Index

1 Major phases of a compiler 2

1.1 Lexical Analysis 2
1.2 Syntax Analysis 2
1.3 Semantic Analysis 2
1.4 Code generation 2
2 The PL/0 Language 4
2.1 PL/0 5
2.2 Syntax of PL/0 using EBNF (EBNF) 6
2.3 Syntax Diagram for PL/0 statement 7
3 Symbol Table of PL/0 14
4 Convert to reverse polish notation 16
5 Code generated by the Compiler 20
5.1 Reverse Polish Notation 21
5.2 Code table 22
5.3 Examples of intermediate code for PL/0 constructs 23
5.4 Pascal code to generate code for the 24
5.5 Pascal code to generate code for the 25
5.6 Example of Lexical Levels 32
5.7 Use of a Display 34
M A Smith Page 1 December 16, 2009
Overview of the PL/0 Compiler
1 Major phases of a compiler
1.1 Lexical Analysis
Which splits the program up into tokens which are more convenient for later
stages of the compiler to handle.
if, else, variable, =, != // are examples of tokens in Java
1.2 Syntax Analysis
Checks that the formation of the program conforms to the syntax of the
programming language as specified in the syntax diagrams.
if ( cost < 20 ) cheap++;
The above construct is syntactically valid in Java
if ( cost < 20 ) cheap+++;
whilst the above is syntactically invalid
1.3 Semantic Analysis
Checks that the meaning behind the syntax of the program that is compiled
is valid.
amount = cost * VAT;
A semantic check would be that amount,cost and VAT had been declared and
that they where of the correct type for the operation being performed.
1.4 Code generation
Generates code that may be executed. This is realised by either:
The CPU of a computer
An interpreter which simulates the actions of the
"executable" code.
A mix of CPU execution and interpretation.
Compiler
Source Code
Executable code
M A Smith Page 2 December 16, 2009
Overview of the PL/0 Compiler
Symbol Table
Name type Loc
Spend Int 10
Money Int 20
Lexical Analysis
Syntax Analysis
Semantic Analysis
Code Generation
Machine code
Source Code
Money = Money-Spend;
move.w money,d0
sub.w spend,d0
move.w d0,money
M A Smith Page 3 December 16, 2009
Overview of the PL/0 Compiler
2 The PL/0 Language
A toy language
Example program
var
countdown;
begin
countdown := 10;
while countdown >= 0 do
begin
write countdown; // Extension
countdown := countdown 1;
end
end
Output
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
M A Smith Page 4 December 16, 2009
Overview of the PL/0 Compiler
2.1 PL/0
A Block structured language
begin similar to { in Java
end similar to } in Java
:= used instead of =
= can now be used as equals in a boolean expression
Only 1 (One) data type int
Reminiscent of BCPL, and B
Can only output integers
write countdown;
Not part of the original language PL/0 for which there
where no I/O statements.
Conceived in about 1976 by Nicholas Wirth as a toy language
used to illustrate the compiler writing process. He wrote the
compiler for PL/0 in the language Pascal.
M A Smith Page 5 December 16, 2009
Overview of the PL/0 Compiler
2.2 Syntax of PL/0 using EBNF (EBNF)
program = block "."
block = [ "const" ident "=" number
{"," ident "=" number} ";"]
[ "var" ident {"," ident} ";"]
{"procedure" ident ";" block ";" } statement
statement = [ ident ":=" expression |
"call" ident |
"begin" statement {";" statement } "end" |
"if" condition "then" statement |
"while" condition "do" statement ]
condition = "odd" expression |
expression ("="|"#"|"<"|"<="|">"|">=")
expression
expression = [ "+"|"-"] term { ("+"|"-") term}
term = factor { ("*"|"/") factor }
factor = ident | number | "(" expression ")"
number = // What would it be
ident = // What would it be
Elements of EBNF
definition = Is rewritten as
concatenation , No intervening white space
termination ;
separation | or
option [ ... ] 0 or 1 times
repetition { ... } 0 or more times
grouping ( ... )
double quotation marks " ... " Name
single quotation marks ' ... ' Name
M A Smith Page 6 December 16, 2009
Overview of the PL/0 Compiler
2.3 Syntax Diagram for PL/0 statement
ident :=
expression
call ident
begin
statement
end
;
if
condition
then
while do
statement
satement
statement
condition
statement = [ ident ":=" expression |
"call" ident |
"begin" statement {";" statement } "end" |
"if" condition "then" statement |
"while" condition "do" statement ]
Treat as if a rail track, and just follow the line through the diagram.
