hich
inut signals are collected6 and suorting forces alied to the machine on 0hich
they are installed.
The control system rovides the o0er and control electronics for
signal conditioning6 calculation of correcting forces6 and resultant commands to the
o0er amlifiers for each a9is of control.
Control algorithms are the soft0are rograms used in digital magnetic
bearing system control including the rocessing of the inut signals after
conditioning6 and calculation of the command signals to the o0er amlifiers.
1.7.1 C"n4tru!ti"n And 1"r;ing O# Mgneti! -ering3
$n the mid-t0entieth century6 a successful magnetic levitation bearing 0as
successfully demonstrated. This first successful magnetic bearing utili8ed
electromagnets to rovide attractive forces in the five degrees of freedom (0ith
rotation being the si9th). 3ctive servo control stabili8ed the system by using feedbac.
signals from osition sensors in each a9is of control to vary the currents flo0ing
through the various electromagnets
Several individual electromagnets6 usually from ) to #%6 0ere arranged in a
north-south-north-south configuration around each end of a levitated shaft to rovide
radial suort. The construction is similar to construction of oles in a "C motor. This
design aroach6 0hich results in a multilicity of magnetic flu9 reversals around the
circumference of the shaft6 is .no0n as heteroolar. Most commercially available
magnetic bearing systems utili8e this technology. 3 tyical heteroolar magnetic
bearing system is sho0n in the figure belo0. The stator6 comosed of an array of
stationary electromagnets6 generates o0erful attraction forces that susend the
ferrous rotor shaft in the center of the magnetic field (0ith the hel of an active servo-
control unit).
3n active magnetic bearing system consists of electromagnet bearing
actuators6 osition sensors6 control system and o0er amlifiers6 as sho0n in the
figure belo0. The bearing actuators and sensors are located in the machine6 0hile the
control system and amlifiers are generally located remotely.
1.7.) -EARIN( -ASICS3 ,
Basic rinciles of magnetic bearing system oeration
Big. # 5otor flu9 ath
1.7.).1 (enerl: -
The alication of magnetic bearings is based uon the rincile that an
electromagnet 0ill attract ferromagnetic material (see fig. #). 3 ferromagnetic rotor
can thus be suorted in a magnetic field generated in the bearing electromagnet
stator6 as sho0n in the figure on the left.
Since the natural tendency of the stator is to attract the rotor until it
ma.es contact6 some control action is re?uired to modulate the magnetic field and
maintain the rotor in the desired osition. The most common tye of control involves
the feedbac. of shaft osition. This information is then used by the control system to
modulate the magnetic field through o0er amlifiers6 so that the desired rotor
osition is maintained even under changing shaft load conditions.
3n active magnetic bearing system consists of electromagnet bearing
actuators6 osition sensors6 a control system and o0er amlifiers6 as sho0n in the
figure belo0. The bearing actuators and sensors are located in the machine6 0hile the
control system and amlifiers are generally located remotely.
1.7.).) Rdil -ering4 3,
3 tyical system consists of t0o radial bearings and a thrust bearing. Each
radial bearing has a stator and sensor system mounted over a ferromagnetic rotor
installed on the shaft. The rotor consists of a stac. of lamination rings mounted on a
sleeve that fits onto the shaft. 2aminations are used to reduce eddy current losses and
to imrove the resonse of the bearing. The stator is made of a stac. of lamination
rings 0ith oles on the internal diameter. Coils are 0ound around each ole so that the
bearing is divided into four ?uadrants. The coils in each ?uadrant are 0ound in series
ma.ing each ?uadrant function as one electromagnet. Tyically on hori8ontal
machines6 the ?uadrants are aligned *, degrees from vertical. (osing ?uadrants
constitute an a9is and therefore each radial bearing can be described by t0o a9es. 3
set of sensors that measure 4h#t 6"4iti"n are mounted as close to the bearing as
ossible.
1.7.).9 Thru4t -ering43 ,
$n industrial systems6 the a9ial or thrust bearing is comrised of t0o stators6
one on either side of a rotor dis.. The stators are either made of solid steel6 or of solid
steel 0edges 0ith radial slots in bet0een the 0edges filled 0ith laminations to
imrove the resonse of the bearing. The thrust stators also have one or t0o
circumferential slots machined into the face and filled 0ith coils. -ith a stator
mounted on each side of the rotor6 the thrust bearing can counteract a9ial forces in
both directions.
The control system uses the signals from the osition sensor to determine
the osition of the shaft. This signal is comared to a reference to determine the error
in the osition. 3fter aroriate conditioning6 this signal is sent to the o0er
amlifiers that control the current sent to the bearings.
1.7.).: C"ntr"l 454te73 ,
The control system allo0s the current in the bearing to be controlled by
feeding bac. information on the osition of the shaft. This is called closed loo
feedbac. control and is necessary for the shaft to be held in a stable osition.
