TOPICS:

1. ABSTRACT
2. HOW CELL PHONES WORK
3. ENCODING AND MULTIPLEXING
Analog vs. Digital
FDMA
TDMA
CDMA
GSM
CALL HAND OFF
SECURITY
4. SWITCHING
Finding the se!
Conne"ting the "all
Roa#ing
5. WIRELESS DATA
Analog #ode#s
$a"%et Data &CD$D ove! IS'()* and
AM$S net+o!%s,
GSM
6. DETERMING CAPACITY
I!idi#
Glo-alsta!
Teledesi"
7. UTURE
!. SATELLITE SYSTEMS
". OTHER UTURE SYSTEMS
1#. CONCLUSION


ABSTRACT

Cellla! tele.hones have !evoltioni/ed the "o##ni"ations a!ena0
!ede1ining ho+ +e .e!"eive voi"e "o##ni"ations. T!aditionall20 "ellla!
.hones !e#ained ot o1 the hands o1 #ost "ons#e!s de to thei! high "ost.
As a !eslt0 "ell .hone "a!!ie!s have invested ti#e and !eso!"es into 1inding
+a2s to give the s2ste#s highe! "a.a"it2 and ths lo+e! "ost. Cell s2ste#s
a!e -ene1iting 1!o# this !esea!"h and sta!ting to develo. into la!ge's"ale
"ons#e! .!od"ts.
Toda20 "ellla! .hones a!e t!l2 "ons#e! ele"t!oni"s devi"es +ith
ove! 34 #illion s-s"!i-e!s. The No%ia 5o+l and 6al"o## Stadi# a!e
1!the! eviden"e o1 the idea that "ell .hones a!e "ons#e! ele"t!oni"s
devi"es. Sin"e "ell .hones have "eased to -e an e7"lsive stats s2#-ol o1
high'.o+e!ed la+2e!s and a!e no+ in the hands o1 #illions o1 "ons#e!s0
the2 a!e no+ in"!edi-l2 "ost sensitive. S.e"i1i"all20 it is not the "ost o1 the
devi"e that "onts0 -t the "ost o1 sing the devi"e. As a !eslt0 the "ellla!
.hone in1!ast!"t!e is -eing o.ti#i/ed to allo+ "alls to -e .la"ed as
ine7.ensivel2 and !elia-l2 as .ossi-le. Toda20 #o!e than eve!0 "ellla!
"o#.anies a!e loo%ing 1o! +a2s to -!ing do+n the "all "ost to attain even
highe! #a!%et .enet!ation0 es.e"iall2 in #et!o.olitan a!eas.
In this !e.o!t0 +e +ill -egin -2 e7a#ining ho+ "ell .hone s2ste#s
+o!%0 .a2ing "lose attention to details in s2ste# design that !ed"e "ost and
in"!ease 8alit2. A1te! +e have e7.lained ho+ "ell .hone s2ste#s +o!%0 +e
+ill e7a#ine the va!ios "ell .hone s2ste#s in e7isten"e0 e7a#ining the
details o1 thei! o.e!ation and ho+ that i#.a"ts the "ost o1 sing the s2ste#
and the "all 8alit2 on the s2ste#. Sin"e the #ost i#.o!tant 1a"to! in "ell
.hone ai!ti#e "ost is the "a.a"it20 +e +ill 1o"s on isses !elated to "a.a"it2.
Cellular Technology:

In tele.hon20 a gene!i" te!# 1o! all +i!eless .hones0 !ega!dless o1 the
te"hnolog2 the2 se9 the te!# de!ives 1!o# "ellla! -ase stations that !e"eive
and t!ans#it "alls. 5oth "ellla! and $Cs .hones se "ellla! te"hnolog2.
:A1te! the FCC; Note< The st!ategi"all2 .la"ed !1 -ase stations have li#ited0
sall2 ove!la..ing "ove!age a!eas &"ells, that se!ve to "onne"t #o-ile0
sall2 s#all handheld !adio t!ans"eive!s &"ellla! #o-ile tele.hones &"alled
="ell .hones=, to the .-li" s+it"hed tele.hone net+o!%. >hen ne"essa!20
-ased on the !1 signal st!ength 1!o# a given #oving "ell .hone0 "alls in
.!og!ess #a2 -e ato#ati"all2 s+it"hed via landlines 1!o# one "ell to
anothe!0 to #aintain the "onne"tion.
How Cell Phones Work:
An Overview:
It is "o##on %no+ledge that Cellla! $hones &!e1e!!ed to as ="ell=
.hones 1!o# he!e on, a!e +i!eless .hones9 ho+eve!0 #an2 a!e "on1sed
a-ot ho+ a "ell .hone a"tall2 +o!%s. Essentiall20 "ell .hones se high'
1!e8en"2 !adio signals to "o##ni"ate +ith ="ell to+e!s= lo"ated th!oghot
the "alling a!ea. Cell .hones "o##ni"ate in the 1!e8en"2 !ange o1 ?@*'?4@
MH/ and (?3@'(44@ MH/ 1o! the ne+l2 allo"ated =$CS= 1!e8en"2 !ange.
>hen the se! +ants to #a%e a "all0 the "ell .hone sends a #essage
to the to+e!0 as%ing to -e "onne"ted to a given tele.hone n#-e!. I1 the
to+e! has s11i"ient !eso!"es to g!ant the !e8est0 a devi"e "alled a =s+it"h=
.at"hes the "ell .hone s signal th!oghot to a "hannel on the =.-li"
s+it"hed tele.hone net+o!%= &othe!+ise %no+n as the $STN,. This "all no+
ta%es . a +i!eless "hannel as +ell as a $STN "hannel that +ill -e held o.en
ntil the "all is "o#.leted. The 1ollo+ing 1ig!e illst!ates this .!o"ess.
