AppreciativeInquiry:TheoryandCritique

Whencitingthispaperpleaseusethefollowingreference:
Bushe,G.R.(2011)Appreciativeinquiry:Theoryandcritique.InBoje,D.,Burnes,B.andHassard,J.
(eds.)TheRoutledgeCompanionToOrganizationalChange(pp.87103).Oxford,UK:Routledge.

AppreciativeInquiry(AI)wasoneofthefirstpostLewinianOrganizationDevelopmentmethodsand
probablycatalyzedthesubsequentproliferationofDialogicODmethods(Bushe&Marshak,2009)that
operateoutsidetheLewinianparadigm.Firmlygroundedinsocialconstructionisttheory(Gergen1978;
2009),AIemergedoutoftheDepartmentofOrganizationalBehavior(OB)atCaseWesternReserve
UniversityinClevelandOhioandmanyacademicwritersonAIreceivedtheirdoctoratesthere(e.g.,
Barrett,Bright,Bushe,Carter,Cooperrider,Johnson,Ludema,Powley,Sekerka,Stavros,Thatchenkery).
Eschewingdiagnosisasanecessaryorevenusefulstepinorganizationalchange,andincorporating
postmodernperspectivesonnarrativeanddiscourse,(Barrett,Thomas&Hocevar,1995)theoriginal,
seminalarticleonAI(Cooperrider&Srivastva,1987)wasarevolutionarystatementandaprecursorto
laterdevelopmentsinpositiveorganizationalstudies(Cameron,Dutton&Quinn,2003)andthe
strengthsbasedmovement(Buckingham&Clifton,2001;Cameron&Lavine,2006)inAmerican
management.
ThisreviewbeginswithabriefdescriptionoftheAImethodfollowedbytheunderlyingtheoriesof
changethatsupportAIpracticeandtheratherscantyevidencethatexistssupportingthem.Thisreview
willalsoconsidermoderatorsofAIpractice,importantcritiquesofAI,andconcludewithsomeofthe
morepressingresearchquestionsthatrequireaddressingforadeeperunderstandingofhowandwhen
AItransformsorganizations.
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TheMethodofAppreciativeInquiry
DavidCooperrider,thecreatorofappreciativeinquiry,resistedwritingabookonhowtodoAIuntilthe
turnofthemillenniumbecausehewantedpeopletofocusonthephilosophybehindthisapproachand
notseeitasatechnique.Asaresult,manydifferentwaysofdoingAIhaveproliferatedanditis
inaccuratetosayAIisdoneinanyoneway.Forthefirst15yearsorsoAIpractitionersbasedtheir
methodsontheinitialsetof4principles(Cooperrider&Srivastva,1987)whichstatedthatinquiryinto
thesocialpotentialofasocialsystemshouldbeginwithappreciation,shouldbecollaborative,shouldbe
provocative,andshouldbeapplicable.Theoriginalmethodcalledforacollectivediscoveryprocess
using1)groundedobservationtoidentifythebestofwhatis,2)visionandlogictoidentifyidealsof
whatmightbe,3)collaborativedialogueandchoicetoachieveconsentaboutwhatshouldbe,and4)
collectiveexperimentationtodiscoverwhatcanbe.Itwasntuntil1997thatthe4DmodelofAI,now
almostuniversallydescribedastheAImethod,wascreated.DianaWhitney,Cooperriderscollaborator
onsomeofthefirstAIprojectsinthe1990s,hadamajorimpactontheevolutionofthepracticeofAI
andthemostauthoritativesourcesonAIpracticeareCooperrider,Whitney&Stavros(2008),Ludema,
Whitney,Mohr&Griffen(2003),andWhitney&TrostenBloom(2003).Thegeneraloutlineofthe4D
methodisasfollows.
1)Discovery.Duringthisstageparticipantsreflectonanddiscussthebestofwhatisconcerningthe
objectofinquiry.Sometimesitisaninquiryintothelifegivingpropertiesoftheorganization
(Cooperrider&Srivastva,1987).Sometimesitisthepositivecore(Cooperrider&Whitney,2001),
whereanattemptismadetocataloguethesignaturestrengthsoftheorganization(Ludemaetal,2003).
Othertimesitisaspecificcapacityorprocess.Forexample,iftheinquiryisaboutimprovingcustomer
service,participantsmightinquireintotheirbestexperiencesasacustomer,orthebestexperiencesof
theircustomers,orstudythebestcustomerserviceorganizationstheycanfind.Theextenttowhichthe
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fruitsofthisinquiryarethenanalyzedorsummarizedvarieswidelybyapplication.Mostoften(andthis
appearstobeakeyinnovationoftheAImethod)participantsareinterviewedabouttheirownbestof
experience.Anotherimportantinnovationhasbeentohaveorganizationalstakeholdersactasboth
interviewersandinterviewees,thatis,tofullyengageallmembersintheactofinquiryitself(Carter&
Johnson,1999).
2)Dream.Duringthisstageparticipantsareaskedtoimaginetheirgroup,organizationorcommunityat
itsbestandanattemptismadetoidentifythecommonaspirationsofsystemmembersandto
symbolizethisinsomeway.Theamountofpreparationandthedegreetowhichclarityaboutthat
commondreamaresoughtvarywidelybyapplication.Thedreamphaseoftenresultsinsomething
moresymbolic,likeagraphicalrepresentation,thanamissionstatement.
3)Design.Withacommondreaminplace,participantsareaskedtodevelopconcreteproposalsforthe
neworganizationalstate.InitiallyCooperridercalledtheseprovocativepropositionsaphraselinked
togenerativetheory(discussedbelow)thatstillappearsinsomemodels.Morecommonly,social
architectureprocessesareemployedwhereamodelofdesignelementsisusedtoidentifycategoriesfor
participantstoorganizearoundandcreatechangeproposals,oftencalledpossibilitystatementsor
designstatements.(Mohr,McLean&Silbert,2003;Watkins&Mohr,2001).Often,participantsself
selectintosmallgroupstodevelopspecificproposalswithinaspecificcategoryThedesigncompany,
IDEO(Brown,2009),hasbeenbothasourceofideasandaparticipantintheevolutionofthedesign
phaseofAI,anduseofrapidprototypingprocessesisincreasinglycommon.