$n simle terms6 the control system reduces the uer bearing current 0hen the shaft
is above the center osition and increases the current 0hen the shaft is belo0 the
center osition.
Tyically6 magnetic bearing control is erformed in a single inut-
single outut (S$S() manner. This means that the osition information from one
sensor causes only the control current in the corresonding a9is to be varied. Control
systems can also be multi-inut and multi-outut (M$M(). M$M( is used 0hen
higher levels of control are re?uired or 0hen significant cross-couling bet0een a9es
is e9ected.
The comonents of the control system include a osition sensor and
accomanying electronics6 a controller6 and amlifiers. These comonents are
described belo0.
1.7.).5 Sen4"r43 ,

The sensors feed information about the osition of the shaft to the
controller in the form of an electrical voltage. &ormally6 the sensors are calibrated so
that the 0hen the shaft is in the desired osition6 the sensor roduces a null voltage.
-hen the shaft is moved above this desired osition6 a ositive voltage is roduced
and 0hen it is moved belo06 a negative voltage results.
1.7.).7C"ntr"ller3,
The function of the controller is to receive the voltage signal from the
osition sensors6 rocess this information and send current re?uests to the amlifiers.
The controller consists of anti-aliasing filters6 analog-to-digital converters6 a digital
signal rocessor and !ulse--idth Modulation (!-M) generators.
The voltage from the osition sensors is assed through the anti-
aliasing filters to eliminate high fre?uency noise from the signal. This noise can cause
the signal to inaccurately reresent the osition of the shaft. $n addition6 because the
controller eriodically samles the signal6 some of the high-fre?uency information
can <fold over< into false lo0 fre?uency information6 thus aliasing the information
received by the controller.
3fter the high fre?uency content is removed6 the osition signal is
samled by the 3nalog to "igital (3>") converter. This converts the voltage signal to
a form that can be rocessed by the digital signal rocessor.
The digital information is then assed through a digital filter by the
digital signal rocessor. This roduces an outut roortional to the amount of current
re?uired to correct the osition error in the shaft.
The re?uested current is comared to the actual current in the bearing6
0hich is also sensed6 filtered and samled 0ith an analog-to-digital converter. The
error bet0een the actual and re?uested current is used to characteri8e the !-M signal
sent to the amlifiers.
This information is sent to the ulse-0idth modulation generators 0hich
create the !-M 0ave form sent to the amlifiers. The delivery of the control current
re?uest must occur 0ell before the ne9t samle of the shaft osition is ta.en. The
samling and control delivery rocess is reeated at a fre?uency of #+ .;8.
3 controller can be characteri8ed by its transfer function. 3 transfer
function relates the outut voltage of the controller to the error signal of the controller6
and can be reresented by t0o grahs. The first grah relates the gain of the controller
outut to its inut over a range of fre?uencies. The second grah relates the hase of
the outut to the inut over a range of fre?uencies. 3n e9amle of a transfer function
for a bearing controller is sho0n belo0.
&ormally magnetic bearings use linear controllers6 0hich roduce a
transfer function that is indeendent of the amlitude of the inut signal. The outut
from a linear controller is related to the inut by a hase and gain6 and is the same
fre?uency as the inut. 2inear controllers are used because they ma.e the
characteristics of the bearing indeendent of the si8e of the disturbance signalH this
ma.es analysis of the magnetic bearings easier.
The controller transfer function can be reresented as a ratio of t0o
olynomials in the s lane:
(<4= > <4 ? @1=<S ? @)=...<4 ? @7=
<4 ? 61=<4 ? 6)=...<4 ? 6n=
The oles () and the 8eros (8) give the transfer function its shae.
1.7.).7.1 Pr"6"rti"nl Integrl %erivtive <PI%= C"ntr"l3 ,
3 simle !$" controller has a transfer function as sho0n belo0.
Magnetic bearing controllers 0ill have transfer functions 0ith many more terms6 but
this simle function can be used to illustrate 0hat behavior is achieved.
(<4= > &i ? &6 ? &d4
4
The resective terms are integral6 roortional and derivative. Each term has a
secific effect on the bearing behavior.
PROPORTIONAL K
The roortional term is ure gain 0ithout any effect on the hase. The
transfer function for a roortional controller 0ith a gain of unity is sho0n belo0. The
gain and the hase are indeendent of fre?uency. The roortional term ma.es the
current change roortional to the si8e of the error signal. This results in bearing
behavior analogous to a sring. The force returning the shaft to the center osition in
the bearings increases in a direct relationshi 0ith the error signal of the shaft
osition.
3 bearing system 0ith simle roortional control 0ill oscillate and
become unstable because there is no mechanism to rovide daming to the system.
The re?uired daming can be introduced using derivative control. The transfer
function for a roortional-derivative controller is sho0n belo0. The derivative
comonent causes the gain to rise 0ith fre?uency and causes the hase to rise to 4+
degrees hase lead. This hase lead is associated 0ith daming.