$hone "all is this "hannel "annot -e sed 1o! an2one else s "alls ntil the "ell
dis"ontined.
Given this si#.le des"!i.tion o1 ho+ "ell .hones +o!%0 +e +ill add
te"hni"al details a-ot va!ios 1a"ets o1 "ell .hone s2ste#s th!oghot the
!e#ainde! o1 this se"tion.
Cells: As the na#e i#.lies0 "ell .hone s2ste#s a!e #ade . o1 #an2
s#all ="ells.= Ea"h "ell in a "ell .hone s2ste# !e.!esents the a!ea se!ved -2
one "ell .hone to+e!. The "on"e.t o1 "ells is %e2 -ehind the s""ess o1 "ell
.hones -e"ase -2 s.a"ing #an2 "ells 1ai!l2 "lose to ea"h othe!0 the "ell
.hones #a2 -!oad"ast at ve!2 lo+ .o+e! levels &t2.i"all2 A@@#> (>0
de.ending on s2ste#,. Sin"e the "ell .hones #a2 -!oad"ast at lo+ .o+e!
levels0 the2 se s#all t!ans#itte!s and s#all -atte!ies0 and ths a!e a-le to
1it in a shi!t .o"%et0 nli%e a#ate! !adios "an o"".2 a ta-leto..
Cells a!e t2.i"all2 s.a"ed a!ond ('A #iles a.a!t -t "an -e s.a"ed
. to A@ #iles a.a!t in !!al a!eas. In loaded a!eas o! a!eas +ith #an2
o-sta"les &s"h as tall -ildings,0 the "ell sites #a2 -e s.a"ed "lose!
togethe!. So#e te"hnologies0 li%e $CS0 !e8i!e "lose! "ell s.a"ing de to thei!
highe! 1!e8en"2 and lo+e! .o+e! o.e!ation. Additionall20 -ildings inte!1e!e
+ith "ell signals "o#ing 1!o# otside0 so #an2 -ildings have thei! o+n
=#i"!o"ell.= The Bingdo#e and Ne+ Yo!% s-+a2 a!e t+o e7a#.les o1 +he!e
#i"!o"ells a!e sed. Mi"!o"ells #a2 also -e sed to in"!ease ove!all "a.a"it2
+ithin a heavil2 .o.lated a!ea s"h as a "it2 s "o!e do+nto+n a!ea. In 1a"t0
ho#es #a2 have =.i"o"ells= "onne"ted to the ho#e s $STN "onne"tion to
allo+ the "ell .hone to -e sed as a "o!dless .hone. An e7a#.le o1 t2.i"al
#i"!o"ell and .i"o"ell envi!on#ents is .i"t!ed in the 1ollo+ing 1ig!e.
Encoding and Multiplexing:
Overview:
>ith thosands o1 "ellla! .hone "alls going on at an2 given ti#e
+ithin a "it20 it "e!tainl2 +old not +o!% 1o! eve!2one to tal% on the "a#e
"hannel at on"e &as in C5 and sho!t'+ave !adios,. The!e1o!e0 seve!al
di11e!ent te"hni8es +e!e develo.ed -2 "ell .hone #an1a"t!e!s to s.lit .
the availa-le -and+idth into #an2 "hannels ea"h "a.a-le o1 s..o!ting one
"onve!sation. The 1ollo+ing se"tions +ill dis"ss ea"h te"hnolog2 and ho+ it
+o!%s.
Analog vs. Digital: >hile the distin"tion -et+een analog and digital
en"oding is .!o-a-l2 o-vios to #ost !eade!s0 a sho!t dis"ssion is in"lded
1o! those +ho a!e not. Essentiall20 analog -!oad"asts adio as a se!ies o1
"ontinosl2 "hanging0 voltage levels !e.!esenting the a#.litde o1 the voi"e
"onve!sation. >hen sent on the "ell .hone net+o!% sing the standa!d
1!e8en"2 #odlation &#eaning voltage levels t!anslate into 1!e8en"2 shi1ts,
into "hannels se.a!ated -2 )@ %H/0 +e 1ind that the a#.litde "an -e
e11e"tivel2 t!ans#itted at (3 %H/ de to N28ist li#itations.
Instead o1 sending data as va!ios voltage levels0 a digital signal
8anti/es the voltage levels into a n#-e! o1 -ins &t2.i"all2 A? o! A3*
!e.!esenting an ?'-it en"oding,. These -ins a!e en"oded as a -ina!2 n#-e!
and sent as a se!ies o1 ones and /e!os. This allo+s 1o! digital "o#.!ession in
the en"oding stage ena-ling voi"e to -e sent at as little as ?@@@ -its .e!
se"ond.
FDMA:
FDMA stands 1o! =1!e8en"2 division #lti.le a""ess= and0 thogh it
"old -e sed 1o! digital s2ste#s0 is e7"lsivel2 sed on all analog "ellla!
s2ste#s. Essentiall20 FDMA s.lits the allo"ated s.e"t!# into #an2 "hannels.
