Water Supply

Handbook on Works Audit -Water supply
Office of the Principal Accountant General (Civil Audit) Chennai

1
HANDBOOK
ON
WATER SUPPLY
2
Water Supply and Treatment
1. PREAMBLE
Tamil Nadu Water Supply Drainage board (TWAD) is responsible for execution
of Water Supply Schemes / Drainage Schemes in Corporations, Municipalities,
Panchayats, Villages in the entire State of Tamil Nadu except Chennai City where
Chennai Metropolitan Water Supply and Sewerage Board (CMWSSB) is executing the
work.
Government of India Ministry of Urban Development, Central Public Health and
Environment Engineering Organisation published a Manual known as " Manual on Water
Supply and Treatment ". This Manual has laid down the basic principles relating to
planning, identification of sources of water, development and transmission, water
treatment, distribution system testing and other related administrative aspects and also
explain in details the proper approach to each problem.
The salient points relevant to audit together with various orders of Government
and TWAD Board and audit approaches are given below. The CPHEEO Manual
provisions indicated are with reference to the 1999 Publications.
2. PROJECT FORMULATION
The objectives of any Water Supply System is to supply safe wholesome water in
adequate quantity at convenient points and at reasonable cost to the users. In order to
encourage personal and household hygiene proper planning is necessary in the
formulation and implementation of water supply projects.
Engineering decisions are required to fix the area and population to be served, the
design period, the per capita water supply, the water required for the other needs in the
area, the nature and location of facilities to be provided and points of water supply
intake and waste water disposal.
Detailed investigation should be carried out in regard to nature of each source
(surface or subsurface) its reliability for quality and quantity, the nature of development
and type of treatment required and mode of the conveyance from the source to the
consumers. Different alternatives should be considered in detail and the economically
viable and technically feasible alternative should be selected by applying financial
analysis techniques.
Four stages are involved in the formulation of a water supply project before the
project is taken up for execution. They are
a. Preparation of preliminary report
b. Conducting detailed Engineering survey
3 c. Preparation of Project Report.
d. Preparation of detailed plans and estimates.
Preliminary report
The report should include a brief description about the topography,
geological and hydro geological features of the community, existing water supply
arrangement and need for the project. Further the report should discuss and
include the following aspects also.
i. Identification of the area to be served with details of present
population, existing water supply and sanitation facilities.
ii. Identification of the water requirement for various needs.
iii. Estimation of water requirement for various needs.
iv. Identification of the possible alternate projects and rough cost
estimation them (if possible) for installation.
v. Details of engineering survey to be conducted and probable
time and personnel required for carrying out the survey.
vi. Cost of the engineering survey.
An index map to a scale of 1 cm=2km, a schematic diagram and a layout
plan to a scale of 1 cm =250m should be included in the report.
Engineering Survey
The data required to be collected for the preparation of Project report
initially and for the preparation of construction plans and detailed estimates later,
comprises of the following.
i) Census population figures for the town for atleast five preceding
decades.
ii) Present rate of water supply and factors that will affect future and
industrial demand.
iii) Details of existing water supply and sewerage, electric and telephone
facilities, the quality and quantity of existing water supply under
average and adverse conditions and conditions of existing mains.
iv) Field survey and leveling work connected with source development,
location for treatment plants, pumping stations and service
reservoirs, alignment of transmission main and preparation of
detailed maps for the distribution system with contours.
v) Master plan for that area.
Further data to be collected for each of the component are as detailed below.
a. Surface sources
i. Sanitary survey for 10 km upstream and 2 km
downstream of the proposed works to locate source of
pollution, cremation ground etc.,
ii. Water sampling and quality analysis.
iii. Minimum discharge in the river.
4 iv. Plan of river course 3 km upstream and 3 km
downstream of the proposed off take.
v. Cross section of river upto and above MFL on either
bank.
vi. Likely shifts of summer course of the rivers.
vii. Sub soil details upto scour depth and hard strata.
b. Impounding reservoir
i. Sanitary survey of entire catchment or atleast foreshore areas, existing
sources of pollution and possible pollution and remedial measures.
ii. Survey of soil, vegetation and their effects on water quality.
iii. Water analysis covering seasonal variations.
iv. River flow or run off records, stream flow gauging, riparian rights.
v. Continuous survey of water spread, dam alignment foundation details
and availability of materials.
vi. MFL, LSWL and other particulars.
c. Infiltration works
i. Quality of sub surface water.
ii. Whether river is perennial? What is the lean surface flow in the
river?
iii. A grid work of tell tale borings at 30-60m intervals for full width of
the river 120m upstream and 120m down steam, of the proposed
site for infiltration works.
iv. Effective size and uniformity coefficient of sand at different depths.
v. Maximum flood level and minimum summer water level.
vi. Scour depth arrived at for the structures nearby constructed, by
PWD, Highways etc.,
d. Ground Water Source
i. Availability of ground water and its quality.
ii. Geophysical survey to locate bores.
iii. Examination of hydro geological and hydrological factors.
iv. Topographical survey.
e. Pump houses and treatment works
i. Topographical survey to decide the best location of treatment
plant.
ii. Trial pit particulars and safe bearing capacity of soil.
f. Transmission main
i. Alignment Plan
ii. Longitudinal sections at 150m intervals, along the alignment.
iii. Details of crossings of river, railway, road (National or State
Highways)
iv. Trial pit particulars at 1 km intervals along the alignment (at closer
internal when there is vide variation)
v. Safe bearing capacity of soil at level of pipe support.