4)Delivery/Destiny.Intheinitial4DmodelthefourthstagewascalledDeliverybutthiswas
subsequentlychangedbyCooperridertoDestinyashefoundthatDeliveryevokedimagesoftraditional
changemanagementimplementation.Exactlywhatoughttohappeninthisphasehasprovokedthe
mostconfusionandtheleastconsensusamongstAIadvocateswhorecognizethatusingtheoutcomes
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ofDesigntocreatenewtargets,gapstofill,andobjectivestoachieveiscountertotheveryphilosophy
ofappreciativeinquiry.Atthesametime,oneofthemostcommoncomplaintsaboutAIfromusersis
thatwhileenergyforchangeishighaftertheDesignphase,implementationcanbeveryspotty.
BuildingonBarretts(1998)workonimprovisationalprocessesinorganizations,Bushe(2007,2011,
Bushe&Kassam,2005)hasdescribedanimprovisationalasopposedtoimplementationapproachto
Destinyconsistentwithavaguelydevelopingconsensusonthetopic.Inthisapproach,widespread
agreementforthedesignstatementsaresought,aneventisorchestratedwhereparticipantsmakeself
chosen,personalcommitmentstotakeactionconsistentwithanydesignelement,andleadershipmakes
clearthattherewillbenoactionplansorcommitteesinsteadeveryoneisauthorizedtotakethose
actionstheybelievewillhelpbringthedesigntofruition.Leadershipsrolethenbecomestrackingand
fanning(Bushe,2009),findingandamplifyingthoseinnovationstheywanttonurtureandcreating
eventsandprocessestoenergizeselforganizingmomentum.
Anumberofpractitionercritiquespointedoutthatthe4Dmodelomittedanimportantfirststepinthe
AIprocessofidentifyingthefocusoftheinquiryitself.TheClergyLeadershipInstituteintheU.S.
suggestedDefineasthefirststepandsomeAImodelsrefertoa5Dmodel.Cooperriders
dissertationcalledthistheaffirmativetopicandmanymodelshaveretainedthatlabel.How,exactly,
thattopicisdefinedhasnotbeenwellarticulatedbutisgenerallyregardedasessentialtotheoverall
successoftheeffort.Engagingtherightpeople,especiallypowerfulsponsors,inidentifyingafocusthat
isbothofhighinteresttothoseleadingtheorganizationandwillbecompellingtostakeholdersis
commonlyheldtobecriticaltooverallsuccess(Barrett&Fry,2005).
Whitney&TrostenBloom(2003)identified8formsofengagementusedbyAIpractitioners.These
rangedfrominterventionswhereasoleconsultantorasmallrepresentativegroupofpeopledotheAI
onbehalfofalargergroupofpeopletothosewheremostorallofthewholesystemisengagedinthe
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entire4Dprocess.Themajorityofcasestudiesoftransformationalchangehavebeenofthelatter
variety(Barrett&Fry,2005;Barros&Cooperrider,2000;Bushe&Kassam,2005;Fryet.al.,2002;
Ludemaet.al.,2003;Ludema&Hinrichs,2003;Powley,Fry,Barrett&Bright,2004)leadingtoan
increasingemphasisintheAIliteratureonwidespreadengagementascentraltosuccessfulAIchange
efforts(Bushe,2011;Cooperrider&Sekerka,2006;CheungJudge&Powley,2006).TheAppreciative
InquirySummit(Ludemaet.al,2003;Whitney&Cooperrider,2000)whichhasprobablybecomethe
mostoftenadvocatedformofengagement,meldselementsofFutureSearch(Emery&Purser,1996;
Weisbord,1993)withAppreciativeInquiry.
TheoreticalBasesofAppreciativeInquiry
Intheirseminalarticle(Cooperrider&Srivastva,1987)arguedthreemainpointsinsupportofAI.First,
theycritiquedtheproblemsolvingapproachthat,atthattime,dominatedactionresearch,arguingthat
problemsolving,asatoolforsocialinnovation,didnotdoaverygoodjobandmight,infactbe
counterproductive.Secondly,theyarguedthatorganizationswerebestviewedassociallyconstructed
realities,andthatformsoforganizationwereconstrainedonlybyhumanimaginationandtheshared
beliefsoforganizationalmembers.Associallyconstructedrealities,formsofinquirywerepotentin
constructingthesystemstheyinquiredinto,andthatproblemsolvingapproacheswerejustaslikelyto
createmoreoftheveryproblemstheywereintendedtosolve.Third,theyarguedthatthemost
importantforceforchangewerenewideas.Theydecriedthelackofnewideasgeneratedby
conventionalactionresearch,andproposedappreciativeinquiryasamethodthatwasmorelikelyto
createnewideas,images,andtheoriesthatwouldleadtosocialinnovations.
AsthemethodofAIhasevolved,sohavethetheoreticaljustificationsandexplanationsforAIasa
changeprocess.ThemostinfluentialstatementhasbeenCooperrider&Whitneys(2001)fiveprinciples
ofAI.Whilesomehaveproposedadditionalprinciples(Barrett&Fry2005;Whitney&TrostenBloom
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2003)thesefivehavebeenthemostwidelyaccepted,showingupinreviewsofAI(Bushe&Kassam,
2005)andnonorganizationalapplicationsofAI(e.g.,Stavros&Torres,2005;Kelm,2005).Asscholars
studythesuccessesandfailuresofAI,avarietyofunderlyingchangemechanismhavesurfacedandare
identifiable.IntheremainderofthissectiontenofthetheoreticalleversforchangeunderlyingAI
practicearereviewed.