In "!!ent analog "ell s2ste#s0 ea"h "hannel is )@ %H/. >hen a FDMA "ell
.hone esta-lishes a "all0 it !ese!ves the 1!e8en"2 "hannel 1o! the enti!e
d!ation o1 the "all. The voi"e data is #odlated into this "hannel s 1!e8en"2
-and &sing 1!e8en"2 #odlation, and sent ove! the ai!+aves. At the
!e"eive!0 the in1o!#ation is !e"ove!ed sing a -and'.ass 1ilte!. The .hone
ses a "o##on digital "ont!ol "hannel to a"8i!e "hannels.
FDMA s2ste#s a!e the least e11i"ient "ellla! s2ste# sin"e ea"h
analog "hannel "an onl2 -e sed -2 one se! at a ti#e. Not onl2 a!e these
"hannels la!ge! than ne"essa!2 given #ode!n digital voi"e "o#.!ession0 -t
the2 a!e also +asted +heneve! the!e is silen"e d!ing the "ell .hone
"onve!sation. Analog signals a!e also es.e"iall2 ss"e.ti-le to noise and
the!e is no +a2 to 1ilte! it ot. Given the nat!e o1 the signal0 analog "ell
.hones #st se highe! .o+e! &-et+een ( and ) +atts, to get a""e.ta-le
"all 8alit2. Given these sho!t"o#ings0 it is eas2 to see +h2 FDMA is -eing
!e.la"ed -2 ne+e! digital te"hni8es.
TDMA:
TDMA stands 1o! =ti#e division #lti.le a""ess.= TDMA -ilds on
FDMA -2 dividing "onve!sations -2 1!e8en"2 and ti#e. Sin"e digital
"o#.!ession allo+s voi"e to -e sent at +ell nde! (@ %ilo-its .e! se"ond
&e8ivalent to (@ %H/,0 TDMA 1its th!ee digital "onve!sations into a FDMA
"hannel &+hi"h is )@ %H/,. 52 sa#.ling a .e!son s voi"e 1o!0 sa2 )@
#illise"onds0 then t!ans#itting it in (@ #illise"onds9 the s2ste# is a-le to
o11e! ) ti#eslots .e! "hannel in a !ond'!o-in 1ashion. This te"hni8e allo+s
"o#.ati-ilit2 +ith FDMA +hile ena-ling digital se!vi"es and easil2 -oosting
s2ste# "a.a"it2 -2 th!ee ti#es.
>hile TDMA is a good digital s2ste#0 it is still so#e+hat ine11i"ient
sin"e it has no 1le7i-ilit2 1o! va!2ing digital data !ates &high 8alit2 voi"e0 lo+
8alit2 voi"e0 .age! t!a11i", and has no a""o##odations 1o! silen"e in a
tele.hone "onve!sation. In othe! +o!ds0 on"e a "all is initiated0 the
"hannelCti#eslot .ai! -elongs to the .hone 1o! the d!ation o1 the "all. TDMA
also !e8i!es st!i"t signaling and ti#eslot s2n"h!oni/ation. A digital "ont!ol
"hannel .!ovides s2n"h!oni/ation 1n"tionalit2 as +ell as adding voi"e #ail
and #essage noti1i"ation. De to the digital signal0 TDMA .hones need onl2
-!oad"ast at *@@ #ili+atts.
CDMA:
CDMA stands 1o! ="ode division #lti.le a""ess= and is -oth the #ost
inte!esting and the ha!dest to i#.le#ent #lti.le7ing #ethod. CDMA has
-een li%ened to a .a!t2< >hen eve!2one tal%s at on"e0 no one "an -e
nde!stood0 ho+eve!0 i1 eve!2one s.ea%s a di11e!ent langage0 then the2 "an
-e nde!stood. CDMA s2ste#s have no "hannels0 -t instead en"odes ea"h
"all as a "oded se8en"e a"!oss the enti!e 1!e8en"2 s.e"t!#. Ea"h
"onve!sation is #odlated0 in the digital do#ain0 +ith a ni8e "ode &"alled a
.sedo'noise "ode, that #a%es it distingisha-le 1!o# the othe! "alls in the
1!e8en"2 s.e"t!#. Using a "o!!elation "al"lation and the "ode the "all +as
en"oded +ith0 the digital adio signal "an -e e7t!a"ted 1!o# the othe! signals
-eing -!oad"ast -2 othe! .hones on the net+o!%. F!o# the .e!s.e"tive o1
one "all0 .on e7t!a"ting the signal0 eve!2thing else a..ea!s to -e lo+'level
noise. As long as the!e is s11i"ient se.a!ation -et+een the "odes &said to -e
#tall2 o!thogonal,0 the noise level +ill -e lo+ enogh to !e"ove! the digital
signal. Ea"h signal is not0 in 1a"t0 s.!ead a"!oss the +hole s.e"t!# &(A.3
MH/ 1o! t!aditional "ellla! o! *@ MH/ in $CS "ellla!,0 -t is s.!ead a"!oss
(.A3 MH/ =.ass'-ands.=
CDMA s2ste#s a!e the latest te"hnolog2 on the #a!%et and a!e
al!ead2 e"li.sing TDMA in te!#s o1 "ost and "all 8alit2. Sin"e CDMA o11e!s
1a! g!eate! "a.a"it2 and va!ia-le data !ates de.ending on the adio a"tivit20
#an2 #o!e se!s "an -e 1it into a given 1!e8en"2 s.e"t!# and highe!
adio 8alit2 "an -e .!ovide. The "!!ent CDMA s2ste#s -oast at least th!ee
ti#es the "a.a"it2 o1 TDMA and GSM s2ste#s. The 1a"t that CDMA sha!es
1!e8en"ies +ith neigh-o!ing "ell to+e!s allo+s 1o! easie! installation o1 e7t!a
"a.a"it20 sin"e e7t!a "a.a"it2 "an -e a"hieved -2 si#.l2 adding e7t!a "ell
sites and sh!in%ing .o+e! levels o1 nea!-2 sites. CDMA te"hnolog2 also allo+s
lo+e! "ell .hone .o+e! levels &A@@ #ili+atts, sin"e the #odlation
te"hni8es e7.e"t to deal +ith noise and a!e +ell sited to +ea%e! signals.