5 vi. Soil analysis of soils met in the trench for indication of
corrosiveness.
vii. Bedding or cushion to be provided at the bottom of the pipes
depending on the type of soil met with.
g. Service Reservoir
The following particulars are to be collected
i. Operational records to study storage requirements.
ii. Highest elevation in the area of town are to be identified for
locating the Service Reservoirs.
iii. Spot levels at site proposed for the Service Reservoir.
iv. Contours of the town for dividing the area into numbers of zones.
v. Foundation details.
vi. Trial pit particulars to assess the safe bearing capacity of soil at the
site.
vii. Maximum and minimum ground water levels.
h. Distribution System
The following particulars are to be collected.
i. Town map in the scale of 1:200 showing all streets with names.
ii. Number of houses in each street, prospects of further development,
nature of houses, number of floors and height.
iii. Kinds of roads. Such as concrete, BT, WBM roads
iv. Town planning proposals. if any, with proposed approved layout.
v. L.S. streets at 30m intervals.
vi. Trail pit particulars at 500m intervals along the proposed
alignments
vii. A plan showing the existing distribution lines, if available with year
of installation.
viii The number of existing public fountains and existing house service
connection.
i. Land plans
Survey Maps to be obtained from revenue authorities., SF Nos., Revenue
classification of Land its ownership and cost of the land to be obtained for
acquiring land for Service Reservoir, Pump house, treatment works.
Project report
The administrative sanction for a project is to be accorded by the authority
considering only the project report. The project report should therefore be
prepared with great care incorporating adequate particulars like need for the
project, details of engineering survey carried out, the alternate project evolved,
their cost and merits etc.,
The following details are to be included in the project report.
A narrative report describing the project with the following aspects.
i. Historical retrospect leading to the demand of the project.
ii. Short description of existing water supply facilities.
6 iii. Details of the different sources considered with their relative merits.
iv. Raw water quality of the different sources and treatment envisaged.
v. Engineering features of the head works and layout of the components
of head works.
vi. Economic analysis for sizing of transmission main and Branch for
the conveyance of the water from the source to the community using
ECP and Branch 3 Software.
vii. Capacity, and elevation and location of Service reservoirs.
viii. Salient features of the distribution system like number of zones,
ground level variations in each zone.
ix. Comparison of costs of alternatives and project as recommended.
The project report in a complete shape incorporating all the above
details with estimates for installation of the project and for the annual
operation and maintenance is to be submitted to the competent
authority for according administrative sanction.
Preparation of detailed plans and estimates.
On receipt of the administrative sanction to the project detailed hydraulic
design calculations for the distribution system using LOOP 4 Software and
structural design calculations for the Service Reservoirs and other structures are
worked out and the detailed working drawings are prepared in such a way that the
construction of works are carried by the construction Engineers without any
difficulty.
The following plans are to be prepared.
1. Index plan to a scale of 1 cm=2 km
2. Schematic diagram and flow chart.
3. Detailed plans to a scale of 1 cm =20m
4. Land plan schedules for Land Acquisitions.
5. Pert chart
6. Quarry map
The detailed bill of quantities, technical specification for each work, cost
estimate for each component of works and abstract of total cost have to be
prepared using COSTDAT and COMEST Software packages. For each estimate,
a narrative report can be prepared and appended. The estimate is got technically
sanctioned by the competent authority and only after the technical sanction, the
project should be taken up for implementations.
Conclusion
The formulation of a water supply project involves many phases of
preparation and appropriate steps taken in all the phases will result in an
economical and viable project.
(TWAD Board Technical News letter July 1998 Manual on water supply &
Treatment Chapter X of Manual for quality control on Water Supply works)
7
3. DESIGN & PLANNING
3.1. Objective (Para 2.1 Of CPHEEO)
The objective of a public protected water supply system is to supply safe
and clean water in adequate quantity, conveniently and as economically as
possible.
The water supply projects formulated by the various state authorities and
local bodies at present do not contain all the essential elements for appraisal and
when projects are assessed for their cost benefit ratio and for institutional or other
funding, they are not amenable for comparative study and appraisal. Also,
different guidelines and norms are adopted by the central and state agencies; for
example, assumptions regarding per capita water supply, design period, population
forecast, measurement of flow, water treatment, specifications of materials, etc.
Therefore, the CPHEEO Manual on Water Supply & Treatment specify
appropriate standards, planning, and design criteria to avoid empirical approach.
3.2 Basic Design Considerations (Para 2.2 Of CPHEEO)
Engineering decisions are required to specify the area and population to be
served, the design period, the per capita rate of water supply, other water needs in
the area, the nature and location of facilities to be provided, the utilization of
centralized or multiple points of treatment facilities and points of water supply
intake and waste water disposal. Projects have to be identified and prepared in
adequate detail in order to enable timely and proper implementation.
Optimization may call for planning for a number of phases relating to plant
capacity and the degree of treatment to be provided by determining the capacities
for several units, working out capital cost required, interest charges, period of
repayment of loan, water tax and water rate. Uncertainties in such studies are
many, such as the difficulties in anticipating new technology and changes in the
investment pattern, the latter being characterized by increasing financing costs.
3.3 Design Period (Para 2.2.6 Of CPHEEO)
Water Supply projects may be designed normally to meet the requirements
over a thirty year period after their completion. The time lag between design and
completion of the project should also be taken into account which should not
exceed two years to five years depending on the size of the project. The thirty
year period may however be modified in regard to certain components of the
project depending on their useful life or the facility for carrying out extensions
when required and rate of interest so that expenditure far ahead of utility is
8 avoided. Necessary land for future expansion/ duplication of components should
be acquired in the beginning itself. Where expensive tunnels and large aqueducts
are involved entailing large capital outlay for duplication, they may be designed
for ultimate project requirements.
Sl
No.
Items
Design
period in
years
1 Storage by dams 50
2 Infiltration works 50
3 Pumping :
i. Pump house (civil works ) 30
ii. Electric motors and pumps 15
4 Water treatment units 15
5
Pipe connection to several treatment units and other
small appurtenances
30
6 Raw water and clear water conveying mains 30
7
Clear water reservoirs at the head works, balancing
tanks and service reservoirs (overhead or ground
level)
15
8 Distribution system 30
3.4 Population Forecast (Para 2.2.7 Of CPHEEO)
The design population will have to be estimated with due regard to all the
factors governing the future growth and development of the project area in the
industrial, commercial, educational, social and administrative spheres. Special
factors causing sudden emigration or influx of population should also be foreseen
to the extent possible.
