Biosystems Engineering (2005) 91 (2), 191200

doi:10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2004.12.009
SEStructures and Environment
Modelling Oxygen Transport in a Reedbed-constructed Wetland Purication
System for Dilute Efuents
M.B. McGechan; S.E. Moir; K. Castle; I.P.J. Smit
Scottish Agricultural College (SAC), Edinburgh, EH9 3JG, Scotland, UK; e-mail of corresponding author: malcolm.mcgechan@sac.ac.uk
(Received 24 December 2003; accepted in revised form 16 December 2004; published online 31 March 2005)
This paper describes a simple model of oxygen supply to aerobic microorganisms in a horizontal reedbed-
constructed wetland. The model simulates oxygen transport through the water by diffusion and convection,
and via the macrophyte plants to the microorganisms that reside on their roots. The model also describes
nitrogen (N) transformation processes for organic material with high biological oxygen demand (BOD),
ammonium and nitrate. Some of these transformation processes are aerobic and therefore constrained if the
oxygen supply is inadequate. Parameter values have been selected for equations describing oxygen transport
and N transformation rates to t data from a functioning reedbed processing sewage from a rural community.
This reedbed achieves a large reduction in ammonium concentration in the efuent. Since it is unlikely that so
much ammonium could have been lost by volatilisation alone, this implies rapid transport of oxygen to the
microorganisms to convert the ammonium to nitrate. This rate is substantially higher than that which can be
explained by diffusion and convection through the water alone, suggesting an important role for oxygen
transport via the plants to the roots.
r 2005 Silsoe Research Institute. All rights reserved
Published by Elsevier Ltd
1. Introduction
Rural communities produce quantities of dilute
efuents, including sewage from rural housing as well
as those produced on farms. Farm-produced dilute
efuents, commonly referred to as dirty water, arise
mainly from washing down yards, milking parlours, etc.
in intensive livestock operations, and are traditionally
land spread. Sewage from rural housing is normally
disposed of using some type of septic system. As an
alternative to traditional means of disposal of efuents,
purication methods are being sought to enable them
to be discharged into watercourses. Wetland systems
have recently been adopted as a means of purifying
settled efuent from rural housing, and are now
being extended to applications for farm-produced dirty
water.
The emphasis for the applications described here has
been on reedbed-constructed wetlands with the roots of
macrophyte plants in gravel which is ooded to just
below the surface of the bed (unlike natural wetlands
with plant roots in a soil layer below a water layer).
Processes are controlled by microorganisms residing on
the roots of these plants, which may respire aerobically
or operate anaerobically. A major constraint in the
operation of aerobic processes in horizontal reedbeds is
supply of adequate oxygen to the aerobic organisms.
Following previous papers describing reedbed systems
(Moir et al., 2005) and the purication processes which
take place in them (McGechan et al., 2005), this paper
describes a simple model of oxygen supply to aerobic
micro-organisms in a subsurface ow horizontal re-
edbed. A major objective of the paper is to demonstrate
the importance of mechanisms by which oxygen is
transported via the macrophyte plant roots, in relation
to other oxygen transport processes.
2. Basic concepts
2.1. Nitrogen transformations in reedbeds
The important transformations which take place in a
horizontal reedbed have been described in detail by
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1537-5110/$30.00 191 r 2005 Silsoe Research Institute. All rights reserved
Published by Elsevier Ltd
McGechan et al. (2005). The main nitrogenous
contaminants in incoming efuent are organic matter
(OM) which has a high biological oxygen demand
(BOD), ammonium, nitrite and nitrate. In a model,
nitrogen (N) is represented as being held in pools
representing each of these compounds. Transformations
which cause N to move between pools include decom-
position of organic compounds to release ammonium,
nitrication (converting ammonium to nitrate) and
denitrication (converting nitrate to gaseous nitrous
oxide or nitrogen which is released to the atmosphere).
Some ammonium is also released directly to the
atmosphere by volatilisation. One simplication
which can be made is to ignore the nitrite pool, which
is an intermediate stage in both nitrication and
denitrication which are two-stage processes. The
dynamics of transformations can conveniently be
described by a rst-order exponential decay equation,
characterised by a time constant with a given value for