The do+nside to CDMA is the "o#.le7it2 o1 de"i.he!ing and e7t!a"ting the
!e"eived signals0 es.e"iall2 i1 the!e a!e #lti.le signal .aths &!e1le"tions,
-et+een the .hone and the "ell to+e! &"alled #lti.ath inte!1e!en"e,. As a
!eslt0 CDMA .hones a!e t+i"e as e7.ensive as TDMA .hones and CDMA "ell
site e8i.#ent is )'D ti#es the .!i"e o1 TDMA e8ivalents.
GM:
GSM stands 1o! =Glo-al S2ste# 1o! Mo-ile Co##ni"ations.= GSM is
#ostl2 a E!o.ean s2ste# and is la!gel2 nsed in the US. GSM is
inte!esting in that it ses a #odi1ied and 1a! #o!e e11i"ient ve!sion o1 TDMA.
GSM %ee.s the idea o1 ti#eslots and 1!e8en"2 "hannels0 -t "o!!e"ts seve!al
#aEo! sho!t"o#ings. Sin"e the GSM ti#eslots a!e s#alle! than TDMA0 the2
hold less data -t allo+ 1o! data !ates sta!ting at )@@ -its .e! se"ond. Ths0
a "all "an se as #an2 ti#eslots as ne"essa!2 . to a li#it o1 () %ilo-its .e!
se"ond. >hen a "all is ina"tive &silen"e, o! #a2 -e "o#.!essed #o!e0 1e+e!
ti#eslots a!e sed. To 1a"ilitate 1illing in ga.s le1t -2 nsed ti#eslots0 "alls
do =1!e8en"2 ho..ing= in GSM. This #eans that "alls +ill E#. -et+een
"hannels and ti#eslots to #a7i#i/e the s2ste# s sage. A "ont!ol "hannel is
sed to "o##ni"ate the 1!e8en"2 ho..ing and othe! in1o!#ation -et+een
the "ell to+e! and the .hone. To "o#.a!e +ith the othe! s2ste#s0 it shold
-e noted that GSM !e8i!es ( >att o1 ot.t .o+e! 1!o# the .hone.
Call Handoff:
It is a..a!ent that "ells #st so#eho+ ove!la.0 and +hen a se!
t!avels -et+een "ells0 one "ell #st hand the "all o11 to the othe! "ell. The
"ells #st also not inte!1e!e +ith ea"h othe!. This is a""o#.lished -2 giving
ea"h "ell a slightl2 di11e!ent "hn% o1 the 1!e8en"2 s.e"t!# &note that
CDMA does not do this, and -2 #eas!ing .o+e! levels. >hen the .o+e!
level o1 the se! -egins to 1ade0 the "ell to+e! dete!#ines +hi"h "ell is the
"losest "ell. U.on 1inding this in1o!#ation0 the "!!ent "ell to+e! sends an
ove!'the'ai! #essage to the ne+ "ell to+e! and to the "ell .hone. At this
.oint0 the ne+ "ell to+e! .i"%s . the "all and the old one d!o.s the "all as
the "ell .hone s+it"hes 1!e8en"ies. This t2.e o1 hando11 is "alled a =ha!d
hando11= sin"e the adio 1eed is lost 1o! -et+een (@ #illise"onds and (@@
#illise"onds +hile the ne+ to+e! .i"%s . the signal. O1ten these =ha!d=
hando11s 1ail +hen the ne+ to+e! t!ies to .i"% the "all .0 leading to 1!e8ent
d!o..ed "alls.
In #ost s2ste#s0 ea"h "ell to+e! t2.i"all2 !e"eives a (.? MH/
1!e8en"2 s.e"t!#. In no!#al "ellla! s2ste#s that have a (A.3 MH/
s.e"t!# &not the high'-and $CS s2ste#s that have #o!e -and+idth,0 this
allo+s 1o! F "ells -e1o!e "ells have to !ese 1!e8en"ies. Gene!all20 the!e a!e
('A "ells and (@'A@ #iles se.a!ating "ells sing the sa#e 1!e8en"2 in o!de!
to #ini#i/e inte!1e!en"e.
A dis"ssion o1 "all hando11 is not "o#.lete +ithot CDMA
te"hnolog2. Sin"e CDMA ses the enti!e s.e"t!# availa-le0 the!e is no !eal
distin"tion -et+een "ells in te!#s o1 1!e8en"2 se. Sin"e ea"h "all is
s"atte!ed a"!oss a +hole (.A3 MH/ .ass -and in CDMA0 eve!2 "ell to+e! "an
a""ess the +hole (A.3 MH/ s.e"t!# &*@ MH/ in a $CS s2ste#,. This #eans
that the!e is no ne"essit2 to "hange 1!e8en"ies d!ing a hando11 sin"e
eve!2one is sing the sa#e 1!e8en"ies. The!e1o!e0 t+o "ell to+e!s inte!"e.t
the signal +he!e the "ells ove!la.. This #eans no sdden s+it"h0 sin"e this
hando11 &"alled a =so1t hando11=, is a"tall2 handled in the s+it"h0 "hanging
1!o# one +ea%e! adio 1eed to a st!onge! adio 1eed. This te"hni8e !e#oves
the lod =.o.= asso"iated +ith no!#al =ha!d= hando11s and g!eatl2 !ed"es
.!o-le#s +ith d!o..ed "alls. The so1t hando11 "on"e.t is .i"t!ed -elo+.