A judgment based on these factors would help in selecting the most suitable
method of deriving the probable trend of the population growth in the areas or
areas of the project from out of the following mathematical methods, graphically
interpreted where necessary.
a) Demograph Method of population Projection:
This method takes into account the prevailing and anticipated birth rates
and death rates of the region or city for the period under consideration. An
estimate is also made of the emigration from and immigration to the city, growth
of city area wise, and the net increase of population is calculated accordingly
considering all these factors, by arithmetical balancing.
b) Arithmetical Increase Method
9 This method is generally applicable to large and old cities. In this method
the average increase of population per decade is calculated from the past records
and added to the present population to find out population in the next decade. This
method gives a low value and is suitable for well-settled and established
communities.
c) Incremental Increase Method
In this method the increment in arithmetical increase is determined from the
past decades and the average of that increment is added to the average increase.
This method increased the figures obtained by the arithmetical increase method.
d) Geometrical Increase Method
In this method percentage increase is assumed to be the rate of growth
and the average of the percentage increases is used to find out future increment in
population. This method gives much higher value and mostly applicable for
growing towns and cities having vast scope for expansion.
e) Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
In this method it is assumed that rate of percentage increase decreases
and the average decrease in the rate of growth is calculated. Then the percentage
increase is modified by deducting the decrease in rate of growth. This method is
applicable only in such cases where the rate of growth of population shows a
downward trend.
f) Graphical Method
In this approach there are two methods. In one, only the city in question
is considered and in the second, other similar cities are also taken into account.
i) Graphical Method Based On Single City
In this method the population curve of the city (i.e. the Population vs. Past
Decades ) is smoothly extended for getting future value. This extension has to be
done carefully and it requires vast experience and good judgment. The line of best
fit may be obtained by the method of least squares.
ii) Graphical Method Based On Cities With Similar Growth Pattern
In this method the city in question is compared with other cities which have
already undergone the same phases of development which the city in questions is
likely to undergo and based on this comparison, a graph between population and
decades is plotted.
g) Logistic Method
The 'S' shaped logistic curve for any city gives complete trend of growth of
the city right from beginning to saturation limit of population of the city.
h) Method of Density
10 In this approach, trend in rate of density increase of population for each sector
of a city is found out and population forecast is done for each sector based on above
approach. Addition of sector-wise population gives the population of the city.
Final Forecast
While the forecast of the prospective population of a projected area at any
given time during the period of design can be derived by any one of the foregoing
methods appropriate to each case, the density and distribution of such population
within the several areas, zones or districts will again have to be made with a
discerning judgement on the relative probabilities of expansion within each zone
or district, according to its nature of development and based on existing and
contemplated town planning regulations.
Wherever population growth forecast or master plans prepared by town
planning or other appropriate authorities are available, the decision regarding the
design population should take into account their figures.
Note: The calculation sheet for population forecast may be called for and
the correctness of population forecast ensured. In TWAD Board, the population
forecast was approved by CE concerned. A typical example is given in
Annexure1.
In circular No.17/F.11168/J E6/P&D/2005 Dt.29.04.2005. TWAD Board
had prescribed the following modus operandi for population projection for water
supply and sewerage scheme for Rural and Urban Areas.
For Urban :-
The population forecast cannot be generalized for all towns.
* The ground reality and present developmental activities of the town and
future developments are to be considered during population forecast.
* The population projection may be arrived through the following seven
methods on minimum four decade population and the best suitable among
the derivations may be approved by the competent authority. Different
method to be adopted for population projection for Urban Town:
i) Arithmetic Increase method
ii) Incremental Increase method
iii) Line of Fit Method
iv) Geometrical Increase Method
vi) Semi Log Method
vii) Exponential Method
viii) Decadal growth Rate Method for state / District average
* For a normal town the projection arrived by exponential method is found is
to be reasonable and this method may be considered.
* J ustification note should be appended by the approving authority.
11 For rural :-
Base year population (2006) = 1.03 time the 2001 census
population
Intermediate population (2021) = 1.10 time the 2006 population.
Ultimate population (2036) = 1.20 times the 2006 population.
Population Forecast before 2005:-
(TWAD Board Circular No. 3 P&D/J E-6/2002 dt.08.04.2002.)
For Urban:-
Present population (2001) = population as per 2001 census
Intermediate (2016) = to be arrived by different methods
Ultimate (2031) with 2001 as the base year.
For Rural:-
Present Population (2001) = population as per 2001 census
Ultimate population (2031) = 1.30 times of the present
population.
3.5 Per Capita Supply (Para 2.2.8 of CPHEEO)
Basic Needs
Piped water supplies for communities should provide adequately for the
following as applicable:
(a) Domestic needs such as drinking, cooking, bathing,
washing, flushing of toilets, gardening and individual
air conditioning.
(b) Institutional needs.
(c) Public purposes such as street washing or street
watering, flushing of sewers, watering of public
parks.
(d) Industrial and commercial uses including central air
conditioning
(e) Fire fighting
(f) Requirement for livestock; and
(g) Minimum permissible Unaccounted for water (UFW)
Recommended Per Capita Water Supply Levels for Designing Schemes.
Sl.
No.