each transformation.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Notation
A
O2
concentration-related coefcient for oxygen
transfer via roots, h
1
a
O2
concentration-related coefcient for oxygen
transfer through water (by diffusion and
convection), h
1
B
O2
constant (intercept) term for rate of oxygen
transfer via roots, mg l
1
h
1
b
O2
constant (intercept) term for rate of oxygen
transfer through water (by diffusion and
convection), mg l
1
h
1
C
j,k,l
concentration of nitrogenous contaminant,
mg [N] l
1
DC
j,k,l
change in concentration due to transforma-
tion from contaminant category j to category
j+1, mg [N] l
1
pDC
j,k,l
potential change in concentration due to
transformation with unlimited oxygen supply
(for j 0 and 2), mg [O
2
] l
1
dC
2,k,l
change in concentration of ammonium due to
upward diffusion of ammonia, mg [N] l
1
D diffusion coefcient for oxygen in water, d
1
D
NH3
diffusion coefcient for ammonium in water,
h
1
E
k,l
oxygen escaping as bubbles where transfer via
roots exceeds consumption by aerobic pro-
cesses, mg [O
2
] l
1
g
l
proportion of roots in layer l, fraction
h water depth, m
K mass transfer coefcient for oxygen in water,
md
1
K
0
mass transfer coefcient for oxygen in water
at zero wind speed, md
1
K
j
transformation rate coefcient at saturation
oxygen concentration, for j 0 and 2, h
1
k
j
constant transformation rate coefcient, for
j 1 and 3, h
1
k
j,k,l
variable transformation rate coefcient, for
j 0 and 2, h
1
m
j
oxygen consumption per unit transformation
of N (j 0 for organic N, j 2 for ammo-
nium N), mg [O
2
] mg [N]
1
pM
j,k,l
potential consumption of oxygen by con-
taminant j, for j 0 and 2, mg [O
2
] l
1
Q
k,l
oxygen transfer through plant roots,
mg [O
2
] l
1
dq
k,l
actual through-water transfer of oxygen
downwards across upper boundary of layer,
mg [O
2
] l
1
dt timestep duration, h
U water velocity, md
1
V
w
near-surface, above boundary layer wind
velocity, ms
1
w
l
rate of oxygen transfer due to wind effects
(layers 1 and 2 only), mg l
1
h
1
c
k,l
oxygen concentration, mg [O
2
] l
1
c
m
MichaelisMenten constant oxygen concen-
tration, mg [O
2
] l
1
c
0
saturation oxygen concentration, mg [O
2
] l
1
Dc
k,l
actual change in oxygen concentration,
mg [O
2
] l
1
pdc
k,l
potential change in oxygen concentration
based on potential ow out of bottom of
layer, mg [O
2
] l
1
Subscripts
j nitrogenous contaminant (1, organic N,
including anaerobic decomposition of or-
ganic N; 0, organic N in relation to aerobic
decomposition only; 2, ammonium N; 3,
nitrate N)
k position in system (0, incoming ow;
1140, vertical slices in reedbed)
l horizontal layer (16), l 1 is uppermost
layer
M.B. MCGECHAN ET AL. 192
2.2. Aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms controlling
transformations
Out of all the transformations of N described in
Section 2.1, the aerobic processes where oxygen transport
is important are decomposition (also known as miner-
alisation or ammonication) of organic N, and nitrica-
tion, whereas denitrication is a mainly anaerobic process
(although it can take place in the presence of some
oxygen). Decomposition of organic N can also take place
anaerobically (under the control of anaerobic hetero-
trophs), but at a much slower rate than aerobic
decomposition (by aerobic chemoheterotrophs). Anaero-
bic decomposition of organic N produces some methane
(which is lost to the atmosphere) as well as ammonium,
whereas aerobic decomposition produces ammonium and
water only (Cooper et al., 1996). Nitrication is carried
out by two groups of aerobic chemoautotrophs, nitroso-
monas for conversion of ammonium to nitrite, and
nitrobacter for conversion of nitrite to nitrate (Cooper et
al., 1996). In contrast, denitrication is carried out by
anaerobic or facultative heterotrophs, so oxygen supply is
not relevant to the process.
2.3. Oxygen transfer processes
2.3.1. Diffusion
Oxygen transfer by molecular diffusion occurs wher-
ever there is a concentration gradient through a water
body caused by oxygen consumption in a particular
zone. The rate at which this oxygen movement occurs in
static water can be calculated theoretically using a
quoted value of the diffusion coefcient D for oxygen in
water (176 10
4
m
2
d
1
at 20 1C). However, Kadlec
and Knight (1996) have noted that oxygen movements
by other mechanisms in mobile water in reedbeds are so
much faster that movement by molecular diffusion can
be ignored.
2.3.2. Convection
In moving water bodies such as rivers and streams,
and even in lakes where the surface is subjected to wind
shear, a signicant movement of dissolved oxygen
occurs due to convection and mixing. Kadlec and
Knight (1996) have applied various quoted formulae
to estimate the value of the mass transfer coefcient K in
md
1
, the simplest of which (OConnor & Dobbins,
1958) is related to the water speed U in md
1
and the
water depth h in m:
K