Security:
One o1 the la!gest .!o-le#s in +i!eless "o##ni"ation is se"!it2.
The!e a!e t+o +o!!ies< Othe! .eo.le listening into .hone "alls and othe!
.eo.le illegall2 -illing ti#e to a se! s a""ont &"alled =.hone "loning=,.
Un1o!tnatel20 analog .hones t!ans#it in .lain FM0 and .!ovide no
se"!it2. Fo! instan"e0 a 1e+ 2ea!s ago0 Ne+t Ging!i"h had a "ell .hone
"onve!sation ta.ed -2 so#eone sing a si#.le .oli"e s"anne!0 +hi"h is
designed to !e"eive .oli"e a"tivit2 on the C5 1!e8en"ies. Sin"e analog
.hones have s"h +ea% se"!it20 the a!"hite"ts o1 digital te"hnolog2 designed
digital .hones +ith #"h #o!e !o-st se"!it2.
Digital .hones e#.lo2 en"!2.tion to se"!e the .hone and the
"onve!sation. En"!2.tion is sed in TDMA and CDMA to #a%e s!e that it is
al#ost i#.ossi-le to =lat"h= onto a "onve!sation. The en"!2.tion +o!%s -2
.i"%ing a %e2 that is sed in an e8ation that "o#.!esses the adio. The
en"!2.ted %e2 is sent to the "ell to+e! so the "ell to+e! %no+s ho+ to de"ode
the "onve!sation. The!e1o!e0 even i1 the .e!son +ith the s"anne! 1inds the
"hannel and ti#e sli"e 2o a!e sing0 the2 +old need to 1ind the en"!2.tion
"ode to #a%e sense o1 the signal. It is also i#.o!tant to #ention that CDMA
also ses its #odlation "ode to .!ovide in"!eased se"!it20 !eslting in ove!
1o! -illion .ossi-le en"!2.tion "odes. Cell .hones also #st -e .!ote"ted
1!o# "loning. 52 en"!2.ting the "ell .hone n#-e! and !elated in1o!#ation
+hen sending the in1o!#ation to the s+it"h0 "loning is .!evented.
Switching:
Overview:
>hen a se! .la"es a "all on a "ell .hone0 the s2ste# #st 1ig!e
ot ho+ to !ote the "all to the $STN. Additionall20 +hen so#eone "alls the
"ell .hone0 the s2ste# #st 1ig!e +hat "ell the se! is in. This se"tion
des"!i-es ho+ this is done.
Fin!ing the user:
>heneve! 2o t!n 2o! "ell .hone on0 the .hone sends its
identi1i"ation to the "ell .hone to+e!. This in"ldes the =MIN= &#o-ile
identi1i"ation n#-e!0 sall2 the .hone n#-e!, and the =ESN= &ele"t!oni"
se!ial n#-e!,. The "ell to+e! 1o!+a!ds this in1o!#ation to a "ent!all2 lo"ated
s+it"h via s.e"ial leased .hone lines that "onne"t a s+it"h to #an2 "ell sites
&T'( lines a!e o1ten sed,. >hen the s+it"h gets this in1o!#ation0 it 1o!+a!ds
it to an2 highe! level s+it"hes.
Connecting the call:
>heneve! a "all "o#es in0 it +ill "o#e to the s+it"h that se!ves the
e7"hange &the e7"hange is the 333 in &A@*, 333'(A(A,. This to.'level s+it"h
+ill .ass that "all onto an2 lo+e! level s+it"hes0 i1 the!e is one0 althogh
the!e sall2 is not. >hen the "all is .assed to the lo+est level s+it"h0 it
"he"%s to #a%e s!e the .hone is still !egiste!ed &it is t!ned on and in
!ange,. I1 it is !egiste!ed0 the .hone is noti1ied via the signaling "hannel and
the .hone -egins !inging. >hen the se! "hooses to a""e.t the "all0 the
s+it"h esta-lishes the voi"e "hannel and the "all -egins.
"oa#ing:
Roa#ing +as one o1 the #ost "hallenging isses the "ell .hone
indst!2 1a"ed. The goal +as si#.le< a .hone "old -e sed an2+he!e in the
US o! the +o!ld +he!e "o#.ati-le te"hnolog2 is sed. The di11i"lt .a!t is
getting va!ios s2ste#s to "o##ni"ate and .ass !oting and -illing
in1o!#ation to ea"h othe!.