InquiryasIntervention
AppreciativeInquirydidnotbeginlifeasanorganizationalchangetechniqueitbeganasaresearch
methodformakinggroundedtheorybuildingmoregenerative(Cooperrider,1986;Cooperrider&
Sekerka,2006).AkeyunderlyingtheoryofchangeinAIcomesfromaconstructivereimaginingof
postmoderntheory.Acknowledgingthatallsocialresearchisinherentlybiasedbythepositioningofthe
researcher,Cooperriderarguedthiswasnotareasontothrowupourhandsandgiveupthepursuitof
knowledge.Onthecontrary,itfreesustotaketheideathatorganizationsaremadeandimaginedtoits
logicalconclusion:thatorganizationalinquiryissimultaneouslytheproductionofselfandworld.What
researcherschoosetostudyandhowtheystudyitcreatesasmuchasitdiscoverstheworld,and
thereforeawidefieldofcreative,positive,possibilitybeckonstous(Cooperrider,Barrett&Srivastva,
1995).
ThisisthefirstandmostimportantcontributionthatAImadetoapostLewiniantheoryof
organizationalchange.InthemodernistmindsetoftheLewinianactionresearchmodel,andmost
changemanagementmodels,thepurposeofquestionsistouncoverdatatodiscoverwhatisthere.In
thepostmodernsocialconstructionismofAIquestionsareseenasactuallycreatingwhatisthere.
Questionsaboutconflictcreatemoreconflict.Questionsaboutthelifegivingpropertiesofthe
organizationcreatemorevitality.AItheoristshavestressedtheimportanceofthequestionsthatguide
theinquiryprocess(Barrett&Fry,2005;Ludema,Cooperrider&Barrett,2000;Whitney&Cooperrider,
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2001).Bushe(2011)arguesthatalackofattentiontothegenerativepotentialofquestionsusedinAI
processesmayexplainwhysomeinterventionssucceedandsomefail.
Generativity
KennethGergens(1978;1982)conceptofgenerativetheoryiscentraltounderstandingAIstheoryof
practice.Gergenproposedthatweshouldaimtocreateasocialsciencefocusedonits"generative
capacitydefinedthisasthe"capacitytochallengetheguidingassumptionsoftheculture,toraise
fundamentalquestionsregardingcontemporarysociallife,tofosterreconsiderationofthatwhichis
'takenforgranted'andtherebyfurnishnewalternativesforsocialactions"(1978,p.1346).Appreciative
InquirywasdevelopedasamethodologythatwouldmeetGergenscriteria.
Thefirstappreciativeinquirychangeprojectfocusedontheideaofgenerativemetaphorasanengine
forchange(Barrett&Cooperrider,1990).Bushes(1998)studiesofAIinteamsfoundthatAIcan
surfacegenerativemetaphorscapableofresolvingthekindofparadoxicaldilemmas(Smith&Berg,
1987)thatgetgroupsstuck.Bushes(2010,Bushe&Kassam,2005)researchhasfoundthatthe
generativityofAIisakeyvariableassociatedwithtransformationalchangeoutcomes.AIcanbe
generativeinanumberofways.Itisthequestfornewideas,images,theoriesandmodelsthatliberate
ourcollectiveaspirations,alterthesocialconstructionofrealityand,intheprocess,makeavailable
decisionsandactionsthatwerenotavailableordidnotoccurtousbefore.Whensuccessful,AI
generatesspontaneous,unsupervised,individual,groupandorganizationalactiontowardabetter
future(Bushe,2007,p.30).
TheimportanceofgenerativityisencasedinCooperrider&Whitneys(2001)constructionistprinciple,
whichhasbeenboileddowntoasayingpopularinAIcirclesthatwordscreateworlds.Thisalso
highlightstheimportantconnectionsbetweengenerativityanddiscourse.
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DiscourseandNarrative.
AppreciativeInquiryisheavilyinfluencedbytheoriesofdiscourseandnarrativeespeciallyasappliedto
organizationalchange(Barrettetal,1995;Boje,1991;Marshak&Grant,2008;Oswick,Grant,
Michaelson&Wailes,2005).Intheirpoeticprinciple,CooperriderandWhitney(2001)proposethat
organizationsaremorelikeabookthanalivingorganism,thatorganizationallifeisexpressedinthe
storiespeopletelleachothereveryday,andthestoryoftheorganizationisconstantlybeingco
authored.Theinitialstorytellingthatparticipantsengagein,whentheydescribetheirbestofstories,
isakeyinnovationoftheAImethodandwidelyregardedasessentialforsettingthetoneofanAI
intervention(Ludema,2002;Khalsa,2002).Barrett&Fry(2005)stresstheimpactthattellingand
hearingstorieshasonparticipantsasacatalystforchange.Theyproposethatstoriesheardandtold
duringtheDiscoveryphasehaveapositiveimpactonrelationships,revealdeeplyheldvaluesand
providecoherenceandmeaning.Bushe(2001)describeshowappreciativeinquirycanelicitnewstories
thatchangethetakenforgrantedassumptionsinagroupandasaresult,changethebehavioursof
groupmembersquiteprofoundly.Ludema(2002)arguesthatthecollection,telling,andretellingof
peoplesbestofstoriesresultsinawaveofcountervailingmicronarrativesthatcombine,overtime,to
changetheprevailingmacronarrativeoftheorganization.
Discursivetheoriesstressthatitisthroughrelationshipsthatwordscometohavemeaningandthrough
discoursethatrelationshipsarecreated,maintainedandchanged.AItheoristsstresstheimportanceof
wordchoicefromthemomentofcontactbetweenAIpractitionerandclientsystem(Cooperrider&
Whitney,2001).Callingfortheunconditionalpositivequestion(Ludema,Cooperrider&Barrett,2000)
theyarguethatthelanguageofinquiryshapestherelationshipsthatgetformedandtheentireprocess
ofinquiry(Barrett&Fry,2005).AIadvocatesnotethatorganizationsconsistofmultiplestoriesand
perspectivesandseektoensurethatnoparticularhistoryorstoryisconsideredmoresignificantthan
another(Whitney,1996).Theynotethatineverycultureororganizationtherearemarginalizedvoices
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andthatthesevoicesareoftentheoneswhereimportantinnovationsreside(Whitney,1996;Whitney&
TrostenBloom,2003).TheydescribeAIasaprocesswheresuchmarginalizedvoicesaremorelikelyto
beheardandreceived.