DU=h
p
(1)
For a depth of 03 m and water velocity of 30 md
1
, the
value of K gives an oxygen transfer rate of 12 g m
2
d
1
,
roughly one order of magnitude larger than that given
by molecular diffusion alone. Kadlec and Knight (1996)
then discuss a further contribution to oxygen transport
DK through the water due to wind shear at the surface
(Eloubaidy & Plate, 1972), quoting a formula from
Mattingly (1997):
DK 024K
0
V
164
w
(2)
where K
0
is the mass transfer coefcient K in md
1
at
zero wind speed, and V
w
is the near-surface, above
boundary layer wind velocity in ms
1
. Applying this
formula for a wind speed of 3 ms
1
gives an increase in
oxygen transfer rate to 30 g m
2
d
1
.
2.3.3. Oxygen transport through plant roots
There have been a number of critical comments about
the ability of horizontal reedbeds to supply sufcient
oxygen to allow aerobic purication processes to
proceed. However, such comments have been based on
theoretical calculations according to diffusion equa-
tions, assuming that diffusion is the only possible
oxygen transport process. In response to such criticisms,
Armstrong et al. (1992) have studied oxygen transport
through the root system of aquatic plants, observing
that there appear to be two important mechanisms
which dominate at different times of year.
During the summer growing season, Armstrong et al.
(1992) observed that aeration of a Phragmites rhizome
system beneted greatly from a type of pressurised
throughow of gases. This humidity-induced convection
appeared to result from a diffusive inux of atmospheric
gases via stomata on living leaf sheaths and culm nodes.
The constant humidication of the plants internal
atmosphere (accounting for 23% of the plants internal
volume) created and maintained vapour levels; at the
same time it produced a concentration gradient for the
inward diffusion of the atmospheric gases from the drier
external atmosphere. Since there is also a signicant
stomatal resistance to Poiseuille ow from leaf sheath to
atmosphere, there is a tendency for the plant to
pressurise as the gases diffuse in. The incoming gases
are thus convectively forced along the path of least
resistance, i.e. from the shoot to the underground
rhizome, and are vented back to the atmosphere via
the persistent and broken culms. They noted similarities
between this humidity-induced convection in Phragmites
and convections observed in other aquatic plants such as
water lilies. The weather parameter which had the
greatest inuence on this form of oxygen transport was
solar radiation.
Armstrong et al. (1992) later discovered a second type
of pressurised gas-ow in Phragmites which they called
Venturi-induced convection, and this appeared to
operate both during the growing season and over winter
ARTICLE IN PRESS
MODELLING OXYGEN TRANSPORT 193
months. This mechanism forces air to be transported
down the hollow culms of dead plants, from their
broken-off ends which protrude above the water sur-
face. The weather parameter which appeared to have the
greatest inuence on this form of oxygen transport was
wind speed. They quantied the effects of radiation and
wind speed on the two forms of oxygen transport, as
well as on rhizome and root aeration, and on radial loss
from root to atmosphere. Results were formulated into
a mathematical model to estimate the relative contribu-
tions of the two convective transport mechanisms and of
diffusion to rhizome aeration. However, aeration is
described for individual plant stems giving little indica-
tion of the extent of oxygen transport over a given
surface area of a reedbed.
3. Experimental data
3.1. Domestic sewage treatment systems
The main source of data for building, calibrating and
testing the model has come from a series of measure-
ments carried out on a functioning constructed hor-
izontal reedbed system actually in use for treating
domestic sewage from a community of 90 people at
West Harwood, near Edinburgh. Important dimensions
of this reedbed are listed in Table 1. Smit (1999) carried
out measurements of a number of variables including
ammonium and dissolved oxygen, at various positions
along a transect and at two different depths in the
reedbed, on ve occasions at weekly intervals. However,
the results presented and discussed by Smit (1999) for
the two depths and the different positions along the
transect were only the average values for the ve
sampling dates and replicate samples on each date
(Figs 1 and 2). Some measurements of ammonia
volatilisation from the surface were made at the same
positions along the transect (Fig. 3). Results suggested a
pre-treatment zone primarily concerned with removal
of high BOD organic N, followed by an active
ammonium removal zone. Some further measurements,
including timecourse data for BOD and dissolved
oxygen have been recorded subsequently for the same
horizontal reedbed at West Harwood.
3.2. Experimental reedbeds for treatment of dairy wastes
The second source of data was from an experimental
facility with a sequence of one horizontal reedbed
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 1
Dimensions and owrates in horizontal reedbeds
Parameter West
Harwood
reedbed
Dairy washings
treatment system
(horizontal
reedbed)
Surface area, m
2
450 16
Length, m 14 4
Width, m 321 4
Depth, m 06 05
Porosity, fraction 035 03
Porous cross section, m
2
675 060
Throughput, m
3
d
1
236 18