%ERI'ATI'E K
The derivative control roduces a force that is roortional to the velocity (or
derivative of osition) of the shaft. This results in the bearing removing energy from
the rotor. This has the same daming effect on motion as a shoc. absorber has in a car.
3 controller 0ith only roortional and derivative terms 0ill al0ays
have a steady state offset from the set oint. This is due to the fact that the
roortional and derivative controllers only deliver a non-8ero outut if there is a
osition error. $f the shaft is at the re?uested set oint the outut of the controller
0ould be 8ero because the error 0ould be 8ero. $n order to solve this roblem an
integrator is used.
INTE(RAL K
The integrator roduces outut 0hich increases at a rate roortional to the
si8e of the error signal over time. Thus6 the longer the error signal is non-8ero6 the
larger the integrator outut. The integrator 0ill hold its outut constant if no error
signal is resent. Bor steady state conditions6 the integrator increases the outut until
the error signal is 8ero. The transfer function for a roortional-derivative controller
0ith an integrator is sho0n belo0. 3t lo0 fre?uencies the gain of the controller is
highest and the hase is -4+ degrees.
The basic !$" controller results in t0o controller 8eros. 3 8ero causes the
sloe of the magnitude on the transfer function lot to increase by one decade er
decade. $t also causes a net 4+degree increase in hase. The fre?uencies of the !$"
8eros are determined by the ratios bet0een the roortional6 integral and derivative
gains.
The integrators 8ero are located at the fre?uency defined by the integrator
gain divided by the roortional gain (Ei>E6 in radians>second). This 8ero indicates
the fre?uency belo0 0hich integrator control dominates the controller outut and
above 0hich the roortional control dominates.
The derivative 8ero is located at the fre?uency defined by the
roortional gain divided by the derivative gain (E>Ed6 in radians>second). This 8ero
is the fre?uency belo0 0hich roortional control dominates and above 0hich
derivative control dominates. The lot of a basic !$" controller above sho0s the
integrator and derivative 8eros. They are located at #+ ;8 and #++ ;8 resectively.
&otice that the hase increases in the regions of each of these 8eros.
1.7.).AA76li#ier43,
Each bearing a9is has a air of amlifiers to rovide current to the
bearing coils and rovide an attractive force to correct the osition of the rotor along
that articular a9is. The amlifiers are simly high voltage s0itches that are turned on
and off at a high fre?uency6 as commanded by the !-M signal from the controller.
1.7.).B R"t"rd5n7i!43,

To better understand the influence of factors such as sensor location uon
magnetic bearing system erformance and overall machine oeration6 it is necessary
to e9amine the rotor dynamics of the system. This 0ill include an analysis at the
design stage6 of the system rotating assembly itself6 or 0hat is referred to as the Lfree-
freeM modes of behavior. -hen this analysis yields satisfactory results6 a more
detailed analysis is made 0hich introduces the effects of the magnetic bearings and
control system. E9cellent introductions to6 and more secific .no0ledge about the
toic of rotor dynamics can be found in the follo0ing te9ts:
1.7.).1* AuCilir5 -ering43,
Binally6 the ?uestion may arise: 0hat haens if there is a loss of
o0er to the magnetic bearingsN The ole faces of the magnetic bearing stators6 as
0ell as the outside of the rotors6 are recision machined surfaces. $n order to rotect
these surfaces in the event of a loss of o0er to the bearings6 an au9iliary bearing
system as 0ell as an alternate source of o0er is rovided.
Magnetic bearing systems e?uied 0ith brushless motors ma.e use of
their shaft rotational energy to regenerate o0er to the control system. -hile there is
a loss of o0er6 the system coasts do0n to a lo0 seed and then engages the au9iliary
bearings. (ther systems ma.e use of a battery bac.u to ride through o0er loss.
3u9iliary bearings tyically ma.e use of either conventional rolling
element bearings6 or assive landing sleeves6 0hich have aclearance of O that of the
magnetic bearing clearances. $n the event of o0er loss6 the rotating assembly is
caught by the au9iliary bearings. These bearings are sometimes .no0n as the bac.u
bearings6 catcher bearings6 or touch-do0n bearings.
1.7.9 PRINCIPLE O$ MA(NETIC -EARIN(3,
Magnetic field
Current (I) flo0ing through a 0ire roduces a magnetic field (-)
around the 0ire. The field is oriented according to the right-hand rule.
$n hysics6 a 7gneti! #ield is that art of the electromagnetic field
that e9ists 0hen there is a changing electric field. 3 changing electric field can be
caused by the movement of an electrically charged ob=ect6 as in an electric currentH or
a combination of the orbit of an electron around an atom and the sin of electrons
themselves6 as in a ermanent magnet.