AnticipatoryReality
Inoneofhisfirsttheoreticalstatements,Cooperrider(1990)proposedaheliocentrichypothesisto
supporttheAIpracticeofinquiringintothemostpositiveimagesmembersholdoftheirorganizations.
Thishypothesisproposedthatineverysocialsystemmembersholdanimplicitorexplicitimageofthe
systematitsverybest,whatCooperridercalledtheaffirmativeimage,and,justasplantsgrowtoward
thelight,socialsystemsnaturallyevolvetowardtheprevailingaffirmativeimage.Therefore,conscious
evolutionofthesystemsaffirmativeimageisaviablepathfororganizationdevelopment.
Inhislaterwriting,CooperriderdroppedtheheliotropichypothesisandofferredamoreHeideggarian
formulationwithhisanticipatoryprinciple(McAdam&Mirza,2009).Muchlikeamovieprojectoron
ascreen,humansystemsareforeverprojectingaheadofthemselvesahorizonofexpectation(intheir
talkinthehallways,inthemetaphorsandlanguagetheyuse)thatbringsthefuturepowerfullyintothe
presentasamobilizingagent.Toinquireinwaysthatservestorefashionanticipatoryrealityespecially
theartfulcreationofpositiveimageryonacollectivebasismaybethemostprolificthinganyinquiry
cando.(Cooperrider&Whitney,2001,p.21)
Theideaofanticipatoryrealityasachangelevercanbefoundinavarietyofchangeprocessesthat
endorseapossibilitycentricversusaproblemcentricapproachtoorganizationalchange(Boyd&
Bright,2007).BoydandBrightarguethatproblemcentricchangeprocessesassumethatsomethingis
brokenandneedsfixing,thusmakingorganizationalmembersmorewaryofconsultantsandchange
agents.This,theyargue,makesitmorelikelythatorganizationalmemberswillbemoredefensiveand
resistanttothechangeprocessesandmorefocusedonselfintereststhanthecommongood.The
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conservativepressoffearandnegativeemotionsmakeitlesslikelythatcurrentnormswillbe
transformed.Focusinginquiryonpositivepossibilities,theyargue,buildsrelationshipsandtrustand
identifiespossibilitiesforshiftingnormativeexpectations.
Recently,BrightandCameron(2009)haverevisitedtheheliotropichypothesis,arguingthatresearchon
positiveorganizationalclimates,positiveenergynetworksandhighqualityrelationshipssubstantiate
thepropositionthatheliotropismexistsinsocialorganizations.Theyalsopointoutthatsincebadis
strongerthangood(Baumeister,Bratslavsky,Finenauer&Vohs,2001)anemphasisonthepositive
mustbesufficientlypervasiveandstrongenoughtoovercomethenaturaltendencyofpeopleand
organizationstobemoreeffectedbynegativeevents,situationsandinteractionsthanpositiveones.
PositiveAffect
Whiletheanticipatoryprinciplefocusesontheutilityofpositiveimagesforsupportingchange,
Coopperrider&Whitneys(2001)positiveprinciplehighlightstheutilityofpositiveaffectforbuilding
rapportamongpeopletosupportandsustainchangeprocesses.CooperriderandSekerka(2006)assert
thatinquiryintowhatpeopleappreciatestrengthenstheirrelationshipsandincreasespositiveemotions.
Theyarguethatelevationofpositiveemotionsisafirstandvitalstepinthechangeprocess.Theypoint
tostudiesshowingpositivefeelingsleadpeopletobemoreflexible,creative,integrative,opento
informationandefficientintheirthinking(Isen,2000).Peopleexperiencingpositiveaffectaremore
resilientandabletocopewithoccasionaladversity,haveanincreasedpreferenceforvariety,and
acceptabroaderarrayofbehavioraloptions(Fredrickson,2001;2006).CloselyalignedisLudemas
articulationofthenatureandimportanceofhopefororganizationalchange(Ludema,Wilmott&
Srivastva,1997)andthewayinwhichAIcanprovidehope(Ludema,2000)
Bushe(2007,2011)contendsthatitmaybetheabilityofAItoquicklycreategoodfeelingsamongst
peopleandtowardachangeprocessthathasmadeitsopopularamongmanagersandconsultants,but
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hecautionsthatpositiveaffectbyitselfmaybetoofleetingforittosustainorganizationchange.He
proposesthatthetransformationalpotentialofAIismorelikelywhenpositiveimageryandaffectare
usedintheserviceofgenerativity.Bright,Powley,Fry&Barrett(2011)echothisview,andprovidea
perspectiveonhowtoinquireintonegativeemotionalstatesinappreciative,generativeways.Thereare,
however,caseswherethepositiveaffectelicitedbyappreciativeinquiryappearstohavebeencentralto
thechangeprocess(e.g.,Khalsa,2002),leadingtoprofoundreductionsofintergroupconflictandthe
emergenceofsharedidentities.Wewilllookatthisinmoredetailbelowinthesectiononmoderatorsof
AI.
BuildingonStrength
Citingresearchinsportspsychology,educationandthePygmalioneffect,Cooperrider(1990)argued
thatwetendtogetmoreofwhateverwepayattentionto.Busheinparticular(Bushe&Pitman,1991;
2008,Bushe,2001,2011)hasemphasizedthisaspectofthepositivenotsomuchpositive
anticipationsorpositiveaffectbutfocusingtheattentionofleadersandfollowersonthepositivetraits
andprocessestheywantmoreof,thatalreadyexist,asakeyengineofchange.Inhislatertheoretical
formulations,CooperriderprovidesamodelforunderstandingthetransformationalpotentialofAIasa
threephaseprocesswhereelevatinginquiry(aninquiryintowhatwevaluethatincreasesrelatedness
andpositiveemotions)leadstoafusionofstrengths(awarenessofgroupresourcesandincreased
motivationtocooperate)whichleadstoactivationofenergy(heightenedcreativityandthecourageto
takeinnovativeactions)(Cooperrider&Sekerka,2006).