Mean velocity, md
1
350 30

Transit time, d 400 013

No of slices 140 6
Length of slice, m 010 067
Slice transit time, h 069 053

During periods when feed pump was on, for part of day only.
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 4 6 8 10 12 14
Distance, m
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
s
,

m
g

[
N
]

l

1
2
Fig. 1. Simulated and measured concentrations of nitrogenous
contaminants along a transect in West Harwood reedbed
constructed wetland: points, measured values; lines, simulations.
, ammonium N, 20 cm depth; , ammonium N, 04 m
depth; , organic N, 02 m depth; , nitrate N, 02 m
depth
0
.
0
1
.
0
2
.
0
3
.
0
4
.
0
5
.
0
0
Distance, m
O
2

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
g

l

1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Fig. 2. Simulated and measured oxygen concentrations along a
transect in West Harwood reedbed constructed wetland: points,
measured values; lines, simulations; , 02 m depth; ,
04 m depth
M.B. MCGECHAN ET AL. 194
followed by three vertical reedbeds (Moir et al., 2005),
although only results from the horizontal reedbed are
relevant to the current study. Measured data concerned
treatment of efuent consisting mainly of dairy wash-
ings. Before entering the horizontal reedbed, efuent
had been processed in a batch reactor to remove a
substantial quantity of butterfat, but it still contained
signicant quantities of organic and inorganic N
compounds and had a high BOD.
4. Model development
4.1. Modelling platform
The model described here was established in an Excel
spreadsheet. It was adapted from an earlier model
(McGechan et al., 2005) describing the N transforma-
tions between pools representing different forms of N in
the reedbed. Additional equations added in the current
study represent the associated oxygen consumption and
transport. The general principles of the model are
described in Sections 4.24.4, and the detailed equations
are listed in Appendix A.
4.2. Cell sub-division in model
Based on the assumption of plug ow, the horizontal
reedbed was considered to consist of a number of equal
imaginary vertical slices, each with the same residence
time. Dimensions and timesteps for the horizontal beds
considered are listed in Table 1. For the West Harwood
reedbed treating domestic sewage, constant concentra-
tions of contaminants were considered in the efuents
owing into the bed, so steady-state conditions only
were considered. In order to implement equations
describing oxygen transport, each vertical slice was
subdivided into six equal horizontal layers, each
containing a proportion of the plant roots (Table 2).
The earlier model (McGechan et al., 2005) had been
set up to represent the treatment system for dairy
washings (Moir et al., 2005), with a similar assumption
of plug ow in the horizontal reedbed but a coarser slice
subdivision. There were also varying length timesteps to
accommodate the ow pattern which varied at different
times of day, with intermittent feeds of raw efuent or
that which had been recycled from the vertical reedbeds
(in which oxygen ows are not being considered here).
4.3. Pools and ows
The structure set up in the Excel spreadsheet with cells
representing the N concentration at each timestep on
each day was the same as that described for the
horizontal reedbed in the earlier study by McGechan
et al. (2005). The procedure was replicated with separate
worksheets in the Excel workbook for N concentration
in each slice of the reedbed, and for each slice replicated
again for N in OM, ammonium and nitrate pools.
Decomposition of OM was further subdivided into
aerobic and anaerobic decomposition. Corresponding to
each set of concentration cells, another set of cells
contained the transformation ows out of the pool,
according to the rst-order exponential decay equation
(with a specied time constant) based on the concentra-
tion currently in the pool. As in the earlier study, a xed
time constant was specied for denitrication, the only
transformation which is anaerobic so the rate is
independent of oxygen concentration. For simplicity,
any possible negative effect of the presence of oxygen
reducing the denitrication rate was ignored. A xed
time constant was also specied for anaerobic decom-
position of OM. However, unlike in the earlier study,
the rate constants for aerobic OM decomposition and
nitrication were assumed to be inuenced by the
oxygen concentration in the layer. A commonly used
equation relating the rate of an aerobic biochemical re-
action to oxygen availability is the MichaelisMenten
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 2
Assumed plant root distribution in six equal layers of West
Harwood horizontal reedbed
Layer number Proportion of roots in layer
1 (top) 015
2 020
3 020
4 020
5 015
6 (bottom) 010
0
.
0
0
.
2
0
.
4
0
.
6
0
.
8
1
.
0
1
.
2
1
.
4
1
.
6
1
.
8
2
.
0
10 0 2 4 6 8 12 14
Distance, m
N
H
3