1.7.9.1 %e#initi"n3,
3 magnetic field is the relativistic art of an electric field6 as Einstein
e9lained in #4+,. -hen an electric charge is moving from the ersective of an
observer6 the electric field of this charge due to sace contraction is no longer seen by
the observer as sherically symmetric due to non-radial time dilation6 and it must be
comuted using the 2orent8 transformations. (ne of the roducts of these
transformations is the art of the electric field 0hich only acts on moving charges -
and 0e call it the <magnetic field<.
The ?uantum-mechanical motion of electrons in atoms roduces the
magnetic fields of ermanent ferromagnets. Sinning charged articles also have
magnetic moment. Some electrically neutral articles (li.e the neutron) 0ith non-8ero
sin also have magnetic moment due to the charge distribution in their inner structure.
!articles 0ith 8ero sin never have magnetic moment.3 magnetic field is a vector
field: it associates 0ith every oint in sace a (seudo-)vector that may vary through
time. The direction of the field is the e?uilibrium direction of a magnetic diole (li.e a
comass needle) laced in the field.
The 2orent8 transformation of a sherically-symmetric roer electric
field E of moving electric charge (for e9amle6 electric field of an electron moving in
a conducting 0ire) from chargeIs reference frame to non-moving observerIs reference
frame results in the follo0ing term 0hich 0e can define or label as <magnetic field<
and use the symbol - for it for the sa.e of mathematical simlicity (one symbol
instead of seven). $ntuitively - can be seen as a vector 0hose direction gives the a9is
of the ossible directions of the force on a charged article due to the magnetic field6
the ossible directions being at right angles to the a9is -6 and the e9act direction
being at right angles to both the velocity of the article and -. The magnitude of -
give the amount of force er unit of charge times velocity of the article.
0here
v is velocity of the electric charge6 measured in metres er second
9 indicates a vector cross roduct
! is the seed of light measured in metres er second
E is the electric field measured in ne0tons er coulomb or volts er metre
3s seen from the definition6 the unit of magnetic field is ne0ton-second
er coulomb-metre (or ne0ton er amere-metre) and is called the tesla. 2i.e the
electric field6 the magnetic field e9erts force on electric chargePbut unli.e an electric
field6 only on moving charge:
0here
$ is the force roduced6 measured in ne0tons
D is electric charge that the magnetic field is acting on6 measured in coulombs
' is velocity of the electric charge D6 measured in metres er second
Because magnetic field is the relativistic roduct of 2orent8
transformations6 the force it roduces is called the 2orent8 force.The force due to the
magnetic field is different in different framesPmoving magnetic field transforms
artially or fully bac. into electric fields under 2orent8 transformations. This results
in BaradayIs la0 of induction.
Mgneti! #ield "# !urrent #l"E "# !hrged 6rti!le4
Charged article drifts in a homegenous magnetic field. (3) &o
disturbing force (B) -ith an electric field6 E (C) -ith an indeendent force6 B (eg.
gravity) (") $n an inhomgeneous magnetic field6 grad ;
Substituting into the definition of magnetic field
the roer electric field of oint-li.e charge (CoulombIs la0)
results in the e?uation of magnetic field of moving charge6 0hich is usually called the
Biot-Savart la0:
0here
q is electric charge6 0hose motion creates the magnetic field6 measured in
coulombs
v is velocity of the electric charge q that is generating -6 measured in metres
er second
- is the magnetic field (measured in teslas)
L"rent@ #"r!e "n Eire 4eg7ent
$ntegrating the 2orent8 force on an individual charged article over a
flo0 (current) of charged articles results in the 2orent8 force on a stationary 0ire
carrying electric current:
0here
Q force6 measured in ne0tons
! Q magnetic field6 measured in tesla
l Q length of 0ire6 measured in metre
i Q current in 0ire6 measured in amere
$n the e?uation above6 the current vector i is a vector 0ith magnitude
e?ual to the scalar current6 i6 and direction ointing along the 0ire in 0hich the
current is flo0ing.
3lternatively6 instead of current6 the 0ire segment l can be considered a vector.The
2orent8 force on a macroscoic current carrier is often referred to as the 2alace
force.
'e!t"r !l!ulu4
Searating the electric field of moving charge into stationary electric
and magnetic comonents (as measured by a stationary observer)P0hich are usually
labeled as E and -Prelaces comle9 Einstein relativistic field transformation
e?uations by more comact and elegant mathematical statements .no0n as Ma90ellIs
e?uations. The t0o of them that describe the magnetic comonent are:
0here
is the curl oerator
is the divergence oerator
is the free-sace ermeability
is current density
is the artial derivative
is the free-sace ermittivity
is the electric field
is time
The first e?uation is .no0n as 3mRreIs la0 0ith Ma90ellIs correction.
The second term of this e?uation (Ma90ellIs correction) disaears in static (time-
indeendent) systems. The second e?uation is a statement of the observed non-
e9istence of magnetic monooles. These are t0o of the four Ma90ellIs e?uations
0ritten in the differential notation introduced by (liver ;eaviside.