Classification of Towns/Cities
Recommended Maximum
Water Supply Levels (lpcd)
Table 2.1
CPHEEO Manual
1
Towns provided with piped water supply but
without sewerage system
70
2
Cities provided with piped water supply where
sewerage system is existing / contemplated
135
12
3
Metropolitan and Mega cities provided with
piped water supply where sewerage system is
existing / contemplated
150
Note:
(i) In urban areas, where water is provided through public standposts,40 lpcd
should be considered:
(ii) Figures exclude Unaccounted for Water (UFW) which should be limited to
15%
(iii) Figures include requirements of water for commercial, institutional and minor
industries. However, the bulk supply to such establishments should be assessed
separately with proper justification.
Per Capita Water Supply Rate Prescribed by TWAD Board.
1 Rural habitations without house service connection (HSC) : 40 litres
2 Rural Habitation with HSC : 55
3 Town Panchayats (both Rural & Urban ) : 70
4 Municipalities : 90
5 Corporations : 120
3.6 Physical And Chemical Quality Of Drinking Water (Para 2.2.9 of
CPHEEO)
The physical and chemical quality of drinking water should be in accordance
with the recommended guidelines. The Parameters are given in Annexure II
Audit Approach
The objective of the Water Supply System is to supply safe and clean potable water in
adequate quantity conveniently and as economically as possible. Para 2.1 of
CPHEEO Manual and also guidelines of the Board prescribes the per capita water
supply to the designed period of the population forecast. But while evolving the
CWSS/WSS towns and habitations already covered fully for ultimate stage through
separate water supply scheme were included in the CWSS. The inclusion of those
area already covered under separate Water Supply Scheme in the CWSS was
superfluous, involving extra cost on creation of excess size and capacity of pumping
main, sump, treatment plants, pumps and motor, etc.
By scrutinizing the details of the existing water supply to the towns, habitations
included in the CWSS, we can notice the above type of audit observation.
By examining the water requirement estimate statement, it could be seen that bulk
provision of water was made for many towns and habitations which were already
13 provided with Separate Water Supply Scheme and the ultimate stage of water supply
had not been completed. In such cases, the necessity for such inclusion should be
analysed. Many cases such bulk provisions were not warranted for and the provision
of bulk provision remained unutilized which would increase the total requirement of
water and ultimately increase the capacity of pumping main, treatment plant, sump,
pump and motors, etc. involving extra cost.
A town may already been provided with water Supply Schemes for ultimate stage. To
meet the shortfall if any, bulk provision was made in another CWSS which was under
execution. In the meantime, another separate water supply improvement scheme was
sanctioned and executed under another scheme. Thus cost involved in execution of
the latter improvement scheme except cost on creation of distribution system was
wasteful. This type could be brought out by close study of various water supply
schemes & CWSS sanctioned and executed.
Duplication in creation of infrastructure due to formulating separate improvement
scheme while existing scheme itself functioning well and had not completed its
designed service life of 30 years (Ultimate stage).
Para 2.2 of CPHEEO Manual stipulates that the water supply projects shall be
designed to meet the requirement for the population forecast at the prescribed per
capita supply over a period of 30 years after their completion and prescribes the
methods of forecasting the population during the period of design on the basis of
latest census. Instead of designing the Schemes as per the provisions of the Manual,
Water Supply Schemes sanctioned upto 2002 were designed taking base year as
1996/1991 and ultimate year as 2026/2021. This resulted in utilisation of
infrastructure created for period much lesser than the prescribed 30 years.
Para 2.2.6 of CPHEEO Manual provides for designing Water Treatment units, clear
water reservoirs at head works, balancing tanks (Sump) and Service Reservoirs of the
Water Supply Projects for 15 years (intermediate Stage) to facilitate carrying out
extensions when required and avoid expenditure far ahead of utility and interest on
capital. But treatment plant, clear water sumps and service reservoirs were designed
and constructed for 30 years (Ultimate stage). Thus creation of infrastructure far
ahead of requirement was avoidable and wasteful.
Appendix 6.5 of CPHEEO Manual and PWD Code stipulates that the life of electric
motor and pump is 15 years. As the electric motors and pump would lose their
efficiency after 15 years of service life, erection of pump and motor for ultimate stage
was wasteful and cost involved on execution of pump and motor for ultimate stage
become wasteful.
Para 7.1 of CPHEEO Manual specifies the water treatment units which includes
aerator, clariflocculator, filter, disinfector, softener, etc. The treatment plant
constructed by Board comprised of those units. But they were constructed for
ultimate requirements as against the intermediate requirements prescribed by
CPHEEO Manual resulting in extra cost.
Clear water is collected in a sump before it is pumped to Service reservoir (vide Para
6.3.7 of the Notes on Water Supply Scheme issued by CE, PWD Chennai in 1971).
Intermediate sumps are also constructed to reduce the pressure in the transmission
main. The sump shall be designed for intermediate stage and its capacity depends on
the discharge into the sump and detention time (discharge in lpm x detention time in
14 minutes). On a audit enquiry, the CE, TWAD Board, Southern Region, Madurai
informed (November 2003) that the capacity of sump are designed generally for 30 to
60 minutes storage and storage period would vary depending on various factors such
as hours of pumping, availability of power, and separate feeder main for power
supply etc. Audit Scrutiny also disclosed that clear water sumps were designed for 15
to 180 minutes eventhough separate feeder main to provide 24 hours power supply
was available and also constructed for the requirement of ultimate stage instead of
intermediate stage involving extra cost.
Para 10.4.2 and Appendix 10.1 of CPHEEO Manual prescribes guidelines for
estimation of storage capacity of the service reservoirs which depends on hours of
pumping, demand and hours of supply, and shall be constructed for intermediate
stage only. Para 19.3 of Notes on Water Supply Schemes issued by the Chief
Engineer (PWD) Chennai in 1971 also indicates that the capacity of Service
Reservoir is fixed on the basis of hours of pumping and the peak rate of supply. The
peak rate of supply is usually taken to be twice the average rate and the capacity of
service reservoir is fixed at 8 hours or one third of a days supply. The guidelines
issued by Board in December 1982 also stipulated that the capacity of overhead
service reservoirs in rural areas of a CWSS should be 50 per cent of the ultimate
daily requirement of the individual habitation considering the limited hours of power
supply. As such the capacity of service reservoir shall be one third of a days supply
for intermediate stage in urban areas and half of the days supply for intermediate
stage in rural areas of CWSS. But it is noticed that service reservoirs were designed
and constructed for the requirement of ultimate stage instead of intermediate stage.