v
o
l
a
t
i
l
i
s
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
g

m
-
2

d
-
1
Fig. 3. Simulated and measured ammonia volatilisation along
surface of West Harwood reedbed constructed wetland: ,
measured values; , simulations
MODELLING OXYGEN TRANSPORT 195
formula [Appendix A, Eqn (A8)] as used by Pitt
(1986). In the absence of any measurements for this
situation, a value of 25% of the equilibrium oxygen
concentration in water c
0
was assumed for the
MichaelisMenten constant c
m
; based on Pitt (1986)
although in this case c
0
had been the oxygen content of
air.
In every case, the calculation of the concentration in
each slice and each layer, starts with that at the previous
slice in that layer (which is also considered to be at the
previous timestep), then adjusts this to account for all
the ows in and out. For the rst slice, the previous
position is incoming raw feed. Transformation ows out
of each cell for the OM N pool (representing miner-
alisation) are also ows of N into the corresponding
ammonium N pool. However, ows out of each cell for
the ammonium N pool represent both the nitrication
transformation and ammonia volatilisation. Nitrica-
tion is assumed to follow a rst-order decay relation-
ships in relation to the concentration of ammonium with
a specied rate constant, but ammonia volatilisation is
assumed to follow gas transport equations as discussed
in Section 4.4. Flows out of each cell for the nitrate N
pool (representing denitrication with an unspecied
split between losses as nitrous oxide or gaseous
nitrogen) are all lost to the atmosphere with no ows
into another corresponding N pool.
4.4. Gas transport
Two components of oxygen transport to microorgan-
isms residing on plant roots are considered, transport via
the plant and transport through the water. Transport
rates are assumed to be linearly related to concentration
differences, but with an intercept term so some move-
ment can take place when concentration differences are
zero. The equilibrium oxygen concentration in water c
0
is related to temperature; for the current study, a
constant value of 10 mg l
1
was assumed for this,
estimated for a temperature of 15 1C according to an
equation given by Kadlec and Knight (1996). Transport
via the roots to each layer is assumed to be proportional
to the difference between the equilibrium oxygen
concentration and that in the layer, with the intercept
term, and also multiplied by the proportion of roots in
the layer. Downward movement of oxygen through the
water across the upper boundary of each layer is
assumed to be proportional to the difference in
concentration between the layer above (or the equili-
brium concentration in the case of the uppermost layer)
and the current layer, again with an intercept term. An
additional ow of oxygen to the top layer is assumed
due to wind effects, with a similar but smaller ow to the
second (0102 m) layer. Oxygen balances are main-
tained in each layer of each slice, taking account of
oxygen consumed by the aerobic transformation pro-
cesses with the specic consumptions listed in Table 3
(which are derived from the chemical reactions). For
OM decomposition, account is taken of the proportion
of this process which is currently taking place aero-
bically, as previously calculated by the rate constant
equation (Section 4.3). Limits to movements across
boundaries (which are based on concentrations in the
previous slice and the oxygen consumed by the aerobic
reactions) are set such that the concentration in the
current slice never goes negative. Upward movements of
ammonia gas (or ionised ammonium in solution) follow
the same equations (in reverse) as for oxygen movement
through water. Ammonia crossing the upper boundary
of the uppermost layer represents ammonia volatilisa-
tion from the reedbed, and in this case the concentration
in the layer above (the atmosphere) is considered to be
zero.
5. Model calibration and testing
5.1. Estimation of model parameters
A trial-and-error approach was adopted to adjust
model parameter values (Tables 3 and 4) to give ts to
the limited data available. In every case it was necessary
to select values for the time constant coefcients for
transformation between the different forms of N in each
pool, but a guide to suitable initial values (prior to
detailed adjustment) was given in the results for the
earlier study (McGechan et al., 2005). No information
about incoming N in OM was included in the data set of