Energ5 in the 7gneti! #ield
The energy of a long (or toroidal) solenoid is given by:
$f 0e divide the energy by the volume of the solenoid6 the density of
the magnetic
field energy can be obtained:
Bor e9amle6 a magnetic field ! of one tesla has an energy density about
'4) .ilo=oules er cubic metre6 and of #+ teslas6 about *+ mega=oules er cubic metre.
This is the same as the ressure roduced by magnetic field6 since ressure and
energy density are essentially the same hysical ?uantities and thus have the same
units. Thus6 a magnetic field of # tesla roduces a ressure of '4) .!a (about *
atmosheres)6 and #+ T about *+ Ma (S*++ atm).
S578"l4 nd ter7in"l"g5
Magnetic field is usually denoted by the symbol . ;istorically6
0as called the magnetic flu9 density or magnetic induction. 3 distinct ?uantity6 6
0as called the magnetic field "strength#6 and this terminology is still often used to
distinguish the t0o in the conte9t of magnetic materials (non-trivial ermeability T).
(ther0ise6 ho0ever6 this distinction is often ignored6 and both ?uantities are
fre?uently referred to as <the magnetic field.< (Some authors call H the auxiliary field6
instead.) $n linear materials6 such as air or free sace6 the t0o ?uantities are linearly
related:
0here
is the magnetic ermeability of the medium6 measured in henries er metre.
$n S$ units6 and are measured in teslas (T) and ameres er metre
(3>m)6 resectivelyH or6 in cgs units6 in gauss (7) and oersteds ((e)6 resectively. T0o
arallel 0ires carrying an electric current in the same direction 0ill generate a
magnetic field that 0ill cause a force of attraction bet0een them. This fact is used to
define the value of an amere of electric current. -hile li.e charges reel and unli.e
ones attract6 the oosite holds for currents: if the current in one of the t0o arallel
0ires is reversed6 the t0o 0ill reel.
Pr"6ertie4
Ma90ell did much to unify static electricity and magnetism6 roducing a
set of four e?uations relating the t0o fields. ;o0ever6 under Ma90ellIs formulation6
there 0ere still t0o distinct fields describing different henomena. $t 0as 3lbert
Einstein 0ho sho0ed6 using secial relativity6 that electric and magnetic fields are t0o
asects of the same thing (a ran.-% tensor)6 and that one observer may erceive a
magnetic force 0here a moving observer erceives only an electrostatic force. Thus6
using secial relativity6 magnetic forces are a manifestation of electrostatic forces of
charges in motion and may be redicted from .no0ledge of the electrostatic forces
and the velocity of movement (relative to some observer) of the charges.
3 changing magnetic field is mathematically the same as a moving magnetic field
(see relativity of motion). Thus6 according to EinsteinIs field transformation e?uations
(that is6 the 2orent8 transformation of the field from a roer reference frame to a
non-moving reference frame)6 art of it is manifested as an electric field comonent.
This is .no0n as BaradayIs la0 of induction and is the rincile behind electric
generators and electric motors.
Magnetic field lines sho0n by iron filings
The direction of the magnetic field vector follo0s from the definition
above. $t coincides 0ith the direction of orientation of a magnetic diole6 such as a
small magnet6 a small loo of current in the magnetic field6 or a cluster of small
articles of ferromagnetic material.
P"le l8elling !"n#u4i"n4
The end of a comass needle that oints north 0as historically called the
<north< magnetic ole of the needle. Since dioles are vectors and align <head to tail<
0ith each other6 the magnetic ole located near the geograhic &orth !ole is actually
the <south< ole.
The <north< and <south< oles of a magnet or a magnetic diole are
labelled similarly to north and south oles of a comass needle. &ear the north ole of
a bar or a cylinder magnet6 the magnetic field vector is directed out of the magnetH
near the south ole6 into the magnet. This magnetic field continues inside the magnet
(so there are no actual <oles< any0here inside or outside of a magnet 0here the field
stos or starts). Brea.ing a magnet in half does not searate the oles but roduces
t0o magnets 0ith t0o oles each.EarthIs magnetic field is roduced by electric
currents in its li?uid core.
$ield den4it5
Magnetic field density6 other0ise .no0n as magnetic flu9 density6 is
essentially 0hat the layman .no0s as a magnetic field Pa.in to a gravitational or
electric field. $t is a resonse of a medium to the resence of a magnetic field. The S$
unit of magnetic flu9 density is the tesla. # tesla Q # 0eber er s?uare metre.
$t can be more easily e9lained if one 0or.s bac.0ards from the e?uation:
0here
! is the magnitude of flu9 density6 measured in teslas
is the force e9erienced by a 0ire6 measured in ne0tons
I is the current6 measured in ameres
L is the length of the 0ire6 measured in metres
"emonstration of BlemingIs left hand rule
Bor a magnetic flu9 density to e?ual # tesla6 a force of # ne0ton must
act on a 0ire of length # metre carrying # amere of current.