Commonalitiesbetweenthisnotionoffocusingonthepositivetoguidechangeandthoseofferedin
otherchangemodelslikeAssetBasedCommunityDevelopment(Kretzmann&McKnight,1993),Positive
Deviance(Spreitzer&Sonenshein,2004;Sternin&Choo,2000)andSolutionFocusedTherapy(de
Sharzer,1985;Molnar&deShazer,1987)arenoteworthy.However,muchofthestrengthsbased
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movementinorganizationsfocusesontheelucidationandengagementofindividualcompetencies
(Buckingham&Clifton,2001),ignoringrelationalrealitiesandforthemostpartdoinglittletotransform
thenatureoforganizationitself.AppreciativeInquirynotonlyfocusesonthebestofwhatis,but
engagesallstakeholdersinaprocessesofreimaginingwhatcouldbeandtakingownershipforwhatwill
be.Thisfusionofstrengthsandactivationofenergyisgenerallyconsideredessentialtothe
generativemomentumofthechangeprocess
StakeholderEngagement
AnumberofAIadvocatesdescribetheengagementoflargenumbersofstakeholdersasacritical
changelever(Cooperrider&Sekerka,2006;Powely,Fry,Barret&Bright,2004;Whitney&Trosten
Bloom2003).TheideaofwidespreadparticipationinchangeisinnowayuniquetoAI,havingbeena
cornerstoneofchangepracticesinceRoethlisberger&Dicksons(1939)andCoch&Frenchs(1948)
seminalresearchonparticipationinchange.Whatisdifferentisthedegreetowhichwidespread
participationasinquirersisencouraged(Gergen&Thatchenkary,1996;Thatchenkary,1994).
Conventionalorganizationdevelopmentgenerallyinvolvesasmallgroupofinquirerswhotalktoalarge
numberofstakeholderstogettheirideasandviews.Thatsmallgroupthenanalyzesandfeedsback
whatithasgathered.Newideasthathavebeenvalidatedbysocialscienceenterthesystemthrough
consultantsandotherexperts.AI,incontrast,seekstouncoverandstimulatenewideasfrom
stakeholdersinthesystem;ideasthatwill,atleastbenewintheirstatuswithinthesystem.Ideally,all
stakeholdersparticipateingatheringandmakingsenseoftheideasandviewsofotherstakeholdersand
participateastheorists,dreamersanddesigners.AIpractitionershaveincorporatedanumberofother
largegroupengagementprocesses,notablyFutureSearch(Emery&Purser,1996;Weisbord,1993),
WorldCaf(Brown&Issacs,2005)duringthediscoveryphase,andOpenSpace(Owen,1992;2008)
duringthedesignphase.

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WhilegettingverylargegroupsengagedineventsthatleadtochangeisnotuniquetoAI(Bunker&
Alban,2006),AIadvocatesmakethepointthatafocusonthepositiveinAIsupportsmorewidespread,
voluntary,multistakeholderengagementinchangeactivities(Boyd&Bright,2007;Powleyet.al.,2004).
Peoplewhomightnototherwisebewillingtoparticipateinachangeprocessaremorelikelytojoinin
whentheinquiryisappreciative.Additionally,thecredibilityandreachofAIhaveencouraged
organizationalleaderstoexperimentwithextremescaleofthewholechangeprocesses.Forexample,
WorldVisionisafederationofapproximately200fairlyindependentorganizationsspreadacrossthe
globe.ItrecentlyusedAIforastrategicplanningeventthatincluded6,000membersusinga
combinationoffacetofaceandinternetbasedparticipation.
WorkingwithSelfOrganizingProcesses
AmorerecenttrendinAItheorizingistoincorporateperspectivesontheselforganizingpropertiesof
socialsystems(Jantsch,1979;Owen,2008;Wheatley,1994)intoAIpractice,particularlyintheDesign
andDestinyphases(Barrett&Fry,2005;Cooperider&Sekerka,2006;Bushe,2011).Fromthis
perspective,onemightarguethattheDiscoveryandDreamphasescreatetheconditionsforself
organizingprocessestocoalesceinpositivedirections.Attemptstocreatenewculturesbyhaving
leadersprescribeandthentrytoimplementanewculturehaveapropensitytogeneratenegative,
unintendedoutcomes(Kotter&Heskett,1992;Ogbonna&Wilkinson,2003).Bushe(2007)arguesthat
leaderscantcreatenewculturessomuchastheycanunleashculturalchange.Howtheculturethen
changesisverydifficulttoprescribeordirect,buthavingalargenumberofmembersengagedinan
inquiryintothebestofwhateverstakeholderswantmoreofgreatlyincreasesthechancesthatthenew
culturewillbebetterthantheoldone.Havingamoreorlesssharedvisionofwheremembersinthe
systemwanttogo(Dream),theuseofselforganizingdesignprocessesappeartoincreasethespeed,
engagementandbuyintotheplansandproposalsthatemerge.Withthatlevelofengagementand
commitment,useofselforganizingimplementationprocesses,whatBushe&Kassam(2005)labelan
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improvisationalasopposedtoimplementationformoftheactionphaseinanODprocess,appearsto
resultinmorechange,morequickly.
LifeGivingPropertiesofSocialSystems
PerhapsthemostunderexploredtheoryofchangebehindAIistheonethatstarteditalltheideathat
everysocialsystemcontainsasetofproperties,processesand/orcharacteristicsthatgiveitlife,and
thatattentiontotheseandintentionalactionstowardstrengtheningthemincreaseanorganizations
vitalityandcapacity(Cooperrider&Srivastva,1987;Cooperrider&Avital,2004).Thoughitremains
centraltoCooperriderspersonalviewofwhatappreciativeinquiryshouldfocuson(personal
correspondence),ithardlyshowsupinhisorotherpeopleswriting,insteadhavingbeenreplacedwith
theideaofapositivechangecore(Cooperrider&Whitney,2001;Cooperrider&Sekerka,2006).