Smit (1999), so this had to be estimated on the basis of
later measurements of BOD in the same reedbed
following a procedure described by McGechan et al.
(2005), taking account of the chemical oxygen demand
(COD). A value of 0119 for the N:BOD ratio was
assumed, based on a BOD:COD ratio of 035 and a C:N
ratio of 90. No direct measurements were made by Smit
(1999) of the actual oxygen movements from the
atmosphere into the reedbed; various combinations of
oxygen transport equation parameter values could be
selected in parallel with selection of rate coefcients to
t transect ammonium concentrations in the reedbed, as
discussed in Section 5.3. In the absence of real time-
course data from this source, only a steady-state
situation could be represented, with parameters adjusted
to give the best t to the average data presented by Smit
(1999). Coefcients indicating ammonium volatilisation
were also adjusted by trial-and-error to give the low
ARTICLE IN PRESS
M.B. MCGECHAN ET AL. 196
level of volatilisation, indicated in the data measured by
Smit (1999).
5.2. Results of simulations compared to measurements
Simulated steady-state ammonium concentrations
show similar trends to those in the averaged data from
Smit (1999), with a decline with distance along the
transect, and higher concentrations at 04 m than at
02 m depth (Fig. 1). There also appears to be a zone
with no decline at the beginning of the reedbed, as in the
experimental data. However the simulated results show
a difference between the layers, with zero decline for the
rst 1 m at the 02 m depth but for the rst 3 m at the
04 m depth, which is not apparent in the experimental
data. In general these results support the concept of a
pre-treatment zone primarily concerned with removal
of high BOD organic N, followed by an active
ammonium removal zone. Simulated organic N and
nitrate N (at one depth only) are also shown in Fig. 1,
but both are low with little variation with depth, and are
not supported by any experimental measurements from
Smit (1999). These results suggest that decomposition of
organic N occurs throughout the reedbed, but at a faster
rate over the rst few metres of the transect. Simulated
oxygen concentrations (Fig. 2) were similar to those
measured at the 04 m depth, but were higher than the
measured values at the 02 m depth. However, Smit
(1999) regarded his data as unreliable due to inadequa-
cies of the experimental procedure used. Some more
recent measurements of oxygen concentrations in output
ows from the West Harwood reedbed show values in
the range 2030 mg l
1
, similar to those simulated at
the 02 m depth. The simulated concentrations are lower
at the greater depth, and this is the dominant trend in
the measured data (with the exception of two positions
which go against the trend, probably due to measure-
ment error). Smit (1999) refers to the results of Butler et
al. (1993) who successfully measured dissolved oxygen in
a sub-surface ow wetland. They observed a rapid drop
in oxygen concentration with distance in the rst few
metres of the wetland, followed by a steady low level up
to half way along, then a gradual rise thereafter. The
simulated results do vaguely reproduce this trend, with a
small drop at the beginning followed by a rise which is
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 4
Gas transport equation coefcients in West Harwood horizontal reedbed
Gas concentration
related coefcient,
mg l
1
h
1
per mg l
1
concentration difference
Intercept,
mg l
1
h
1
Oxygen transport via roots 020 50
Oxygen transport through water by diffusion and convection 0050 0020
Wind induced oxygen top layer 00 30
transport to water second layer 00 15
Ammonia 00001 00
Table 3
Rate constant equation coefcients and inlet concentrations for N compounds at West Harwood horizontal reedbed
Parameter N compound
OM (BOD) Ammonium Nitrate
Inlet concentration, mg l
1
68 245 50
N fraction 0119 0824 0226
Inlet N concentration, mg [N] l
1
810 202 113
Oxygen concentration related coefcient in rate constant equation, h
1
(at equilibrium oxygen concentration)
002 0042 0
Intercept in rate constant equation, h
1
(rate constant at zero oxygen
concentration)
002 0 01
Oxygen consumption by aerobic processes, mg [O
2
] mg [N]
1
269 571
MichaelisMenten constant oxygen concentration, mg l
1
(at
equilibrium oxygen concentration of 10 mg l
1
)
25 25
OM, organic matter; BOD, biological oxygen demand.
MODELLING OXYGEN TRANSPORT 197