>hen a se! t!ns his o! he! "ell .hone on in a !oa#ing a!ea0 the
"ell .hone identi1ies itsel1 to the s+it"h. >hen the s+it"h loo%s . the
in1o!#ation and dis"ove!s it is not a lo"al .hone0 it +ill atte#.t to 1ind the
=ho#e= s+it"h -ased on the e7"hange. >hen it lo"ates the ho#e s+it"h0 it
+ill dete!#ine i1 !oa#ing is .ossi-le. I1 !oa#ing is .ossi-le0 the s+it"h
&!e1e!!ed to he!e as the =!oa#ing s+it"h=, sets . a =Gisito! Lo"ation
Registe!= &GLR, !egiste!ing the .hone in the lo"alit2. The ho#e s+it"h +ill
also -e noti1ied a-ot the "hange so that it "an !ote "alls to the s+it"h in
the !oa#ing lo"ation. Ot-ond "alls a!e handled th!ogh the !oa#ing s+it"h
as the2 +old -e handled i1 the se! +e!e at ho#e. In"o#ing "alls a!e !oted
1!o# the ho#e s+it"h to the !oa#ing s+it"h a1te! sending a #essage to the
!oa#ing s+it"h !e8esting a =te#.o!a!2 lo"al di!e"to!2 n#-e!= &TLDN,. This
TLDN +ill -e sed to #a%e a "onne"tion 1!o# the ho#e s+it"h to the
!oa#ing s+it"h a"!oss the $STN. Finall20 +heneve! the !oa#ing .hone is
t!ned o110 the .hone is n!egiste!ed +ith the !oa#ing s+it"h and the ho#e
s+it"h is noti1ied. The .!o"ess o1 !egiste!ing the .hone and noti12ing the
ho#e s+it"h ta%es A se"onds.
Wireless Data:
Overview:
In #ode!n ti#es0 +e de.end on e'#ail and on the >o!ld >ide >e-.
>e have a""ess to these !eso!"es at ho#e and at the o11i"es0 and +e +old
li%e to se these !eso!"es +hile t!aveling. This is the goal that =+i!eless
data= ho.es to a""o#.lish. In the 1ollo+ing se"tion0 +e +ill dis"ss va!ios
t2.es o1 +i!eless data s2ste#s that !n on to. o1 "ellla! net+o!%s. S2ste#s
that !n on othe! s2ste#s0 s"h as !i"o"het0 +hi"h !ns on the .age!
net+o!%0 +ill not -e dis"ssed.
Analog #o!e#s:
Analog #ode#s a!e the si#.lest t2.e o1 +i!eless data. Analog
#ode#s +o!% on an2 "ellla! s2ste# -2 si#.l2 en"oding the digital data as
adio signals. Analog "ellla! #ode#s #a%e the sa#e s8ealing sonds as
an o!dina!2 des%to. "o#.te! s analog #ode#0 -t o.e!ate at 1a! slo+e!
s.eeds. On an analog #ode#0 these #ode#s t2.i"all2 ave!age -et+een
D?@@ to 4*@@ -its .e! se"ond. This is slo+e! than the #a7i## .ossi-le !ate
-e"ase o1 the ine11i"ien"2 o1 "onve!ting digital to analog. It shold also -e
noted that digital "ell s2ste#s do not s..o!t analog #ode#s sin"e thei!
data "o#.!ession +old da#age the analog #ode# signal0 .!eventing it
1!o# -eing de"oded -2 the !e"eiving #ode#.
Packet Data $CDPD over %&'() an! AMP networks*
52 sing so#e o1 the "hannels o1 the TDMA o! FDMA &IS'()* and AM$S
standa!ds, net+o!% as la!ge agg!egated digital data lines0 .a"%eti/ed digital
data #a2 -e sent ove! this line. CD$D des"!i-es ho+ eve!2 "ell .hone on the
net+o!% #a2 inse!t .a"%ets on this sha!ed data "hannel +ithot "asing
"ollisions0 +hi"h +old ha..en i1 t+o .a"%ets +e!e sent at the sa#e ti#e -2
t+o di11e!ent .hones. CD$D is se1l sin"e it !ns on to. o1 old FDMA
s2ste#s as +ell as ne+e! TDMA s2ste#s and o11e!s a (4.A %ilo-its .e!
se"ond data !ate. Using a TDMA s2ste#0 the CD$D .!oto"ol "an -e s"aled -2
adding #o!e 1!e8en"2 "hannels.
GM:
GSM ses an int!iging #ethod to send data. 52 si#.l2 sending
"o#.te! data as it +old send voi"e data0 GSM allo+s eve!2 .hone to -e
=data ena-led.= Sin"e the GSM net+o!% is al!ead2 a .a"%et net+o!% o1 so!ts
-e"ase o1 its 1!e8en"2 ho..ing0 it !e8i!es no additional ha!d+a!e to
s..o!t data. GSM allo+s data !ates in #lti.les o1 )@@ -its .e! se"ond0 .
to *D %ilo-its .e! se"ond.
Deter#ining ca+acity:
The "ell to+e!s the#selves a!e .e!ha.s the #ost "ostl2 .a!t o1
o.e!ating a "ellla! .hone net+o!%. Cell to+e!s a!e e7.osed to envi!on#ental
ha/a!ds0 s"h as +eathe!0 +ildli1e0 and vandalis#. The 8alit2 o1 se!vi"e
o-taina-le 1!o# "ell to+e!s va!ies +idel2 de.ending .on inte!1e!en"e 1!o#
othe! so!"es s"h as !adio to+e!s0 inte!1e!en"e 1!o# othe! "ell to+e!s0 and
o-sta"les s"h as tall -ildings.
Also ta%en into a""ont is the !elative .o+e! "ons#.tion o1 ea"h
to+e!. I1 ea"h to+e! "ons#es a s-stantial a#ont o1 .o+e!0 it +old not -e
"ost e11e"tive to .t . #an2 to+e!s in a s#all a!ea. The densit2 o1 "ell
to+e!s #st o11set thei! .o+e! "ons#.tion.
