CHAPTER 1 - METAL FORMING

Application of forces exceeding the yield strength and

below the ultimate tensile strength
Work materials should have,
- Low yield strength
- High ductility
Advantages
1. Fastest way to change shape of a part
2. Raw materials are cheap. (wrought steels like
mild steel are the cheapest structural metals)

Metal working temperatures (Page 2)

Cold Working
Plastic deformation below recrystallization temperature,
material is work hardened.

Advantages
1. Increased strength in direction of cold working
2. Increased surface hardness and wear resistance
3. Good dimensional tolerances and surface finish
4. Small parts can be shaped quickly
5. No heating required
Disadvantages
1. Some metals too brittle to be cold-worked
2. High forces and power required for deformation
3. Work hardening makes subsequent operation
difficult or impossible
4. Need annealing to relieve stress
5. Reduce corrosion resistance, increase electrical
resistance, change magnetic properties

Hot Working
Plastic deformation above recrystallization temperature,
material is stress relieved (totally annealed).
Keep temperature low to minimize oxidation.
Advantages
1. Reduced chance of metal cracking, make bigger
sections and more extreme shapes
2. Grain refinement possible
a. Grain growth as temp rises
b. Recrystallization produce small grains
c. Grain growth can be controlled
3. No strain hardening, no annealing (cheaper)
4. Less power needed, smaller machine
5. Repairs casting defects
6. Improves ductility (material more homogenous)
a. Better diffusion of alloy constituents
b. Breaks up and evenly distributes
c. Breaks up ad refines cast structure
7. Improves strength if correction of defects (holes
and porosity due to casting/powder metallurgy)
8. Can be faster than cold working
Disadvantages
1. Some metals cannot be hot-worked
2. Oxide layer on surface
3. Dimensional control difficult
a. Metal contraction
b. Oxide scales
4. Expensive and difficult to maintain high temp,
dangerous to handle hot metal
5. Accurate temp difficult, even heating
6. Difficult to lubricate
7. Decarburization of steel
8. Carbon pick-up
9. Expensive dies

ROLLING (page 8)
Rotating cylinders to draw and squeeze workpiece.
Reduction in thickness normally 1-10% per pass.
Reversing Rolling Mill Saves factory space, suitable for
short parts. Much power needed. Heavy forces on roll-
drive mechanism.
Planetary Rolling Mill
Advantages
1. Cheaper to replace
2. Less contact area with workpiece
3. Spread workpiece less sideways
Disadvantages Small rolls are weaker than large rolls

All metals can be hot rolled. Only ductile metals can be
cold rolled. Zinc and magnesium are brittle, will crack
when cold rolled. Cold working is assumed if desired
result is a shining surface and small thickness.

EXTRUSION (page 14)
Metal is force through an opening.

Hot Extrusion
Metal preheated to just below melting point to lower
yield strength.
Applications
- Long pieces of uniform cross-secion
- Economical way to make small parts in large
quantities. Extrude dies relatively cheap

Cold Extrusion (Unlikely)
At room temp, complete fast to avoid work hardening

Hydrostatic Extrusion
Zero shear stress, impossible to fracture.
Applications
- Brittle metals
- For high reduction of cross-sectional area

TENSILE DRAWING (page 19)
Secondary process after hot extrusion or hot rolling,
economically reduce diameter smaller than 5mm. Cold
working only (Steel, Al,Cu and Cu alloys are ductile in
tension)
Application
1. Reduce cross-section of bars and tubes
2. Produce high performance bars and seamless
tubes of very high strength
Reduction in cross-section area per pass below 40%.
Work material becomes too hard and brittle(work
hardened) must be annealed to draw further.
Rolling is generally cheaper than extrusion. Rolling
cannot produce hollow sections, extrusion can.

FORGING (page 22)
Deformation by sudden blows or high pressure to
squeeze metal between dies. Best mechanical properties
Characteristics
1. Durable, reliable
2. Excellent mechanical properties
3. Dense
Hammer Forging Used for considerable reduction in
cross-section
Drop Forging Very common method
Produces flash which can be recycled, machining
produces even more.
Advantages
1. Superior mechanical properties due to fibrous
structure
2. High production rate
3. High density product
Press Forging Slow pressure squeeze into shape, give
deep penetration. Fast, automated, and large scale.
Application
1. For large sections
2. Secondary and finishing operations
Advantages
1. Smooth surface
2. Good dimensions
3. Quieter than drop forging
4. More uniform structural quality
Upset Forging Increase diameter or cross-section area
by compression along its length
Application used to shape heads on bolts, nails, etc
Roll Forging Reduce cross-section of lengths while
increase length
The stock does not completely pass through the rolls to
the other side

Press forging is generally more expensive than drop
forging.