In rural habitation covered under CWSS, the service reservoirs were designed and
constructed for ultimate stage adopting the norms prescribed by Board in May 1998.
For construction of overhead tank (OHT), service reservoirs in rural water supply
power pump scheme which prescribed the capacity of OHT/SR on the basis of
ultimate population of the range 150-500, 501-1250 and 1251-2500 at 10000, 30000
and 60000 litres capacity respectively. Construction of SR for ultimate requirement
and also not observing the norms resulted in extra cost on construction of Service
Reservoirs of higher capacity.
Para 2.2.8.3 of CPHEEO Manual recommends, per capita supply level for designing
water supply schemes. The norms prescribed by Government of India under Rural
Water Supply Schemes and also by Board in July 1998 stipulated for 40 lpcd.
Whereas in case house service connection was provided for, it can be increased to 55
lpcd. But cases where all infrastructures were created adopting 55 lpcd, but house
service connections were not effected subsequently. It should be verified whether
specific undertaking was obtained from the local bodies before designing the CWSS
adopting 55 lpcd. If not extra capacity involved could be objected to.
Cases where water supply scheme was designed adopting 1991 population as base
year and actual requirement of the water in the initial reaches was not correctly
worked. At the time of completion of the Scheme, the people in the initial reach
would draw more water than the designed level. Cases of non-estimation of the
actual requirement of water to the intended habitation were also available.
Consequently water could not reach the tail end or intermediatary reaches. This
necessitates laying far separate feeder main, intermediatary sump to regulate water
15 supply. The extra cost involved on this could be analysed and commented. This was
due to poor investigation, defective design and execution and failure to assess the
actual requirement before executing the work.
DESIGN:
Appendix 11.1 of CPHEEO Manual stipulated for designing the pumping main for
23 hours of pumping considering loss of one hour due to tripping and other minor
interruption. Para 19.1 of the Note on Water Supply Schemes issued by the Chief
Engineer (PWD), Chennai in 1971 also stipulates that pumping main can be designed
to discharge 24 hours if service reservoirs are provided. In June 2002, Board had
also instructed to design the CWSS for 20 hours of pumping if separate feeder main
for power supply was provided. But with a view to provide cushion, pumping mains
were designed for 16 to 20 hours pumping eventhough separate feeder main for
power supply to pumping station connected with industrial line having 24 hours
power supply. Due to reduction in hours of pumping the size of pumping main, pump
sets and sumps had to be designed and constructed for higher capacity/size. Had 23
hours of pumping adopted, the discharge for the ultimate requirement would be much
lesser and the infrastructures viz. Pumping main, Pump sets and Sump could have
been designed and constructed at lesser capacity.
NOTE: Upto 1998-99, TWAD Board had prescribed unit rate for various items of
work which was dispensed with from 1999-2000 and comprehensive common
Schedule of Rates for each items . Hence it is not possible to work out the extra cost
on creation of assets for ahead of the requirement easily. Hence the unit rate
prescribed by Board is adopted as basis from which the proportionate cost is worked
out on the agreement value adopting ratio of proportion which would give the cost of
construction of the required capacity of assets. The difference would give the extra
cost. In letter No.101/P&D/98 dated 29.9.1998, TWAD Board communicated unit
rates for various items of work for preparation of outline proposals for various
components of urban and rural water supply schemes for the year 1998-99.
16
4. SOURCE OF WATER
(Chapter 5 of CPHEEO Manual & chapter VII of Manual for Quality Control in
Water supply works)
The sources for the water supply scheme are generally of the following two
categories;
1. Surface water sources
2. Sub surface water sources
1.Surface water source
Surface Water sources are from rivers lakes and reservoirs. The water from
these sources are drawn and supplied the beneficiaries after proper treatment. If
the river is not perennial, the storage of water is necessary for supplying during the
dry period. Generally surface water is preferred for the following reasons.
1. When quality of ground water available in and around the
beneficiary is not potable.
2. When large quantity of water is required for the scheme.
2. Sub surface water source
In geological nature, Tamilnadu State can be categorized as hard rock areas,
and sedimentary areas. The hard rock areas cover 73% area of the state and the
sedimentary formations cover the remaining 27% area of the state.
The sub-surface water is being tapped from the following sources.
1. Open wells
2. Bore wells
3. Infiltration wells and
4. Collector wells
2.1 Guidelines for location of infiltration well (TWAD Circular No
2/DO/P&D/2001 dt 5.2.2001)
The following procedures are to be followed in geophysical investigation for
fixing up the location of an Infiltration well.
17 1.Resistively survey with geophysical equipment are carried out in grid pattern in the
river bed/bank to assess the apparent resistively of the sub-surface strata and fixing
location.
2.After conducting geo survey, probing is to be done to assess the sand depth where
the maximum is seen.
3. In the selected location of the probing where the maximum sand depth exist, the
trial bore wells are to be drilled and soil samples analysed. The water sample
should also be collected and analyzed for assessing the potability of water.
4. From the trial bore well, location of the proposed infiltration well have to be
located.
5. At the selected point, the confirmatory bore well to be drilled not only at the
centre of the infiltration well but also in the periphery atleast six borewells.
6. Lithology of the trial bore wells should be prepared and the depth of the saturated
sand is analyzed.
7. The summer water level of the area of the investigation with reference to the
saturated thickness is correlated.