M A Smith Page 7 December 16, 2009
Overview of the PL/0 Compiler
ident :=
expression
call ident
begin
statement
end
;
if
condition
then
while do
statement
satement
statement
condition
"if" condition "then" statement
"begin" statement {";" statement } "end"
M A Smith Page 8 December 16, 2009
Syntax analysis
type
symbol = (nul,ident,number,plus,minus,times,slash,
oddsym,eql, neq, lss, leq, gtr, geq,
lparen, rparen, comma, semicolon, period,
becomes, beginsym, endsym, ifsym, thensym,
whilesym, dosym, callsym, constsym, varsym,
procsym);
var
ch: char (* last char. read *);
sym: symbol (* last symb. read *);
id: alfa (* last id. read *);
num: integer (* last number read *);
The lexical analyser getsym (lines 87-152) returns in sym the type of the next
token read from the pl/0 program
If it is an identifier then "id" will contain the characters of the identifier.
If it is a number then num will contain the binary number.
If it is a punctuation character then the table "ssym" will be used to find the type
of the punctuation character.
M A Smith Page 9 December 16, 2009
Syntax analysis
Initialisation of tables used by lexical analysis
for ch := chr(0) to chr(127) do ssym[ch] := nul;
word[1] := 'begin '; word[2] := 'call ';
word[3] := 'const '; word[4] := 'do ';
word[5] := 'end '; word[6] := 'if ';
word[7] := 'odd '; word[8] := 'procedur';
word[9] := 'then '; word[10] := 'var ';
word[11] := 'while ;
wsym[1] := beginsym; wsym[2] := callsym;
wsym[3] := constsym; wsym[4] := dosym;
wsym[5] := endsym; wsym[6] := ifsym;
wsym[7] := oddsym; wsym[8] := procsym;
wsym[9] := thensym; wsym[10] := varsym;
wsym[11]:= whilesym;
ssym['+'] := plus;
ssym['-'] := minus; ssym['*'] := times;
ssym['/'] := slash; ssym['('] := lparen;
ssym[')'] := rparen; ssym['='] := eql;
ssym[','] := comma; ssym['.'] := period;
ssym['#'] := neq; ssym['<'] := lss;
ssym['>'] := gtr;
ssym['$'] := leq; ssym['@'] := geq;
ssym[';'] := semicolon;
M A Smith Page 10 December 16, 2009
Syntax analysis
var a,b;
The code required to check if a var declaration in PL/0 is valid would be:
if sym = varsym then
begin
getsym;
while sym = ident do
begin
getsym;
if sym in [comma,semicolon] then
begin
if sym = comma then getsym
end else error(5);
end;
if sym = semicolon then getsym else error(5);
end;
[This code does not attempt any error recovery.]
The actual code used by PL/0 is as follows which attempts to recover from errors
made by a user in specifying a var declaration.
procedure vardeclaration;
begin
if sym = ident then getsym
else error(4)
end;
if sym = varsym then
begin
getsym;
repeat
vardeclaration;
while sym = comma do
begin getsym; vardeclaration end;
if sym = semicolon
then getsym else error(5)
until sym <> ident;
end;
M A Smith Page 11 December 16, 2009
Error Recovery in PL/0
Apart from some minor concessions to error recovery in the construction of the
syntax analysis there is a generalised strategy which is employed on the detection
of an error.
That is, on detection of a syntax error, to skip to a major syntactical unit and then
proceed in the normal way.
type
symset = set of symbol;
var
declbegsys, statbegsys, facbegsys: symset;
declbegsys := [constsym, varsym, procsym];
statbegsys := [beginsym, callsym, ifsym, whilesym];
facbegsys := [ident, number, lparen];
declbegsys, statbegsys and facbegsys are all used to inform the syntax analyser
which token to skip to on detection of an error.
For example in the call to block line 649:
block(0, 0, [period] + declbegsys + statbegsys);
The third parameter is the set of symbols, which on detection of an error the
syntax analyser will skip to.