SHEET METAL WORKING (page 29)
Usually done at room temp unless too thick.

Sheet Metal Drawing
On mild steel, stainless steel, alloys of Al, Mg, Cu, any
ductile material
Application
1. Thin-walled seamless metal cup
2. Uniformity and close tolerances

Ironing
Thinning down the walls of drawn cups

Rubber Pad Forming
Advantages
1. Saves money of the die
2. Reduce metal springback after forming

Shearing of Sheet Metal
Advantages
1. Fast
2. Amenable to large scale production
3. No flash



CHAPTER 2 JOINING PROCESSES
WELDING (page 48)
Joining by melting the metal to the 2 pieces
1. Fusion Welding
2. Pressure Welding
3. Fusion Welding using filler material
Welding defects (page51)
1. Dimensional Defects
2. Structural Defects
Advantages
1. Quick and convenient
2. Light weight
3. Easy to make
4. Cheap
5. Does not affect stress-flow design
Disadvantages
1. Dependent on hum factors
2. Surface must be clean
3. Fixtures needed
4. Defects are common
5. Heat treatment may be needed
6. Need Quality control methods

Low carbon steels are excellent for welding. High carbon
steels need special techniques (pre-heating or post-
heating to prevent cracking)

Gas Welding
For welding thin sheets below 2mm
Advantages
1. Cheap, portable, versatile
2. No electrical supply
3. Can weld thin sheets, lower temp, easier to
control


Arc Welding
Electric arc generated between electrode and workpiece
1. Joining sections of 2mm thickness or more
2. Faster welding, greater depth of penetration
3. For materials with high heat conductivity

Resistance Welding
Electrodes press the parts together and carry electricity.
Weld sheet metals of roughly the same thickness, bad
conductor of heat and electricity.
- Spot welding
- Seam welding
Advantages
1. Heat is localized
2. Fast
3. No filler metal
4. Easily automated for large-scale production
Disadvantages
1. High cost of initial equipment
2. Difficult to join sheets of different thickness

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
For thick sections and sheets. Not for sheets below 8mm.
Advantages
1. Automatic feed of electrode and flux
2. Molten flux forms protective coating over weld
3. High current yield high welding speeds
4. Can join thick sections with a single pass
Disadvantages
1. Needs lots of space and investment
2. Automation is necessary since joint

Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
Same as arc welding, with inert gas shield to protect
from atmosphere. For large-scale production and weld
only 1 type of metal.

Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
Non-consumable Tungsten electrode. Separate filler rod
needed, can weld thin to moderate sections (1-5mm).

Application of MIG & TIG
- TIG needs more space than MIG
- Both used for welding stainless steels, MG, Al,
Cu and Ti alloys
- TIG slower than MIG
- Inert Gas Shield will prevent formation of
porous chromium oxide layer

Friction Welding
Advantages
1. Join dissimilar metals
2. Fast
Limitation only for round sections

Laser Beam Welding
Welding fine wires, thin foils, or jobs requiring high
precision
Advantages
1. Easily controls energy
2. Tiny (0.1mm) Heat Affected Zone

Electronic Beam Welding
Advantages
1. Easily controls energy
2. 2 Tiny (0.1) Heat Affected Zone
Disadvantage
A high vacuum is needed. Much time spent on
evacuating the chamber





CHAPTER 3 CASTING TECHNOLOGY
Sand Casting (page 67)
Advantages
1. Can produce huge parts
2. Cheap
3. No directional properties
4. Complicated shapes
5. Require only little machining
Disadvantages
1. Rough surface
2. Mold can use only once
3. Poor dimensional tolerance, metal shrinks
Defects sources
1. Badly prepared pattern
2. Poor design
3. Poor casting technique

Die Casting (page 74)
- Equipment is expensive
- Good dimensional tolerances
- Good surface finish
- Non-expendable molds used for mass
production.
- Ideal for low melting point metals (Al, Zn, Pb,
Cu, Mg and Sn alloys).
- Medium Carbon tool steel molds, water-cooled
to prolong life and shorten casting time.
- High Production rate
Hot Chamber Die Casting
Only suitable for low melting point metals (Pb, Sn, Zn
alloys).
Cold Chamber Die Casting
Can be used for non-ferrous metals of higher melting
point (Al, Cu, Mg alloys). Liquid metal in contact with
injection cylinder for short time, less alloying takes place.
Fast production rate, cycle time less than 1 minute.
Centrifugal Casting
For casting large pipes, grey cast iron cylinder liners
Advantages
1. Finger grain size due to fast cooling (tougher)
2. Cleaner casting
3. Highly dense structure, free of defects
4. High production rates
5. Best mechanical properties, very high casting
pressure can be achieved
6. Can cast large pipes accurately