# ne0ton of force is not easily accomlished. Bor e9amle: the most
o0erful suerconducting electromagnets in the 0orld have flu9 densities of IonlyI %+
T. This is true obviously for both electromagnets and natural magnets6 but a magnetic
field can only act on moving chargePhence the current6 I6 in the e?uation.
The e?uation can be ad=usted to incororate moving single charges6 ie rotons6
electrons6 and so on via
0here
$ is the charge in coulombs6 and
v is the velocity of that charge in metres er second.
BlemingIs left hand rule for motion6 current and olarity can be used to
determine the direction of any one of those from the other t0o6 as seen in the
e9amle. $t can also remembered in the follo0ing 0ay. The digits from the thumb to
second finger indicate IBorceI6 IB-fieldI6 and I$(Current)I resectively6 or B-B-$ in short.
Bor rofessional use6 the right hand gri rule is used instead 0hich originated from the
definition of cross roduct in the right hand system of coordinates.
(ther units of magnetic flu9 density are
# gauss Q #+
-*
teslas Q #++ microteslas (UT)
# gamma Q #+
-4
teslas Q # nanotesla (nT)
R"tting 7gneti! #ield4
The rotating magnetic field is a .ey rincile in the oeration of
alternating-current motors. 3 ermanent magnet in such a field 0ill rotate so as to
maintain its alignment 0ith the e9ternal field. This effect 0as utilised in early
alternating-current electric motors. 3 rotating magnetic field can be constructed using
t0o orthogonal coils 0ith 4+ degrees hase difference in their 3C currents. ;o0ever6
in ractice such a system 0ould be sulied through a three-0ire arrangement 0ith
une?ual currents. This ine?uality 0ould cause serious roblems in standardi8ation of
the conductor si8e and so6 in order to overcome it6 three-hase systems are used 0here
the three currents are e?ual in magnitude and have #%+ degrees hase difference.
Three similar coils having mutual geometrical angles of #%+ degrees 0ill create the
rotating magnetic field in this case. The ability of the three-hase system to create a
rotating field6 utili8ed in electric motors6 is one of the main reasons 0hy three-hase
systems dominate the 0orldIs electrical o0er suly systems.
Because magnets degrade 0ith time6 synchronous motors and
induction motors use short-circuited rotors (instead of a magnet) follo0ing the
rotating magnetic field of a multicoiled stator. The short-circuited turns of the rotor
develo eddy currents in the rotating field of the stator6 and these currents in turn
move the rotor by the 2orent8 force.
$n #))%6 &i.ola Tesla identified the concet of the rotating magnetic
field. $n #)),6 7alileo Berraris indeendently researched the concet. $n #)))6 Tesla
gained :.S. !atent ')#4/) for his 0or.. 3lso in #)))6 Berraris ublished his research
in a aer to the %oyal &cademy of 'ciences in Turin.
Hll e##e!t
Because the 2orent8 force is charge-sign-deendent (see above)6 it
results in charge searation 0hen a conductor 0ith current is laced in a transverse
magnetic field6 0ith a buildu of oosite charges on t0o oosite sides of conductor
in the direction normal to the magnetic field6 and the otential difference bet0een
these sides can be measured.
The ;all effect is often used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic
field as 0ell as to find the sign of the dominant charge carriers in semiconductors
(negative electrons or ositive holes).
Mgneti! #ield "# !ele4til 8"die4
3 rotating body of conductive gas or li?uid develos self-amlifying
electric currents6 and thus a self-generated magnetic field6 due to a combination of
differential rotation (different angular velocity of different arts of body)6 Coriolis
forces and induction. The distribution of currents can be ?uite comlicated6 0ith
numerous oen and closed loos6 and thus the magnetic field of these currents in their
immediate vicinity is also ?uite multit0isted. 3t large distances6 ho0ever6 the
magnetic fields of currents flo0ing in oosite directions cancel out and only a net
diole field survives6 slo0ly diminishing 0ith distance. Because the ma=or currents
flo0 in the direction of conductive mass motion (e?uatorial currents)6 the ma=or
comonent of the generated magnetic field is the diole field of the e?uatorial current
loo6 thus roducing magnetic oles near the geograhic oles of a rotating body.
The magnetic fields of all celestial bodies are more or less aligned 0ith the direction
of rotation. 3nother feature of this dynamo model is that the currents are 3C rather
than "C. Their direction6 and thus the direction of the magnetic field they generate6
alternates more or less eriodically6 changing amlitude and reversing direction6
although still more or less aligned 0ith the a9is of rotation.