Also in the call to statement line 438
statement([semicolon, endsym] + fsys);
M A Smith Page 12 December 16, 2009
Error Recovery in PL/0
This is usually done with the procedure TEST (lines 154-161)
procedure test(s1, s2: symset; n: integer);
begin
if not (sym in s1) then
begin
error(n); s1 := s1 + s2;
while NOT (sym in s1) DO getsym
end
end
Which if the current symbol is not in s1 generates error message n and then skips
tokens till finds a token in s2 or s1.
M A Smith Page 13 December 16, 2009
Reverse Polish Notation
3 Symbol Table of PL/0
The following declarations define the symbol table in PL/0
type
alfa = packed array [1.. al] of char;
object = (constant, variable, proc);
var
table: array [0.. txmax] of record
name: alfa;
case kind: object of
constant: ( val: integer);
variable, proc: (level, adr: integer)
end;
The major routines to manipulate this are
enter lines 183-203
which enters a name, its type and value into the symbol table
position lines 206-214
which finds the position of an identifier in the table If the identifier is not there it
returns 0
M A Smith Page 14 December 16, 2009
Reverse Polish Notation
Semantic analysis is responsible for checking that the meaning of a syntactically
correct construct is valid.
The major semantic checks are to check that a variable has been declared and that
it is of the correct type.
Consider the code to process an assignment statement:
begin (* statement *)
if sym = ident
then
begin
i := position(id);
if i = 0 then error(11)
else
if table[i].kind <> variable then
begin (* Assignment to non-variable *)
error(12); i := 0
end;
getsym;
if sym = becomes then getsym else error(13);
expression(fsys);
if i <> 0
then WITH table[i] DO
gen(sto, lev - level, adr )
end
The syntax check for an identifier, is followed by
a semantic check for:
a) is the variable declared
i := position(id)
if i = 0 ....
b) is it of the correct type
if table[i].kind <> variable then
begin
error(12);
Note in the second case the index into the symbol table is used
to access the kind of the variable.
M A Smith Page 15 December 16, 2009
Reverse Polish Notation
4 Convert to reverse polish notation
To convert from infix notation to reverse polish is as follows:
Output Input
Stack
INPUT consists of an expression in infix notation
while ( true )
begin
get next symbol/token from INPUT
identifier
move to OUTPUT
operator
while priority (INPUT op <= op on STACK) do
begin
pop item on STACK and move to OUTPUT
end
Push operator on INPUT onto STACK
(
push '(' on stack
)
while op on stack <> '(' do
begin
pop item on STACK and move to OUTPUT
end
discard '(' on top of stack
end of expression
while stack not empty do
begin
pop item on STACK and move to OUTPUT
end
exit
end
Priority of operators
High ** * / + - Low
M A Smith Page 16 December 16, 2009
Reverse Polish Notation
program convertoreversepolish(input,output);
const MAX = 20;
var stack : record
items : array[1..MAX] of char;
tos : 0 .. MAX
end;
(*
* Function to return the priority of an operator
*)
function priority(c:char):integer;
begin
if c in ['*','-','+','/','^','#','('] then
case c of
'+' : priority := 1;
'-' : priority := 1;
'*' : priority := 2;
'/' : priority := 2;
'^' : priority := 3;
'#' : priority := -1; (* End marker in stack *)
'(' : priority := -1;
end else write('Panic: Error in stack ch = ', c );
end;
(*
* Push an object onto the stack
*)
procedure push(c:char);
begin
if stack.tos >= MAX then
begin
writeln('Panic: Stack Full'); halt;
end;
stack.tos := stack.tos + 1; stack.items[stack.tos] := c;
end;
(*
* Pull the top object from the stack
*)
M A Smith Page 17 December 16, 2009
Reverse Polish Notation
function pop:char;
begin
if stack.tos = 0 then
begin
writeln('Panic: Stack empty'); halt;
end;
pop := stack.items[stack.tos]; stack.tos := stack.tos - 1;
end;
(*
* Return the top item on the stack [Not removing the top item]
*)
function lookattos:char;
begin
lookattos := stack.items[stack.tos];
end;
procedure initialisestack;
begin
stack.tos := 0;
end;
(*
* Do all the work of converting infix expression to reverse
polish
*)
M A Smith Page 18 December 16, 2009
Reverse Polish Notation
procedure convertoreversepolish;
var junk:char;
c:char;
begin
initialisestack;
push('#'); (* End of stack marker *)
repeat
if eoln then c := '$' else read(c);
if c in ['(',')','$','+','-','*', '/','^'] then
case c of
'(' :
push('(');
')' :
begin
while not ( lookattos in ['(','#'] ) do
begin
write( pop );
end;
if lookattos = '(' then
junk := pop { Dispose of '(' on stack }
else
writeln(' Error Missing ) ');
end;
'+','-','/','*','^' :
begin
while priority( c )<=priority( lookattos ) do
begin
write( pop );
end;
push( c );
end;
'$' :
while lookattos <> '#' do write( pop );
end
else if c in ['a' .. 'z' ] then
write(c)
else begin
writeln(' Panic: Ch ',c,' not valid Abort'); c:='$'
end;
until c = '$';
readln;
writeln;
end;
begin
writeln('Infix to Reverse notation');
while not eof do
begin
convertoreversepolish;
end;
end .