most marked in the second half of the reedbed (and also
more marked at the shallower depth). Simulated
ammonia volatilisation (Fig. 3) shows a marked fall
over the length of the reedbed, corresponding to the
measured and simulated fall in ammonium concentra-
tion in the efuent over the same length. There was a
slight falling trend in the measured values, but not
nearly so marked as for the simulated values. However,
there was also a large random scatter, which may have
arisen because the general level of volatilisation was very
low (typical for a horizontal reedbed), so it was difcult
to obtain accurate measurements and the expected
marked fall was not apparent. The chosen parameter
values give simulated volatilisation levels similar to
those measured, which is as good a t as could be
expected for such low values.
5.3. Selection of oxygen transport parameters
In the absence of direct measurements, the rate of
oxygen transport had to be implied from the require-
ments of the aerobic biochemical reactions. However,
theoretical principles were also considered regarding
how the required oxygen supply would be sub-divided
amongst the various transport mechanisms and routes.
Oxygen transfers through water were assumed to be at a
low rate, mainly driven by concentration differences (so
a very low value for the intercept term in the equation).
However, this would be augmented by a larger effect of
wind, giving a total transfer over the air/water interface
of around 30 g m
2
d
1
, based on Kadlec and Knight
(1996). Oxygen transport via the roots was assumed to
be largely unrelated to concentration differences, so the
selected intercept term in the equation is much larger
than the concentration-related coefcient. This intercept
term was selected to make up the required oxygen
supply to enable nitrication of ammonium to proceed
at a rate corresponding to measured data, resulting in a
simulated via roots transport of oxygen at a rate of
around 5 g m
2
d
1
(Fig. 4).
5.4. Discussion of oxygen transport
The rate at which oxygen must have been consumed
to give the degree of nitrication of ammonium
observed by Smit (1999) could be estimated theoretically
at around 8 g m
2
d
1
(Fig. 4). This is well in excess of
the rate of around 3 g m
2
d
1
which Kadlec and Knight
(1996) suggest is the maximum that can be sustained by
diffusion and convection through the water, even when
assisted by wind-induced turbulence at the surface. This
indicates a likely contribution from the via plant roots
transport mechanisms described by Armstrong et al.
(1992) of at least 5 g m
2
d
1
. It supports the contention
that there can be signicant oxygen transport by this
mechanism, although Armstrong et al. (1992) do not
quantify the likely rate on an area basis other than
suggesting that it is substantial. Without any detailed
measurements of oxygen movements (as opposed to
concentrations), which would have been very difcult
and complex to carry out, it is not possible to apportion
the via plant transport to each of the two mechanisms
described by Armstrong et al. (1992). Since Smit (1999)
carried out his measurements during the early summer
when the reeds would have been actively growing, there
could have been contributions both from the humidity-
induced pressurised throughow mechanism in growing
plants (driven mainly by radiation), and the venturi
mechanism through dead plant culms (driven by wind).
The total oxygen transport rate of around 8 g m
2
d
1
is
at the lower end of the range of 545 g m
2
d
1
suggested by Tchobanoglous and Burton (1991) for
the oxygen transfer capacity (as also quoted by Parkes
et al., 1998) of a horizontal wetland.
5.5. Alternative data for model calibration and testing
All the calibration and testing of the model using the
data from Smit (1999) was carried out using the pooled
mean values, with no attempt to introduce replication
using values measured on individual dates where
concentrations would vary due to varying efuent
inow concentrations. While data from individual dates
suggested a day-to-day variation in inow concentra-
tions, the long transit time of around 4 days meant that
efuent currently located at a particular position along a
transect would have entered the reedbed on different
days. Since this would simply introduce random errors
into a replicated treatment, it was decided that it was
ARTICLE IN PRESS
0
.
0
1
.
0
2
.
0
3
.
0
4
.
0
5
.
0
6
.
0
7
.
0
8
.
0
9
.
0
10
.
0
0 8 10 12 14
Distance, m
O
2