Perhapsthisisbecausewhatgiveslifetoanythingisspirit,andfromthispointofview,appreciative
inquirymightbeconsideredaspiritualpractice(Barge&Oliver,2003;Drogin,1997;Reason,2000)oran
inquiryintotheorganizationssoul(Johnson,2011).Asthelanguageofspiritualityisnotwellreceived
ineithertheworldsofbusinessoracademia,itmayexplainwhythisperspectiveonAIhasgainedlittle
attention.EvenapaperonAIentitledThespiritualheartofhumanscienceinquiryskirtstheissue
(Cooperrider&Barrett,2002).Yet,asanexplanationfortheremarkableinterestinandspreadofAIas
achangeprocess,andthemanyspinoffsthathavecomefromit,thespiritualaspectofAImaybeworth
moreexaminationbyscholarsandpractitioners.Powley(2004)forexample,bringsthesacredin
throughthebackdoorinhisexaminationofAIsummitsasritesofpassage.Thoughhislanguageand
focusaresecular,thepowerofritualfortransformativechangehaseverbeenconnectedwithspiritual
concerns(e.g,Driver,1991;Eliade,1958).

Certainly,afocusonAIasaninquiryintowhatgiveslife,ratherthananinquiryintothepositivewould
overcomeconcernsexpressedwhenmoresimplisticvisionsofAIasastudyofthebestofwhatis,toget
15
BusheAITheoryandCritique
moreofit,areraised.CouldAIhavebeenusedtohelpHitlergaspeoplebetteristhekindofquestion
thefocusesonsuchconcerns.AnapplicationofAIthatwaslikebenchmarkingthemostefficientgas
chambersmightindeedhavehelpedHitler.Butproperlyunderstood,appreciativeinquirywouldforce
gaschamberoperatorstoexplorewhatgavelifetotheirdailyexistence,tobeinauthenticrelationship
witheachother,toconsidertheirhighesthumanaspirations.Couldadeathcultsurvivesuchaninquiry?
ModeratorsofAIPractice
AsexperiencewithAIincreasesandgreaternumbersofscholarsandpractitionersstudysuccessesand
failures,thereisanemergingliteratureonconditionswhichmoderateAIpracticeandAIoutcomes.Two,
inparticular,areworthnoting.

BushesstudiesofAIinsmallgroups,combinedwithhisresearchongroupdevelopmentandteam
effectiveness(Bushe&Coetzer,2007)ledhimtoproposethatAIworksdifferentlyinpreidentityand
postidentitysocialsystems(Bushe,2002).Apreidentitysystemisdefinedasoneinwhichthemajority
ofmembersdonotidentifywiththesystemandapostidentitysystemasoneinwhichamajorityof
membersdoidentifywiththesystem.Theformerwouldincludeappreciativeinquiriesthatbring
togethermembersofdifferentgroups,whichareusedtolaunchneworganizationsornetworks,aswell
asthoseusedinexistingsystemswherethereisverylittlesenseofpsychologicalmembership.Bushe
arguedthatinpreidentitysystems,membersdontreallycarethatmuchaboutthesystemsneedsand
instead,seethegroupororganizationasonemorethingintheirenvironmentthatmustbedealtwithin
thepursuitofpersonalinterests.Inpostidentitysystems,bycontrast,memberstaketheneedsand
interestsofthesystemintoaccountandinsomecases,mightevenbewillingtosacrificepersonal
interestsforthebettermentofthegroup.

16
BusheAITheoryandCritique
Bushe(2002)arguesthatthenatureoftheinquiryandresultingvisionmustbedifferentinthesetwo
typesofgroups.Mirroringhisfindingsongroupstateguides(Bushe&Coetzer,2007;Coetzer&Bushe,
2003),hearguesthatpreidentitygroupsarebestservedbyaninquiryintotheideal(group,
organization,society)butthatpostidentitygroupsarebestservedbyaninquiryintotheought(what
weoughttodogiventhisgroupororganizationsresponsibilities,goalsandenvironment).Inquiryinto
theideal,whensuccessful,helpsagroupachieveapostidentitystateandresearchbyHead(2000)
foundevidencetosupportthisassertion.Bushearguesapostidentitygroupwillbeimpatientwith
inquiryintotheideal,andexperienceitasnavelgazing.Instead,memberswanttoincreasethegroup
ororganizationsefficacyandwillbeengagedbyinquiriesthataremorefocusedaroundincreasingthe
systemscompetenceandcapacity.AsdescribedinBushe(2011)thismodelexplainsfindingsintwo
publishedcasesofappreciativeinquiry;oneintheUSNavy(Powley,Fry,Barrett&Bright,2004)andone
withanexecutiveteam(Newman&Fitzgerald,2001).

AnothermoderatinginfluenceonAImaybetheextenttowhichappreciation,discussionofidealsanda
focusonstrengthsexistspriortoanappreciativeinquiry.Fitzgerald,Oliver&Hoaxey,(2010)suggest
thatinorganizationswherediscussionofsuchthingsareabsent,AIcanbeviewedasaninquiryintothe
organizationsshadow.Definingtheshadowascensoredfeelingandcognition,theysuggestthe
transformativeeffectofAImaysometimesbearesultofenergyandcreativitythatisunleashedwhen
shadowmaterialisreintegratedintothesystem.Bright(2009;Bright&Cameron,2009)offersa
differentwaytothinkaboutsimilarissuesinhismodelofnormativemomentum.Hearguesthat
systemstendtowardanormal,functionalstateofoperations,withoccasionalswingstowardeither
moredysfunctionalformsofoperationormoreextraordinaryformsofoperation.Allelsebeingequal,
hearguesthatorganizationswillexperiencenormativemomentumtowardanordinarystateof
being,astateofequilibriuminwhichmaintainingoperatingprocedures,efficiencyandeffectivenessare
17
BusheAITheoryandCritique
thepreeminentconcernandarenormallyaccomplishedthroughreinforcingconformityandstandards.