M A Smith Page 19 December 16, 2009
Intermediate code of PL/0
5 Code generated by the Compiler
Code Operation Explanation
LIT a push( literal a );
OPR op T1:=pop; T2:=pop; push( T2 op T1 );
LOD l,a push( location a in lexical level l );
STO l,a Location a in lexical level l := pop;
INT a tos := tos + a
JMP a pc := a
JPC a if ( pop = 0 ) pc := a
CALL l,a Call routine at location a lexical level l
In the code the following variables are used
pc Is the program counter pc
tos Is the top of stack tos
a Is the address of the variable
l Is the lexical level of the variable
Arguments to opr are
Arg Action Arg Action
0 Return 1 neg
2 + 3 -
4 * 5 DIV
6 ODD 7 Undefined
8 = 9 <>
10 < 11 >=
12 > 13 <=
M A Smith Page 20 December 16, 2009
Intermediate code of PL/0
5.1 Reverse Polish Notation
In this notation the operator comes after the operands
Infix Notation Reverse Polish Notation
A + B A B +
A + B * C A B C * +
(A + B) * (C + D) A B + C D + *
A + B * C + D A B C * + D +
In Reverse Polish notation there is no need to use brackets
The PL/0 intermediate code is in effect a Reverse Polish Instruction set
Thus the code to execute 1 + 2 * 5 is:
LIT 1
LIT 2
LIT 5
OPR *
OPR +
In reverse polish notation the expression is: 1 2 5 * +
M A Smith Page 21 December 16, 2009
Code generation by the PL/0 compiler
5.2 Code table
The code table is defined by:
type
fct = (lit,opr,lod,sto,cal,int,jmp,jpc) (*functions*);
instruction = PACKED RECORD
f: fct (* func. code*);
l: 0.. levmax (* level *);
a: 0.. amax (* displacement *);
END;
VAR
cx: integer (* code allocation index *);
code: array [0.. cxmax] of instruction;
Code is entered in to the table with the procedure gen
The parameters to which are:
x: Function code
y: Lexical level
z: Offset in the lexical level
procedure gen( x:fct; y,z:integer ); { lines 154-161 }
begin
if cx > cxmax
then begin write(' program too long'); goto 99 end;
with code[cx] do begin f := x; l := y; a := z end;
cx := cx + 1
end (* gen *);
cx pointer to the next free cell in this table
the "goto 99" is a panic when the code table is full
M A Smith Page 22 December 16, 2009
Code generation by the PL/0 compiler
5.3 Examples of intermediate code for PL/0 constructs
if hours > 40 then bonus := 30;
Address Intermediate code
10 LOD hours
11 LIT 40
12 OPR >
13 JPC 16
14 LIT 30
15 STO bonus
16
while count < 20 do
begin
count := count + 1;
end:
Address Intermediate code
10 LOD count
11 LIT 20
12 OPR <
13 JPC 19
14 LOD count
15 LIT 1
16 OPR +
17 STO count
18 JMP 10
19
M A Smith Page 23 December 16, 2009
Code generation by the PL/0 compiler
5.4 Pascal code to generate code for the
"if condition then statement" construct
if sym = ifsym
then
begin
getsym; condition([thensym, dosym] + fsys);
if sym = thensym then getsym
else error(16);
cx1 := cx; gen(jpc, 0, 0); statement(fsys);
code[cx1].a := cx
end
The above performs both syntax analysis and code generation for the if statement
cx is the index into the code table giving the next
free cell for an instruction
After generating code for the condition which will leave the result (true,false) on
top of the stack the address of the next instruction to be generated is remembered
in cx1.