Continuous Casting
Melted metal flows down continuously to allow
solidification in a water-cooled mold. Can be hot rolled
into products immediately after solidification.
Advantages
1. Fully automated
2. Molds/dies are cheap
3. No wastage
4. Reasonable physical properties and surface
finish
5. Quick and convenient process
6. Secondary operations make use of existing heat

Investment Casting
Patterns can only be used once
Advantages
1. Extremely good surface finish
2. Complicated shapes
3. No machining required
4. Wide range of alloys is suitable to cast
5. Close tolerances even for high melting point
metals
Limitations
1. Expensive method
2. Casting cannot be too large

CHAPTER 4 POWDER METALLURGY
Metal powders are compressed and sintered to form a
metal product
Advantages (page 85)
1. High melting point metals can be fabricated
below their melting points.
2. Non-metallic constituents can be introduced
and their contents can be controlled
3. Special structural effects:
a. Controlled porosity
b. Lamellar structure
c. Composite structure
d. Controlled density
4. Good dispersion in alloys
5. High purity
6. Low machining costs
7. Close tolerance
8. No waste material
9. High speed production for small parts
10. Uniform composition
Disadvantages
1. High cost of raw materials
2. Simple dies
3. Small product size
4. Difficult to store powders
5. Powder size not consistent
6. Product can be brittle
7. Difficult to handle low melting point metals
8. Slight shrinkage on sintering and cooling
9. Cannot be bent or cold-worked
10. Cannot make threads
11. Minimum thickness about 1mm and max 2.5xD




CHAPTER 5 PIPE AND TUBE PRODUCTION
Production methods depend on wall thickness, diameter,
length and applications. (page 88)

Induction Welding of Cold Rolled Strip
To make low cost low strength tubes of various steels,
not suitable for 10-15mm below, and not for good
conductors of electricity

Seam Welding of Skelp
Welded seam

Hollow Extrusion

Mannesmann Process
Make reliable tubes and pipes of any size that must not
have any weld joint

Casting With Central Core
For cast iron pipes of any size

Centrifugal Casting

Roll Bending And Welding
For making very thick large pipes

Spiral Welding of Metal Strip
For extremely large pipes

Welded From Separate Metal Sheets
For extremely large pipes

Drawing And Pressing Of Sheet
For very small tubes of thin wall thickness


CHAPTER 6 UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING
PROCESSES
Non-traditional machining processes are very slow which
will not normally be employed. Cost a lot more than
conventional machines.

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) (page94)

Die-Sinking EDM
Applications
- Machine molds and dies
- Drill very small holes, orifices, slots
- Machine very hard materials
- Machine thin-walled parts that are very weak
Advantages
1. Machine any hard materials, so long is
conductive
2. Products are completely burr-free
3. Very close tolerances
4. Can machine intricate configurations
5. No mechanical strains induced
6. Produce very sharp corners
Limitations
1. Both electrode and workpiece must be
electrically conductive
2. Electrode wear
3. Slow metal removal rate, low production rate
4. Recast surface layer has high residual stresses
and high roughness
5. Heat treatment causes warping

Wire-cut EDM
Applications
- Machining hard conducting materials
- High precision machining
- For complicated profiles
CHAPTER 7 PLASTICS TECHNOLOGY
Advantages (page 110)
1. Wide range of colours
2. Good thermal insulation
3. Good electrical insulation
4. Good corrosion resistance
5. Low specific gravity
6. Easy to process
7. Cheap
8. Rigid plastics can be flexible
9. Transparent and translucent
Disadvantages
1. Repairs using heat can never be perfect
2. Give off objectionable odours
3. Not for high temp use
4. Creep under any load
5. Week in tension, compression, torsion, bending
6. Subjected to deterioration
7. Low modulus of elasticity and rigidity

Thermoplastics (page 111)
Soften on heating, re-harden on cooling. Process is
reversible and scrap material can be recycled. Easier to
process and more amenable to large-scale production.

Thermosetting Plastics (page 115)
Process is irreversible, will not soften on reheating, rigid,
hard, brittle.

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS (page 121)

Injection Molding
Extremely convenient large scale production, usually for
thermoplastics. Mold is most expensive component,
usually made of Al

Compression Molding
For producing thermosetting plastics, require higher
pressure to achieve good definition in the grooves

Transfer Molding
For producing thermosetting plastics only.
Advantages over compression molding
- No flash, less finishing
- Mold many products simultaneously
- Can mold small intricate parts which are difficult
to compression mold

Reaction Injection Molding (RIM)