m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
,

g

m
-
2

d
-
1
2 4 6
Fig. 4. Simulated total rate of oxygen transport to microorgan-
ism along length of West Harwood reedbed constructed wetland:
, via water by diffusion and convection, including wind
effects; , through plant roots; , total
M.B. MCGECHAN ET AL. 198
more useful to determine only average values of
transformation rate coefcients and oxygen transport
rate parameters based on overall average data. The later
measurement of inlet and outlet concentrations had the
same shortcoming that outlet concentrations were for
efuent that had entered about 4 days previously with
different concentrations than those entering on the
current day. However, the main benet of the more
recent data was that it included BOD concentrations,
which could be used as a guide to the level of OM and
organic N which might be expected in this type of waste
water.
The facility with horizontal and vertical reedbeds for
treatment of dairy washings (Moir et al., 2005) was
considered to be too complex for the data to be used for
calibrating the oxygen transport model. However, from
the model of transformation rates tted to concentra-
tion data (McGechan et al., 2004) it was possible to
estimate the rate of oxygen transport required by the
aerobic transformation reactions in the horizontal
reedbed. The average rates were 10 g m
2
d
1
for
decomposition of OM (assuming this all happens
aerobically) plus 143 g m
2
d
1
for nitrication of
ammonium, giving a total of 243 g m
2
d
1
, much
lower than that implied for the reedbed investigated by
Smit (1999). This rate is also below the maximum which
might be supplied by diffusion and convection with the
assistance of wind effects, although with reeds present it
is likely that transport through the plants would also
have occurred. Due to pre-treatment, the contaminants
in the dairy washings were very dilute compared to other
similar farm produced wastes (as discussed by McGe-
chan et al., 2005) so the rates of biochemical transfor-
mation reactions would have been limited by the
concentration of the nitrogenous substrate rather than
oxygen supply.
6. Conclusions
A prototype version of a simulation model represent-
ing oxygen movements in a horizontal subsurface ow
constructed wetland system for purication of dilute
efuents from rural communities has been developed.
Values of transformation rate constants and oxygen
transport equation coefcients have been selected so
that simulated results give an approximate representa-
tion of results measured in a functioning reedbed.
Despite some uncertainties about the process model
description and parameter values, the one certainty is
that there must be a substantial ow of oxygen into the
reedbed. This oxygen ow to microorganisms resident
on the roots of macrophyte plants is a requirement
which can be estimated on the basis of theoretical
principles to explain the reduction in ammonium
concentration along a reedbed that has been measured
experimentally. The rate of oxygen transport appears to
be well in excess of that which can be accounted for by
through water movements by diffusion and convection,
even when assisted by wind turbulence. This suggest that
there is a signicant ow of oxygen through the plants
to the roots. It supports the concepts of two possible
mechanisms which have previously been tested, a
radiation-driven humidity-induced pressurised through-
ow mechanism in growing plants, and a wind-driven
venturi mechanism through dead plant culms. The work
may also counter criticisms that horizontal reedbeds are
unable to supply sufcient oxygen for aerobic purica-
tion of dilute nitrogenous wastes, and may assist in
optimising system design parameters such as dimensions
and owrates.
Acknowledgement
The Scottish Executive Environment and Rural
Affairs Department provided funds to carry out this
work.
Appendix A. Model equations
The concentration equation follows the same general
form for each of the contaminants j 1, 2 and 3, and
positions k 140; note that efuent will have been in
the previous position k1 at the previous timestep:
C
1;k;l
C
1;k1;l
DC
1;k;l
DC
0;k;l
(A1)
C
2;k;l
C
2;k1;l
DC
2;k;l
DC
1;k;l
DC
0;k;l
dC
2;k;l
dC
2;k;l1
A2
(omitting last term for layer l 6)
C
3;k;l
C
3;k1;l
DC
3;k;l
DC
2;k
(A3)
Transformation concentration changes, for anaerobic
decomposition of organic N j 1 and for denitrica-
tion j 3:
DC
j;k;l
C
j;k1;l
1 expfk
j
dtg (A4)
Potential transformation changes if oxygen is not
limiting, for aerobic decomposition of organic N j 0
and for nitrication j 2:
pDC
j;k;l
C
j;k1;l
1 expfK
j
dtg (A5)
For aerobic decomposition of organic N j 0 and for
nitrication j 2 actual transformation changes are
ARTICLE IN PRESS
MODELLING OXYGEN TRANSPORT 199
limited by oxygen supply (see below):
DC
0;k;l
minC
1;k1;l
1 expfk
0;k;l
dtg,
pDc
1;k1;l
=m
0
; c
k1;l
=m
0
A6
DC
2;k;l
c
k1;l
Q
k1;l
dc
k1;l
DC
0;k;l
m
0
=m
2
(A7)
where the oxygen concentration related variable rate
constant is given by a MichaelisMenten relationship
k
j;k;l
K
j
c
k;l
c
m
c
k;l

c
m
c
0
c
0

(A8)
Movement of ammonia through upper boundary of
layer:
dC
2;k;l
D
NH3
C
2;k1;l
C
2;k1;l1
(A9)
except for the uppermost layer, where the ammonium
concentration in the layer above (l1 0, the air above
the bed) is assumed to be zero.
Oxygen transfer through plant roots:
Q
k;l
dt g
l
fA
O2
c
0
c
k1;l
B
O2
g (A10)
Oxygen escaping as bubbles where transfer via roots
exceeds consumption by aerobic processes:
E
k;l
maxf0; E
k1;l
Dc
k;l
c
0
g (A11)
Potential oxygen transfer through upper boundary of
layer:
pdq
k;l
dt fa
O2
c
k1;l1
c
k1;l
b
O2
w
l
g
(A12)
(where the last term representing wind transfer effects
applies to the uppermost two layers only).
Potential oxygen consumption by aerobic decomposi-
tion of organic matter:
pM
0;k;l
minm
0
DC
0;k;l
; pdq
k;l
Q
k;l
(A13)
Potential oxygen consumption by nitrication of am-
monium:
pM
2;k;l
minm
2
DC
2;k;l
; pdc
k;l
Q
k;l
pM
0;k;l

(A14)
Potential change in oxygen concentration based on
potential ow out of bottom of layer:
pdc
k;l
Q
k;l
dc
k;l
qdc
k;l1
DC
0;k;l
(A15)
Actual oxygen transfer through upper boundary of
layer, taking account of oxygen available in layer above:
dq
k;l
minc
k;l
; dq
i;k;l1
Q
k;l
c
k;l1
pM
2;k;l1
=m
2
pM
0;k;l1
=m
0
A16
Actual change in oxygen concentration:
Dc
k;l
maxc
k1;l
; pdc
k;l
(A17)
Actual oxygen concentration
c
k;l
maxf0; minc
k1;l
Dc
k;l
; c
0
g (A18)
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