Next the instruction JPC is generated, its address will be contained in cx1. The
operand of this instruction (where to transfer control to if the condition is false
can as yet, not be filled in and is set as 0)
Following this the code for the statement is generated by a call to "statement"
Then the JPC instruction can be "patched" to fill in the address to transfer control
to, if the if statement where false (remember cx points to the next free
instruction)
M A Smith Page 24 December 16, 2009
Code generation by the PL/0 compiler
5.5 Pascal code to generate code for the
"while condition do statement" construct
if sym = whilesym
then
begin
cx1 := cx; getsym; condition([dosym] + fsys);
cx2 := cx; gen(jpc, 0, 0);
if sym = dosym then getsym else error(18);
statement(fsys); gen(jmp, 0, cx1); code[cx2].a := cx
end;
The above performs syntax analysis and code generation
for the while statement
cx is the index into the code table giving the next
free cell for an instruction
Before generating code for the condition which will leave the result (true,false)
on top of the stack, the address of the first instruction of the evaluation of the
condition is remembered in cx1.
After a call to the procedure "condition" to generate the code for the condition
the address of the JPC instruction which will be generated next is remembered in
cx2.
Next the instruction JPC is generated, its address will be contained in cx2. The
operand of this instruction (where to transfer control to if the condition is false
can as yet, not be filled in and is set to 0)
Following this the code for the body of the while statement is generated
(Call on procedure "statement").
Then the JMP instruction back to the top of the while loop is generated
(the address of which is in cx1).
Then the JPC instruction can be "patched" to fill in the address to transfer control
to if the while statement where false (Remember cx points to the next free
instruction)
M A Smith Page 25 December 16, 2009
Code generation by the PL/0 compiler
Consider the infix expression:
1 * 2 + 3 * 4
This can be thought of as a tree, with the operators with the highest priority at
the bottom of the tree.

1
2
3
4
+
*
*
The way of evaluating this tree is to work down the tree till can replace a part of
the subtree with a result and then to repeat the process till the whole tree is
evaluated.
In this example (1*2) could be evaluated, then (3*4)
[working left to right] and finally (1*2) + (3*4)
Formally this is evaluating the tree LHS item RHS (Recursively)
The way the syntax diagrams are organised is to reflect this structure
With EXPRESSION, TERM and FACTOR being responsible for parsing a
part of the tree:
M A Smith Page 26 December 16, 2009
Code generation by the PL/0 compiler
1
2
3
4
+
*
*
Expression
Term
Factor
The way an arithmetic expression is generated is to essentially use the procedures
EXPRESSION, TERM and FACTOR to generate a tree which if printed out in
the order (LHS RHS item) will generate the reverse polish formula for the infix
expression.
The main complication is that the tree is not generated as such but is formed by
the recursion of the 3 procedures EXPRESSION TERM and factor.
This means that no tree data structure is actually created, but the recursive
descent process forms the parsing of the tree and the subsequent generation of the
code
M A Smith Page 27 December 16, 2009
Code generation by the PL/0 compiler
Procedure TERM
begin (* term *)
factor(fsys + [times, slash]);
while sym in [times, slash] do
begin
mulop := sym; getsym;
factor( fsys + [times, slash]);
if mulop = times then gen(opr, 0, 4)
else gen(opr, 0, 5)
end
end (* term *);
The way the expression is parsed follows the pattern of the syntax diagrams
Which for TERM is
Fact
Fact
*
/
Now the problem is that the correct order for generating reverse polish from the
tree is
LHS RHS item
not
LHS item RHS
This is simply solved by delaying the output of the code for the operator * or /
till after parsed the RHS
M A Smith Page 28 December 16, 2009
Code generation by the PL/0 compiler
Generation of code for the operands
Consider the code for FACTOR
procedure factor(fsys: symset);
var
i: integer;
begin
test(facbegsys, fsys, 24);
while sym in facbegsys do
begin
if sym = ident
then
begin
i := position(id);
if i = 0 then error(11)
else
with table[i] do
case kind of
constant: gen(lit, 0, val);
variable:
gen(lod, lev - level, adr);
proc: error(21)
end;
getsym
end
else
if sym = number then
begin
if num > amax
then begin error(31); num := 0 end;
gen(lit, 0, num); getsym
end
else
if sym = lparen then
begin
getsym;
expression([rparen] + fsys);
if sym = rparen then getsym
else error(22)
end;
test(fsys, [lparen], 23)
end
end (* factor *);
M A Smith Page 29 December 16, 2009
Code generation by the PL/0 compiler
This is all done in factor, which checks that the operand is either a number,
constant or variable.