Finall20 the se!s the#selves de#and a high 8alit2 o1 se!vi"e. In
densel2 .o.lated !-an a!eas0 se!s +ill "o#.lain i1 a to+e! 1ails and an
enti!e neigh-o!hood loses "ell .hone "ove!age. In this "ase0 it #ight -e "ost
e11e"tive to .t in #o!e to+e!s that o11e! highe! -and+idth o! #a%e so#e
to+e!s !edndant as a -a"%. 1o! 1ail!e.
Unli%e the se! devi"es0 +hi"h the se!s #aintain the#selves0 se!vi"e
.!ovide!s #st set. and o.e!ate the to+e!s. 5e"ase se!s de#and
e7tensive "ove!age and the a-ilit2 to !oa#0 the a!eas se!vi"ed -2 "ell to+e!s
#st the!e1o!e "ove! a la!ge and e7tensive a!ea. Ho+eve!0 "ell to+e!s a!e
li#ited in thei! !ange and .o+e!9 "onse8entl20 se!vi"e .!ovide!s #st
dete!#ine the o.ti#al #i7 o1 .o+e! "ons#.tion0 8alit2 o1 se!vi"e0 and
n#-e! o1 se!s .e! to+e! in o!de! to o.ti#i/e .la"e#ent.
>ith this in #ind0 the!e a!e a n#-e! o1 di11e!ent algo!ith#s0 +hi"h
a..!o7i#atel2 dete!#ine the n#-e! o1 se!s ea"h to+e! "an handle. Fo!
FDMA and TDMA s2ste#s0 this is "lea!l2 a #o!e o! less linea! 1n"tion. In the
"ase o1 an FDMA s2ste#0 the a#ont o1 noise 1!o# othe! so!"es and the
a#ont o1 .o+e! t!ans#itted dete!#ine the n#-e! o1 dis"!ete 1!e8en"2
-ands into +hi"h the total t!ans#ission -and "an -e divided. Althogh 1e+e!
-ands do not ne"essa!il2 #ean "lea!e! se!vi"e0 1e+e! -ands gene!all2 #eans
less disto!tion 1!o# noise. The n#-e! o1 se!s is e8al to the n#-e! o1
1!e8en"2 -ands0 sin"e ea"h se! !e"eives a -and 1o! the d!ation o1 the "all.
In the "ase o1 TDMA s2ste#s0 noise and .o+e! dete!#ine the n#-e! o1
1!e8en"2 -ands as +ell as the !ate at +hi"h se!s #a2 -e s+a..ed. The
n#-e! o1 se!s ea"h to+e! "an handle is a #lti.le o1 the n#-e! that "an
-e handled in FDMA. This #lti.le is si#.l2 the n#-e! o1 "alls that #a2 -e
s+a..ed !ond'!o-in 1ashion.
The n#-e! o1 "alle!s handled -2 a CDMA to+e! is #"h #o!e
"o#.le7 to dete!#ine -e"ase the .o+e! ot.t o1 a CDMA to+e! is not
"onstant. As a !eslt0 the n#-e! o1 se!s a CDMA to+e! "an handle de.ends
.on the data !ate0 the s.!eading -and+idth o1 ea"h to+e!0 and the ta!geted
signal to noise !atio.
A si#.le e8ation 1!o# given -elo+0 is sed to #odel this -ehavio!.
In this e8ation0 > is the s.!eading -and+idth given in de"i-els and is a
s.e"i1ied #lti.le o1 R0 the data !ate. A g!eate! s.!eading -and+idth #eans a
g!eate! a-ilit2 to a""o##odate se!s 1a! a+a2 1!o# the to+e!. The !ate set
sed 1o! this #odel as s.e"i1ied -2 IS'43A CDMA sets the data !ate at 4.*
%-.s. E-CN@ is the signal to noise !atio. I@ is a "o!!e"tion 1a"to! that ta%es
into a""ont inte!1e!en"e 1!o# othe! to+e!s. Fo! the .!.oses o1 this
e7.e!i#ent0 I@ is ta%en to -e /e!o. The signal to noise !atio is va!ied to see
the e11e"ts on the se! "a.a"it2.
As seen in the 1ig!e -elo+0 the n#-e! o1 .ossi-le se!s va!ies
e7.onentiall2 +ith the signal to noise !atio.
The to+e! "an d2na#i"all2 in"!ease o! de"!ease its se! "a.a"it2
de.ending .on va!iations in signal to noise !atio o! s.!eading -and+idth.
Future:
Overview
As "ellla! s2ste#s !ea"h #at!it20 #an2 a!e loo%ing to the 1t!e.
>hile the $CS 1!e8en"ies &(?@@ MH/ A@@@ MH/, a!e still -eing -ilt ot0 the
ne7t gene!ation o1 "ellla! "o##ni"ation is -eing lan"hed. To .!ovide t!e
ho#ogeneos +o!ld+ide +i!eless "ove!age +ith no ga.s0 LEO &lo+ ea!th
o!-it, satellites a!e -eing sed. These LEO satellites o!-it the ea!th in high
s.eed0 lo+ altitde o!-its +ith an o!-ital ti#e o1 F@'4@ #intes and an
altitde o1 D@@ F@@ #iles. LEO s .!ovides s#all "ove!age "ells a!ond the
si/e >ashington state. Sin"e LEO s a!e not geos2n"h!onos0 the2 a!e 1o!"ed
to 1l2 "o#.lete o!-its0 and ths #an2 #st e7ist to ga!antee eve!2 a!ea is
"ove!ed -2 at least one satellite at all ti#es. The!e1o!e0 "all hando11 is
e7e"ted +hen the satellite #oves0 not +hen the .e!son #oves as it is +ith
g!ond'-ased "ellla! s2ste#s.