8. The depth of the infiltration well depends on the saturated thickness of the area.
9. Yield from an infiltration well sunk for 3.5 m diameter in saturated aquifer of 4m
depth for a draw down of 2m is computed approximately as 1000 lpm.
10. The location of the infiltration well should be located in such a way to avoid
interference between structures
2.2 Design criteria for Collector Wells
Collector wells with radial arms are generally proposed in river basins to tap
maximum yield from deep saturated aquifer. This type of sources are proposed
when the quantity of water requirement is very huge. Here also confirmatory
bores have to be drilled to identify the depth of aquifer and to locate exact depth at
which the radial arms to be driven.
Design Criteria
Diametre - 4 to 6
Thickness of well staining - 45 to 60cm
Number of laterals - 8 to 16 (in radial directions)
Length of laterals - 20 to 60m depending
(upon the saturated thickness of
aquifer)
Size of laterals - 200 to 300mm dia slotted pipes.
18 Permissible velocity of flow in laterals - 0.06 mps
Slot in laterals - 16% of the surface area of the
laterals
Note : The number, length and size of the laterals can be determined to obtain the
required yield from the source.
3. Safe Yield
In all type of wells after completion of the construction, yield tests have to be
conducted and safe yield has to be arrived after applying the correction factors.
Depending upon the yield the required number of wells may be decided to supply
the quantity required for the scheme. The CPHEEO Manual prescribes two types
of safe ;yield tests for determining safe yield of the well viz. Pumping (Discharge)
Test & recuperation test.
3. 1 Safe yield in Bore wells (Datamatrix of TWAD Board Engineers)
For power pump schemes, the following multiplication factors have been
evolved to arrive safe yield for the borewells drilled in hard rock area.
When the yield test is conducted during summer months i.e. April August a
factor of 0.9 may be adopted to the observed yield for determining the safe yield
from borewell.
For the yield tests conducted during other months a correction factor of 0.6
may be applied, for arriving at the safe yield.
In case of Kanyakumari district the correction factor will be 0.9 for the
months from March of J une and it will be 0.6 for other months.
3.2.Pum ping Test (Discharge Test)
Pumping test is the most accurate, reliable and commonly used method to
evaluate the hydraulic parameters of an aquifier, efficiency of a well, safer
operational rates of pumping and selection of suitable pump. The methodology of
a pumping test is highly varying in its application. The objective is limited to
determine the aquifer parameters such as transitivity (T), Storage co-efficient (S),
hydraulic conductivity (K) and well performance and safe yield for execution of
water supply scheme.
To study the parameters of transitivity, storage co-efficient and hydraulic
conductivity, generally a constant discharge pumping test (aquifier performance
test) is conducted. An aquifer performance test consists of pumping a well at
certain constant rate and recording the drawdown both in pumping well and in the
near by observation wells at specific times. To analyze the well performance, the
step drawdown test (well performance test) is carried out. In step drawdown test,
the drawdown in a pumping well is recorded at variable discharge in steps.
19 Efficiency of the well is the ratio of the critical drawdown (drawdown just
outside of the casing) and actual drawdown measured in a well at a designed
discharge of continuous pumping for a given period.
Recuperation Test
After the constant discharge test, when the pump is shut down, the water
column in the well or borewell started rising. This rise in water column has to be
noted in close intervals. The data collected on recouping water column will be
useful to compute the aquifer parameters. Recuperation test are recommended for
large diameter open wells.
The bore wells/ open wells executed for major schemes are subjected to
pumping tests. Pumping tests are also conducted before and after the hydro
fracturing operations.
Note:The result of discharge test of the well measured in V notch would be
recorded in the prescribed table and the specific yield in lpm per cm of draw down
derived from the table. This would be verified from the pumping test report and
ensure safe yield of the well. In a similar manner specific yield obtained from
Recuperation test in the well should be ascertained and the safe yield adopted by
comparing both the report.
Minimum Distance of well from source of Contamination
Contamination of Recommended
Sources distances (in metres)
Building sewer 15
Septic tank 15
Disposal field 30
Seepage pit 30
Cesspool 45
Audit Approach
According to the instruction of TWAD Board in B.P.No.75 dt.25.03.1990
various components of water supply scheme shall be executed after ensuring
adequate quantity and quality of source. However, without ensuring the
availability of adequate quantity of potable water, the pumping mains
distribution system, overhead service reservoir etc work constructed resulting in
unfruitful expenditure.
To ensure whether, sources (Borewell, collector well, infiltration well) created
in conformity with the specification mentioned above. Analyze the failure to
observe the guidelines and resultant financial and social objective implication.
20
Whether dependability and reliability of the source, quality of source ensured
before creation of other infrastructures which ultimately resulted in wasteful
expenditure on creation of infrastructures.
Whether proper investigation and test carried out to ensure reliable source to
the designed quantity and factors affecting contamination of source which
subsequently resulted in making the water not potable examined. The remedial
measures proposed/taken has also to be analysed.
Whether permission was obtained from the District Collector/Water Utilisation
Committee for drawal of water to the designed quantity.
5.Transmission of Water
(Chapter 6 of CPHEEO Manual)
Water supply broadly involves transmission of water from the sources to the
area of consumption through free flow channel or conduits or pressure main.
Pipe line normally follow the profile of the ground surface quite closely.
Gravity pipelines have to be laid below the hydraulic gradient. Pipes are of Cast
Iron, Ductile Iron, mild steel, Prestressed concrete, reinforced cement concrete,
GRP asbestos cement, plastic, etc.
5.1 Hydraulic of Conduits ( Pipe ) (PARA 6.2. OF CPHEEO Manual)
The design of supply of conduits is dependent on resistance to flow,
available pressure or head allowable velocities of flow, scour, sediment
transport, quality of water and relative cost..