The SunIs ma=or comonent of magnetic field reverses direction every
## years (so the eriod is about %% years)6 resulting in a diminished magnitude of
magnetic field near reversal time. "uring this dormancy time6 the sunsots activity is
ma9imi8ed (because of the lac. of magnetic bra.ing on lasma) and6 as a result6
massive e=ection of high energy lasma into the solar corona and interlanetary sace
ta.es lace. Collisions of neighboring sunsots 0ith oositely directed magnetic
fields result in the generation of strong electric fields near raidly disaearing
magnetic field regions. This electric field accelerates electrons and rotons to high
energies (.iloelectronvolts) 0hich results in =ets of e9tremely hot lasma leaving
SunIs surface and heating coronal lasma to high temeratures (millions of E).
Comact and fast-rotating astronomical ob=ects (0hite d0arfs6 neutron stars and blac.
holes) have e9tremely strong magnetic fields. The magnetic field of a ne0ly born fast-
sinning neutron star is so strong (u to #+
)
teslas) that it electromagnetically radiates
enough energy to ?uic.ly (in a matter of fe0 million years) dam do0n the star
rotation by #++ to #+++ times. Matter falling on a neutron star also has to follo0 the
magnetic field lines6 resulting in t0o hot sots on the surface 0here it can reach and
collide 0ith the starIs surface. These sots are literally a fe0 feet (about a metre)
across but tremendously bright. Their eriodic eclising during star rotation is
believed to be the source of ulsating radiation.
@ets of relativistic lasma are often observed along the direction of the
magnetic oles of active blac. holes in the centers of young gala9ies.
$f the gas or li?uid is very viscous (resulting in turbulent differential motion)6 the
reversal of the magnetic field may not be very eriodic. This is the case 0ith the
EarthIs magnetic field6 0hich is generated by turbulent currents in a viscous outer
core.
1.7.: APPLICATIONS O$ MA(NETIC -EARIN(S 3,
#.1.*.# (rinding S6indle3,
This high-seed motori8ed sindle is designed for oeration in a
comuter-controlled grinder used in rolling bearing roduction.
Magnetic bearings give this sindle a much 0ider oerating range6 allo0ing
one sindle to be used 0here t0o conventional sindles are used. This imroves
roductivity by reducing resetting time.
The magnetic bearings can be used to actively imrove grinding erformance using
rocess feedbac. concets. Magnetic bearings have been develoed for sindle of
#+.- caacity having rotational seed of ,+6+++ rm.
1.7.4.2 Refrigeration compressor:-
This is a hermetic6 oil-free comressor for refrigeration and chiller
alications using ne0 CBC-free refrigerants.
(il-free oeration is essential to maintain high cycle efficiency 0ith this ne0 class of
refrigerants. $n addition6 there is no oil in the system to decrease the heat transfer
efficiency of heat e9changers. Magnetic bearings 0ere chosen as an enabling
technology.
1.7.:.9 Tur8" 7"le!ulr 6u7643,
Turbo molecular ums are used in semiconductor rocessing.
;igh and ultrahigh vacuum levels are re?uired in rocesses such as ion imlantation6
coating6 etching6 evaoration6 CA">2!CA"6 5T!6 microlithograhy6 and load loc.
chambers. $n analytical instrumentation6 turbo molecular ums are used in mass
sectrometers6 gas analy8ers and electron microscoes.
$n materials research6 turbo molecular ums are used in neutron scattering
facilities6 roton accelerators and suercolliders. Magnetic bearings have been
develoed for 4++ -6 /++++ 5!M !ums.
1.7.:.: $"r!e Me4ure7ent3,
Test rigs often utili8e magnetic bearings to assist in the design of turbo
machinery. $n an e9amle alication6 the magnetic bearing system levitates the shaft
and measures the magnetic forces induced by a um imeller mounted to the test rig.
Three tyes of forces are measured: steady state loads from rotor 0eight6 dynamic
loads from blade ass fre?uencies6 and forces caused by turbulent flo0. Magnetic
bearings can continuously monitor force by measuring the osition of the shaft6 and
the current in the actuator coils. Magnetic bearing control system and soft0are allo0
analog signals to be in=ected to create secific force inuts and>or shaft motion. This
caability has lead to increased understanding of um imeller erformance under
controlled oerating conditions. Test rigs have been develoed for Testing erformed
at '+++ 5!M J (erational seed bet0een + - #,+++ 5!M 0ith forces u to /+++ &
thrust J #),+ & drive-end radial force.
1.7.5. -ENE$ITS AN% LIMITATIONS3,
Magnetic bearings are ideally suited to alications 0here they
rovide suerior value comared to other tyes of bearings. Aalue is a function of the
follo0ing:
1.7.5.1 -ENE$ITS3 ,
1. High Reli8ilit53,
-ith magnetic bearings there is no contact bet0een the rotating and
stationary arts6 meaning there is no 0ear. $n most cases failure modes are limited
to control electronics6 o0er electronics6 and electrical 0indings. These
comonents have design lives far greater than that of conventional bearings.