Thecurrentpositionoftheorganizationalongthecontinuumfromnegativedeviancetopositive
deviancewillaffectbothhowpeopleexperienceachangeprocessandhowthechangeprocessworks.
Brightargues(2009)thatthediscoveryphaseofAIinanorganizationthatisinadysfunctional,
negativelydeviantperiodwillhaveamoredramatic,positiveimpactthanitwillinonethatisalreadyat
theextraordinary,positivelydeviantendofthecontinuum.Healsosuggests(Bright&Cameron,2009)
thatthenormativepresstowardtheordinarymeansthatinadysfunctionalstate,anychangeprocess
workswiththenaturalflowasitmovesthesystembackintofunctionality,butthatmovingasystem
towardanextraordinarystatemustworkagainstthatsameequilibratingforce.

BoththeseperspectivesbringintoquestionBushes(2007,2011)assertionthatasimplefocusonthe
positiveisnotenoughfortransformationalchangeandoffersanexplanationforwhyandwhenafocus
onthepositivemay,byitself,betransformational(withpreidentitysystems,andwithnegatively
deviantsystems).Italsosuggeststhatthetransformationalpowerofappreciativeinquirymaydiminish
asdiscussionofstrengthsandaspirationsbecomescommonplaceinasystem.Thisfitswithreportsof
peopleexpressingdiscomfortwithcontinuingtouseappreciativeinquiryinorganizationsthathavehad
yearsofsuccessusingit(Fitzgerald,et.al.,2010).
CritiquesofAI
CritiquesofAIhavegottenmoresophisticatedinrecentyears,overcomingearliercritiqueswhichcame
frompeoplenotveryconversantwiththeunderlyingtheory.Morerecentcritiqueshavecomefrom
scholarpractitionerswhouseAIandareawareofitslimitations.Acommonconcerniswiththe
possibilitythatafocusonpositivestoriesandexperiencesduringthediscoveryphasewillinvalidatethe
negativeorganizationalexperiencesofparticipantsandrepresspotentiallyimportantandmeaningful
18
BusheAITheoryandCritique
conversationsthatneedtotakeplace(Egan&Lancaster,2005;Miller,Fitzgerald,Murrell,Preston&
Ambekar,2005;Pratt,2002;Reason,2000).ChristineOliver(Barge&Oliver,2003;Fitzgerald,Oliver&
Hoaxey,2010;Oliver,2005;2005b)hasprovidedaseriesofcogentargumentsforthinkingof
appreciativeinquiryasmorethanjuststudyingthebestofandbringinggreaterreflexivitytoAI
practice.Olivers(2005)critiqueofAIshabitofdecontextualizedpolarization,withpositiveand
negativetreatedashavingintrinsicmeaning,insteadofacknowledgingthatwhatispositiveforsome
maybenegativeforothers,goestotheheartofthematter.Socialconstructionistsarguethatsuch
meaningscantbepreassignedbyathirdparty;theyonlyemergeinrelationshipandeventhensuch
meaningsaremultiple,partialanddynamic.Itshardtoarguethatsuchpolarizationdoesntshowup
withregularityindescriptionsofAI,butisthatreallywhatisgoingoninsuccessfulAIpractice?Isiteven
possibletoinquireintoimagesofapositivefuturewithoutevokingthenegativepastorpresent.Justas
AItheoristsarguethatbehindeverynegativeimageliesthepositive(Brightetal,2011),social
constructionistswouldarguethatbehindeverypositiveimageliesanegativeone(Fineman,2006).
Fitzgeraldet.al.(2010)providenumerousexamplestoshowthatAIcansurfacerepressedorcensored
thoughtsandfeelings.
Johnsons(2011)exploresthemanywayscastinganappreciativeeyecangeneratenegative
experiencesandhow,inturn,exploringthoseexperiencesappreciativelycanresultinpositive,
generative,outcomes.Sheacknowledgesthedilemmaattheheartoftheappreciativeinquiryproject:
AIcouldonlybedifferentiatedbyusingthelanguageofdeficitdiscoursetodefinetheproblemthatAI
wouldsolve(Johnson,2011,inpress).BypolarizingAIandproblemsolving,aneither/ordynamicwas
setthatcontinuestomanifestindescriptionsofAI.AIisdescribedasamethodofchangethatdoesnt
focusonproblems,butresearchsuggeststransformationalchangewillnotoccurfromAIunlessit
addressesproblemsofrealconcerntoorganizationalmembers(Bushe,2010).Ratherthanstayingstuck
inadualistic,either/ordiscourseofpositiveornegative,Johnsonarguesthatthegenerativepotentialof
19
BusheAITheoryandCritique
AIismostlikelytocomefromembracingthepolaritiesofhumanexistenceandthatitisthetensionsof
thoseveryforcesthatmostgivelifeandvitalitytoorganizations.

WhileCooperriderwouldnotdisagreewithJohnsonsnuancedandsensitiveexplorationoflightand
shadow,heissuspiciousofthenaggingdesiretobringdeficitbasedtheoriesofchangebackintoplay.I
thinkwearestillonthisquestforafullblownnondeficittheoryofchange.Imnotsayingthatthe
otherisntawayofchangebutIamsayingthatwearestillinourinfancyinunderstandingnondeficit,
strengthbasedorlifecentricapproachestochange.WilliamJamescalledforitbackin1902,in
VarietiesofReligionsExperience,whenhesaidweknowalotaboutthekindofchangethathappens
whenpeoplefeelthreatened,feelfearandviolenceiscomingatthem,butwedontknowmuchabout
thekindofchangethathappenswhen,inhiswords,everythingishotandalivewithinusand
everythingreconfiguresitselfaroundthat.Whethersomeonewouldcalltheinitiatingexperience
positiveornegative,thetransformationalmomentisaprofusionmomentwhensomethingso
deeplygoodandlovingistouchedinusthateverythingischangedthatsthekindofchangeImtalking
aboutIdontthinkwereallyunderstandthepossibilitiesinthatkindofchangeyetandwearent
goingtounderstandthemuntilwetakethistotheextremes(personalcorrespondence,March30,
2010).