Generating the correct code accordingly, note the semantic check for the token
identifier to check that it is a variable or constant.
Also note the recursive call to process open bracket
M A Smith Page 30 December 16, 2009
The Interpreter
The major variables used in the interpreter are:
s ARRAY [1..stacksize] of integer;
The stack in which all evaluations are done
code The array of instructions to be executed
t Base of stack, used as stack pointer
p The program counter
b Base of the current stack frame
The code for the add and sub instructions are:
case a of
2:
begin
t := t - 1;
s[t] := s[t] + s[t+1];
end;
3:
begin
t := t - 1;
s[t] := s[t] - s[t+1];
end;
M A Smith Page 31 December 16, 2009
The Interpreter
5.6 Example of Lexical Levels
var a,b;
procedure p1;
var p1a,p1b;
begin
a := 2; b := 3;
p1a := 4; p1b := 5;
end;
begin
a := -1; b := -2; call p1;
end .
0 var a,b;
1 procedure p1;
1 var p1a,p1b;
2 begin
3 a := 2; b := 3;
7 p1a := 4; p1b := 5;
11 end;
2 int 0 5
3 lit 0 2 { a := 2; }
4 sto 1 3
5 lit 0 3
6 sto 1 4 { b := 3; }
7 lit 0 4
8 sto 0 3 { p1a := 4; }
9 lit 0 5
10 sto 0 4 { p1b := 5; }
11 opr 0 0 { RETURN }
12 begin
13 a := -1; b := -2; call p1;
20 end .
12 int 0 5 { Space for vars/SL/DL/RA }
13 lit 0 1
14 opr 0 1
15 sto 0 3 { a := -1 }
16 lit 0 2
17 opr 0 1
18 sto 0 4 { b := -2 }
19 cal 0 2 { Call P1 }
20 opr 0 0 { Return }
Note
That the lexical level in the instruction is the number of lexical levels
previous to the one in which the variable is stored.
M A Smith Page 32 December 16, 2009
The Interpreter
SL DL RA A B
+---+---+---+---+---+
| - | - | 0 | -1| -2|
+---+---+---+---+---+
SL Static Link Base of previous lexical level
DL Dynamic Link Base of previous active stack frame
RA Return Address
SL DL RA a b SL DL RA p1a p1b
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| - | - | 0 | -1| -2| * | * | 20| 4 | 5 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
^ | |
+---------------------+ |
| |
+-------------------------+
Note
How the PL/0 compiler accesses variables
Line 6 p1a := 4; LIT 4
STO 0,3
Line 5 a := 2; LIT 2
STO 1,3
Line 9 a := 1; LIT -1
STO 0,3
M A Smith Page 33 December 16, 2009
The Interpreter
5.7 Use of a Display
Rather than use chain for static links, better to use display
+---+
| * | ---> Base of global variables
+---+
| * | ---> Base of variables 1st lexical level
+---+
| * | ---> Base of variables 2nd lexical level
+---+
| * | ---> Base of variables 3rd lexical level
+---+
etc
This would mean having to change
1) Code generation of LOD/STORE instruction
2) Interpreter to maintain Display
3) The definition of the call instruction and exit instruction
(OPR 0) to maintain the display
The reason for using a display is that the access to the lexical levels by chaining
through lexical levels at run time would be grossly inefficient for a compile.
Usually when using a display in a compiled program the display is held in
registers in this way the addressing mode base+offset can be used.
Thus if register 0 contained the current lexical level then to access the variable at
displacement 4 in that lexical level the following addressing mode could be used
MOV 4(r0),TARGET {PDP-11/VAX instruction}
M A Smith Page 34 December 16, 2009