Velocity:-
There are a number of formulas available for use in calculating the
velocity of flow. However Hazen William formula for pressure conduits
and Mannings formula for free flow conduits have been popularly used.
a) The Hazen William formula is expressed as
V= 0.849 C r
0.63
S
0.54
For circular conduits, the expression becomes
V=4.567 x 10
-3
C d
0.63
S
0.54
And Q =1.292 x 10
-5
C d
2.63
S
0.54
Where Q =discharge in cubic metre per hour
d.=diameter of pipe in mm
V =Velocity in MPS
r.=hydraulic radius in m or hydraulic mean depth in meter = water area
wetted perimeter
S =Slope of hydraulic gradeline
C=Hazen-William co-efficient
5.2 Coefficient of Roughness (`C Value) (Para 6.2.2 of Cpheeo)
21 The co efficient of roughness (`C Value ) depends on Reynolds number
and relative roughness. The Metallic pipes lined with cement mortar or epoxy and
concrete pipe behave as smooth pipes. To reduce corrosion, increase smoothness
and prolong the life of pipe materials, the metallic pipes are being provided with
durable smooth internal lining. Unlined metallic pipes under several field
conditions such as carrying water having tendency for incrustation and corrosion,
low flow velocity and stagnant water under go substantial reduction in their
carrying capacity with age.
The value of the Hazen-William co-efficient `C value for new conduit
materials and the value to be adopted for design purposes are given below.
Hazen-Williams Co-efficient (Table 6.1 of CPHEEO Manual)
Pipe Material Recommended `C Value
New Pipes Design purpose
Unlined Metallic pipes
Cast Iron, Ductile Iron
Mild Steel
Galvanized Iron above 50mm dia
Galvanized Iron 50mm dia and
Below used for house service connections
Centrifugally Lined Metallic Pipes
Cast Iron, Ductile Iron and Mild Steel pipes
Lined with cement mortar or Epoxy
Upto 1200 mm dia
Above 1200 mm dia
Projection Method Cement Mortar Lined
Metallic pipes
Cast Iron, Ductile Iron and Mild Steel pipes
Non Metallic pipes
RCC spun concrete, prestressed Concrete
Upto 1200 mm dia
Above 1200 mm dia
Asbestos Cement
PVC, GRP and other Plastic pipes
130
140
120
120
140
145
130
140
145
150
150
100
100
100
55
140
145
110
140
145
140
145
5.3 Modified Hazen Williams Formula (Para 6.2.4 Of Cpheeo)
Hazen William formula has inherent limitation and under utilization. Hence
the modified Hozen Williams formula has been derived from Darcy Weisbach and
Colebrook white equations and obviates the limitations of Hazen Williams
formula.
The modified Hazen Williams formula derived for circular conduits as
V=143. 534 C
R
r
0.6575
S
0.5525
H = [ L ( Q / C
R
)
1.81
] / 994.62 D
4.81
22 In which,
V =velocity of flow in m/s ;
C
R
= pipe roughness coefficient; ( 1 for smooth pipe; <1 for rough pipes);
r = hydraulic radius in m;
S =friction slope;
D =internal diameter of pipe in m;
H =friction head loss in m;
L =length of pipe in m; and
Q =flow in pipe in m
3
/ s.
A nomograph for estimation of head loss by Modified Hazen - Williams
formula is presented in the Appendix 6.3 of CPHEEO manual
5.4 Effect of Temperature on Coefficient of Roughness ( 6.2.5 of CPHEEO)
Analysis carried out to evaluate effect of temperature (viscosity) on value
of C
R
reveals that the maximum variation of C
R
for a temperature range of 10
o
C
to 30
o
C is 4.5% for a diameter of 2000 mm at a velocity of 3.0 m / s In the light
of this revelation, C
R
values are presented for average temperature of 20
o
C.
5.5 Experimental Estimation of CR Values ( 6.2.6 OF CPHEEO)
The coefficients of roughness in various pipe formulae are based on
experiments conducted over a century ago. The values of Hazen Williams, C,
Mannings n and roughness k values in Moodys Diagram have also been used
on experimental data collected in early nineteenth century. There have since
been major advances in pipeline technology. Both the manufacturing processes
and jointing methods have improved substantially over the years and newer pipe
materials have come into use. Continued usage of roughness coefficients
estimated without recognition of these advances is bound to result in conservative
design of water supply systems. Accordingly C
R
values of commonly used
commercial pipe materials have been experimentally determined in a study
conducted within the country. This study covered pipe diameters 100 to 1500
mm over a wide range of Reynolds numbers ( 3 x 10
4
to 1.60 x 10
6
)
encountered in practice. The results indicate that centrifugally spun CI, RCC, AC
and HDPE pipes are hydraulically smooth when new and hence, C
R
=1 for these
pipes.
The use of Hazen Williams C as per Table 6.1 results in under
utilization of above pipe material when new. The extent of under utilization varies
from 13 to 40 percent for CI pipes, 23 percent for RCC and AC pipes; and 8.4
percent for HDPE and PVC pipes.
The `C Value is the main contributory factor for deciding the size of the pipe.
In case the `C value is understated the size of the pipe would automatically
increase. The increase in discharge quantity of lined CI pipe is 40/45 per cent
when compared to unlined CI pipes. Since the quantity to be discharged in the
design of a particular section of pumping main remains constant, there would be
23 scope for reduction in diameter of the pipes used in that section. If the quantity of
discharge and head lose were kept constant, the diameter of the pipes would be
reduced using Hazen-Williams formula.
The following expression may be used to determine the reduced diameter of
pipes when `C value is increased.