TheFutureofAppreciativeInquiry
After20yearsitisabundantlyclearthatappreciativeinquiry,whenskilfullydonewithproper
sponsorshipandresources,isapotentplanned,transformationalchangeprocess(Bushe&Kassam,
2005;Fryet.al.,2002).Therearenowmanypublishedaccountsofextraordinaryresultsfromitsuseina
varietyofcountries.OneexampleisBrazilbasedNutrimentalFoodswhichengagedall750employees
intwoAppreciativeInquirysummitsandwithinoneyearabsenteeismdecreased300%,salesincreased
20
BusheAITheoryandCritique
27%,productivityincreasedover23%,andprofitsincreased200%(Barros&Cooperrider,2000;Powley,
Cooperrider&Fry,2002).AverydifferentexampleisRoadway,aunionizedtruckingfirmintheUnited
StatesthathashadmanydozensofAIsummitsatitsvariouslocationssincetheturnofmillennium
whichhavetransformedunionmanagementrelationsanddramaticallyimprovedperformance(Ludema
et.al.,2003).Aninternalauditcompletedin2004foundsitesthathadgonethroughAIsummitshad
achievedcostsavingsalmostseventimeshigherthansiteswhichhadnot(Barrett&Fry,2005).
Whilethepotentialfortransformationhasbeenestablished,theremaybeincreasingdisenchantment
withAIamongstmanagersandconsultantsarisingfromapredictablefadphenomenonthatseemsto
plagueallorganizationalchangemethods.Thebuzzcreatedbynew,successfulchangeprocessescreate
increasingrequestsfromorganizationsthatconsultantswanttomeet.Evermorepoorlytrained
consultantsprovideevermorepoorlydesignedapplicationsleadingtoasituationwheremanagersthink
wetriedthat(fillinthechangeprocess)butitdidntworkhere.Afterawhilewhatseemedlikea
silverbulletbecomesyesterdaysstoryandeveryonemoveson.
AnecdotalevidenceisthatamajorityofODconsultantsandmanyotherkindsofconsultantsandchange
agentsnowuseaspectsofAIintheirpractice.ThisreviewhasonlyconsideredAIfromthe
organizationalpointofviewbuttherehavebeenapplicationsatthelevelofindividuals(Kelm,2005),
relationships(Stavros&Torres,2005)groups(Bushe,1998;2002;Bushe&Coetzer,1995)communities
(Browne&Jain,2002;Finehold,Holland&Lingham,2002)and,inthecaseofNepal,evennations
(Cooperrider,Whitney&Stavros,2008,p.vii).Aswell,AIhasbeenadaptedforuseinstrategicplanning
(Stavros&Saint,2009),programevaluation(Preskill&Catsambas,2006)andevenqualityaudits(Morris,
2008).Oneofthedownsidesofthisisthatalotofdifferentthingsendupgettingcalledappreciative
inquiry,whichfurtherdilutesgeneralunderstandingofthereallyimportantinnovationsinthistheoryof
21
BusheAITheoryandCritique
practiceandleadstothekindofdumbeddowndescriptionsfoundinpublicationslikeTiem&
Rozenswieg(2006).
WhatwemostneedarestudiesthatexploresuccessesandfailuresofAItoexplainthemoderatorsand
contingenciesthatinfluenceAIoutcomes(Head,2005).Wearelongpasttheneedforarticles
breathlesslydescribingthisnewchangeprocessorprovidingshortanecdotesofAIsuccess,but
unfortunatelythatcontinuestobemainlywhatispublished.Instead,weneedlongitudinalcasestudies
thataredetailedandnuanced,likethatbyBryan(2009),Messerschmidt(2008)andMilleret.al.(2005).
Wealsoneedcomparativestudiesthattrackcontingencies,mediatorsandmoderatorswhenAIisused
repetitivelyinthesameorsimilarorganizations(e.g.,Bushe,2010;Richer,Ritchie&Marchionni,2009).
DuetotheproliferationofmethodscalledAI,andthevarietyoftheoreticalleversbehindAIpractice,
theseneedtobecarefullydetailedinpublishedreports.Wealsoneedtobuildabodyofcommon
modelsandtermssothatstudiescanbecompared.Besidesthe4Dmodelandthe5principlesfew
ifanyoftheotherusefulmodelsandlensreviewedinthischapterarebeingusedconsistentlyin
studyingandreportingonAI.
WhenisAIthemostappropriatechangeprocess?Whatcontingenciesareimportanttoconsiderwhen
planninganAI?WhatorganizationalfactorsmostinfluencethesuccessorfailureofAI?Atpresentwe
havelittleevidencebasedanswerstothosequestions.Wealsodonthaveanygoodtheoreticalwayof
thinkingaboutscaleofthewholechangeprocesses.Itseemsacommonsensepropositionthatif
everyoneinthesystemcanagreeonwhatneedsdoing,executionwillbemucheasier,butisthatallthat
ishappeningwhenverylargenumbersofpeoplecometogetherinanAIsummit?Arethereother,as
yetundescribednetworkeffectsfromlargescalesthatsupportorganizationalchange?CanAIprocesses
bescaledupinfinitely?Howmanymembersinasystemneedtobeengagedforscaleofthewhole
effectstokickin?
22
BusheAITheoryandCritique
Therearemanymorequestionsthatcouldbeasked,assofewhavebeenempiricallystudiedand
answeredbutIwillconcludewithonefinalonethecompetenciesrequiredoftheAI
facilitator/consultant.Verylittlehasbeenwrittenaboutthis.Cananycleverpersonwithapositive
attitudelearntofacilitateAIsummitswell?Doesitrequireahealthyandspirituallygrounded
individual(Murrell,2005,p.111)?IslackoffacilitatorcharacteristicsorskillsrelatedtoAIfailure?
Maybewejustdontknow.
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