Magnetic bearings are the only tye of bearing 0hich is fitted 0ith rotective
bac.-u bearings. $n addition6 magnetic bearings have a built-in overload
rotection. Magnetic bearings can signal rocess control e?uiment to sto the
machine instantaneously in the case of e9cessive load.
Magnetic bearings are roviding high reliability and long service
intervals in time critical alications in semiconductor manufacturing6 vacuum
ums6 and natural gas ieline comression e?uiment.
). Clen Envir"n7ent4 3,
$n a magnetic bearing system6 article generation due to 0ear and
the need for lubrication are eliminated. There is therefore no chance of
contaminating a clean rocess 0ith oil6 grease or solid articles.
Magnetic bearings offer a dry6 clean and economic solution for semiconductor
fabrication e?uiment6 vacuum ums6 gas and air comressors6 and various other
turbo machines that re?uire submersion in a rocess fluid6 even under ressure.
9. High S6eed A66li!ti"n4 3,
The fact that a rotor sins in sace 0ithout contact 0ith the stator
means drag on the rotor is minimal. That oens u the oortunity for the bearing
to run at e9cetionally high seeds6 0here the only limitation becomes the yield
strength of the rotor material. Magnetic bearings have been designed 0ith surface
seeds u to %,+ m>s or *., million "&6 0here "& is the diameter of the rotor
(mm) times the rotational send (rm). $n order to achieve one ?uarter of this .ind
of seed 0ith conventional bearings6 a comle9 lubrication system is re?uired. &o
other tye of bearing can match magnetic bearings for shear seed. Magnetic
bearings oen ne0 ossibilities for e9treme high-seed alications such as
machine tool sindles6 and turbo comressors.
:. ECtre7e C"nditi"n43,
TEMPERATURE
The magnetic bearing system is caable of oerating through an
e9tremely 0ide temerature range. $t has alications as lo0 as -%,/VC and as high
as %%+VC6 thus allo0ing oeration 0here traditional bearings 0ill not function.
CORROSI'E $LUI%S
Magnetic bearings can oerate in corrosive environments by means
of canning both the stationary and rotating arts.
PRESSURE
Magnetic bearings are virtually insensitive to ressure. They can be
submerged in rocess fluid under ressure 0ithout the need for seals6 as is the
case 0ith conventional bearings. Magnetic bearings can also oerate in
vacuum 0here their oeration is even more efficient due to lac. of 0ind age.
5. EDui67ent %e4ign/ %evel"67ent nd Te4ting 3,
3 magnetic bearing system can be used as an e9citer6 0here the
bearing force is modulated for deliberately e9citing vibrations. The e9citation
force is alied to the rotor 0ithout contact and can be measured e9actly. This
ma.es magnetic bearings a valuable tool in e?uiment design6 develoment and
testing as 0ell as in rotor dynamic research.
+. M!hine %ign"4ti!4 F S7rt M!hine4 3,
$n order to function6 a magnetic bearing must determine rotor
osition6 rotor vibration and bearing load. This information 0hich is rocessed in
the electronic control cabinet can be given as an outut to the (EM or end user
such that there is a constant .no0ledge of the oerating state of the machine. This
allo0s the user to detect inciient faults6 lan maintenance and otimi8e
erformance
1.7.5.) Mgneti! -ering Li7itti"n43,
1. Lrger -ering4
Magnetic bearings have a secific load caacity (ma9imum load
er unit of area of alication) lo0er than most other bearings systems. This
results in bearings 0hich may be hysically larger than other similarly secified
bearings.
%. Higher C"76leCit5
The higher comle9ity of magnetic bearings often means the initial
urchase rice is higher than cometing technologies. ;o0ever6 magnetic
bearingsI life cycle cost can often be less than traditional bearings. This is
articularly true 0here the alternatives are e9otic bearings.
'. ReDuire4 Ele!tri!l P"Eer
Magnetic bearing re?uire o0er to drive the control systems6
sensors and electromagnets.
*%
1.7.+ CONCLUSION3,
Thus 0e have seen information about magnetic bearings. This
concet6 though relatively ne06 a large amount of research has gone into this concet
0orld0ide and many comanies have began roducing and manufacturing the
magnetic bearings and alications related to magnetic bearings.
-e have seen that 0here magnetic bearings are used instead of
conventional bearings (such as =ournal bearings6 roller bearings6 ball bearings)6 the
erformance of machine or e?uiment is enhanced. 3s bearings suort rotating arts
in machines6 the maintenance cycle of machine art and its life is directly related to
life of bearing. 3s comared to conventional bearings6 Magnetic bearings have more
0or.ing lifeH hence besides imroving erformance of the rotating machinery6 it also
imroves its 0or.ing life 0hile simultaneously decreasing maintenance costs and
reair costs. This saving more than comensates for its initial installation costs. ;ence
magnetic bearings are referred 0herever this technology is available.
*'