A 1ig!e otlining the di11e!ent o!-its 1ollo+s.
Satellite Systes:
%ri!iu#:
Moto!ola has Est lan"hed the last satellite in the I!idi# s2ste#0 a
LEO s2ste# "onsisting o1 ** satellites +ith * in'o!-it s.a!es. I!idi#
satellites have an o!-ital altitde o1 D?3 #iles and +eigh (03@@ .onds ea"h.
I!idi# +ill allo+ a .e!son to .la"e a "all an2+he!e in the +o!ld sing a
devi"e slightl2 la!ge! than a s#all hand'held "ell .hone.
Glo,alstar:
Glo-alsta! is a CDMA s2ste# headed . -2 6al"o##. This s2ste#
+ill have D? satellites +ith ? in'o!-it s.a!es. Ea"h satellite +ill +eigh (@@@
.onds and +ill o!-it at ??@ #iles. Again0 this s2ste# +ill se .hones that
a!e Est slightl2 la!ge! than toda2 s "onventional "ell .hones and allo+ "alls
to -e .la"ed an2+he!e in the +o!ld. Glo-alsta! s2ste# has -een lan"hed in
(44? and sta!ted to .!ovide se!vi"e 1!o# (444.
Tele!esic: Teledesi" is the #ost .!o#ising and 1!thest o11 o1 the LEO
s2ste#s. Teledesi" is a .a!tne!shi. o1 #an2 la!ge .la2e!s in this indst!20
in"lding Moto!ola0 Mi"!oso1t0 5oeing0 Ne7tel0 and Mat!a Ma!"oni0 +ith
Moto!ola -eing the .!i#e "ont!a"to!. Teledesi" +ill se A?? satellites 1l2ing at
an altitde o1 less than ?@@ #iles. This #eans that Teledesi" +ill have 1ive
ti#es the satellites as the othe! s2ste#s and +ill 1l2 lo+e! than the othe!
s2ste#s. This t!anslates into #o!e -and+idth .e! !egion &s#alle! "ove!age
a!ea .e! satellite, and s#alle! "ellla! .hone devi"es &lo+e! .o+e! sin"e
satellites a!e "lose!,. Teledesi" also .lans to .!ovide high's.eed data a""ess0
sta!ting at *D #ega-its .e! se"ond. Teledesi" has -egn develo.#ent o1 thei!
satellites0 and sta!ted its se!vi"e 1!o# A@@).
Other !uture Systes:
The!e a!e seve!al othe! 1t!e "ellla! s2ste#s .lanned. One o1 these
s2ste#s involves sending n#anned -li#.s high a-ove the "it2 at F@0@@@
1eet. These -li#.s +old .!ovide "ellla! voi"e and data se!vi"e to a "it20
+ith se!vi"e si#ila! to +hat LEO s .!ovide. Anothe! .lan is to have high'1l2ing
&1l2ing at a 3A0@@@ 1oot altitde, n#anned sola!'.o+e!ed ai!"!a1t that +old
"ontinall2 1l2 +est to east a"!oss the US and .!ovide LEO li%e "ellla! voi"e
and data se!vi"e. Thogh these othe! ideas a..ea! 1a!1et"hed0 i1 the2 a!e
i#.le#ented0 the2 +ill .!ovide #o!e "o#.etition and ths lo+e! .!i"es.
Conclusion:
Cellla! .hone "sto#e!s "lea!l2 have #an2 di11e!ent se!vi"e "hoi"es
that the2 did not have seve!al 2ea!s ago. F!the!#o!e0 it is inevita-le that as
the te"hnolog2 evolves0 the 8alit2 o1 se!vi"e +ill in"!ease and the e8i.#ent
"ost +ill de"!ease. Olde! te"hnologies +ill -e"o#e "hea.e! as ne+e!
te"hnologies a!e int!od"ed to the glo-al #a!%et.
The anal2sis in the =Cost Fa"to!s= se"tion has de#onst!ated on a
theo!eti"al level ho+ ne+e! te"hnologies s"h as CDMA "an give 1ine! "ont!ol
ove! the "ost .e! se! o1 .!oviding se!vi"e -2 !eglating se! "a.a"it2 as a
1n"tion o1 signal noise. Althogh li#iting 1a"to!s still e7ist0 the n#-e! o1
1!e8en"2 -ands allo"ated in the total 1!e8en"2 !ange no longe! 1i7es the
se! "a.a"it2. This allo+s se!vi"e .!ovide!s to ta!get a #o!e o.ti## 8alit2
o1 se!vi"e and se! load0 +hi"h -ene1its -oth se! and se!vi"e .!ovide!.
52 eli#inating the !e8i!e#ent that to+e!s t!ans#it at "onstant
.o+e!0 CDMA s2ste#s "an -ette! o.ti#i/e thei! tili/ation. Othe!
te"hnologies s"h as satellite net+o!%s and GSM i#.!ove thei! tili/ation -2
si#ila!l2 e7.loiting thei! advan"es ove! standa!d FDMA and TDMA
net+o!%s.The !eslt is the ne+e! "ellla! net+o!%s +ill -e intelligent enogh
to i#.!ove thei! tili/ation and 8alit2 o1 se!vi"e0 +hi"h in t!n -ene1its the
se!.