.d
1
=[c/c
1
d
2.63
]
1/2.63
(derived from Hazen William formula)
where d=Diameter of pipe in mm as adopted in the design
d
1
=reduced diameter when `C value is increased
c=`c value adopted in the design
c
1
=Correct `C to be adopted as per CPHEEO manual
Illustration:
Consider a pumping main with following parameters:
Water to be discharged (k) =4365 lpm
Head loss (s) =1/700
`C Value adopted ( C) =100
Pipe used CI pipes (lined ) =400 mm dia
Velocity (v) =0.579 m/sec
Since `C value for lined pipes is 140 ,there would be scope for reduction in
diameter of the pipe. It is to be noted that while reducing the diameter of the pipe
we have to keep the Quantity of water to be discharged as constant. The hydraulic
gradient may be kept constant or it may be increased.
Note: Hazen William formula : Q =1.292 x 10
-5
x, cd
2.63
x S
0.54
(1)
If Q (Discharge) and S (hydraulic gradient are kept constant and C value is
changed
Then Q =1.292 x 10
-5
x C
1
d
2.63
xS
0.54
.(2)
(1) divided by (2) 1=cd
2.63
/c
1
d
1
2.63
d
1
2.63
=c/c
1
d
2.63
: d
1
=[c/c
1
d
2.63
]
1/2.63
The hydraulic gradient should not be reduced as it would cause increased
pressure head which necessitate higher capacity pump sets and consequent
additional expenditure. Hence while attempting reduction of size of pipe by
increasing the `C value, care should be taken to keep both quantity of discharge
and head loss as constants.
Adopting the formula d
1
=[c/c
1
d
2.63
]
0.38
Diameter of the pipe for C value of 140 would be d
1=
[1/1.4 (400)
2.63
]
0.38
(4980693)
0.38
=350.73 mm or 350mm
Thus the dia meter of the pipe is reduced from 400 mm to 350 due to
increase of C value from 100 to 140. However we must ensure that due to
reduction of size of pipe, the velocity should not be increased beyond limits. For
24 this, another expression of Hazen William formula (i.e.) V=4.567 x 10
-3
c d
0.63
x
s
0.54
Where d=350 mm and s=1/700
Therefore V =4.567 x 10
-3
x 140 (350)
0.63
x (1/700)
0.54
4.567 x 10
-3
x 140 x 350
0.63
x (1/700)
0.54
= 4.567 x 10
-3
x 140 x 40.06 x 0.029
=0.745 m/sec which is within normal limits adopted by TWAD Board.
A typical discharge table for different size of pipe is given in Annexure IV
5.6 Reduction in Carrying Capacity of Pipes with Age. ( 6.2.7 of CPHEEO)
The values of Hazen Williams C are at present arbitrarily reduced by
about 20 to 23 percent in carrying capacity of pipes with age. Studies have
revealed that chemical bacteriological quality of water and velocity of flow affect
the carrying capacity of pipes with age. The data on existing systems in some
cities have been analyzed along with the experimental information gathered during
the study, to bring out a rational approach to the reduction in carry capacity of
pipes with age.
The C
R
values obtained in such studies have shown that, except in the case
of CI and steel pipe while carrying corrosive water, the current practice of
arbitrary reduction in C values as per Sec. 6.2.2. results in under utilization of
pipe material to the extent of 38 to 71 percent for CI pipes for non corrosive
water; 46 to 93 percent for RCC pipes and 2 to 64 percent for AC and HDPE
pipes.
5.7. Design Recommendations for Use of Modified Hazen-Williams Formula
( 6.2.8 OF CPHEEO)
The following design recommendations are made to ensure effective
utilization of pipe carrying capacity.
i) New CI, DI steel, RCC, AC and HDPE pipes behave as
hydraulically smooth and hence C
R
of 1 is recommended.
ii) For design period of 30 years, no reduction in C
R
needs to be
effected for RCC, AC, PVC and HDPE pipes irrespective of the
quality of water. However, care must be taken to ensure self-
cleansing velocity to prevent formation of slimes and consequent
reduction in carrying capacity of these pipes with age.
25 iii) For design period of 30 years, 15 percent reduction is required for
unlined CI & DI pipes if non corrosive water is to be transported.
The design must also ensure self cleansing velocity.
iv) While carrying corrosive waters, unlined CI, DI and steel pipes will
loose 47 and 27 percent of their capacity respectively over a design
period of 30 years. Hence, a cost trade-off analysis must be carried
out between chemical and bio-chemical correction of water quality,
provision of a protective lining to the pipe interiors and design at
reduced C
R
value for ascertaining the utility of CI, DI and steel pipe
material in the transmission of corrosive waters.
Recommended C
R
values are presented in Table 6.4 The use of the
recommended values in conjunction with Modified Hazen-Williams formula or
the nomograph will permit fuller utilization of pipe materials.
RECOMMENDED CR VALUES IN MODIFIED HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA( AT 20
o
C)
Sl.
No
Pipe material
Diameter (mm) Velocity ( m/s)
CR value
when New
CR value
for Design
period of
30 years
From To
From
To
1 RCC 100 2000 0.3 1.8 1.00 1.00
2 AC 100 600 0.3 2.0 1.00 1.00
3 HDPE and PVC 20 100 0.3 1.8 1.00 1.00
4
CI/DI ( for water with
positive Langeliers index)
100 1000 0.3 1.8 1.00 0.85*
5
CI/DI ( for water with
negative Langeliers index)
100 1000 0.3 1.8 1.00 0.53 *
6
Metallic pipes lined with
cement mortar or epoxy (
for water with negative
Langeliers index)
100 2000 0.3 2.1 1.00 1.00
7 SGSW 100 600
0.3
2.1 1.00 1.00
8
GI ( for water with negative
Langeliers index)
15 100
0.3
1.5 0.87 (*) 0.74
(*) These are average CR values which result in a maximum error of +- 5 % in
estimation of surface resistance.
5.8 Guidelines for Cost Effective Design of Pipelines.
The cost of transmission and distribution system constitutes a major portion of
the project cost. It is desirable to adopt the following guidelines.
i) The design velocity should not be less than 0.6m /s in order to avoid
depositions and consequent loss of carrying capacity.
26 ii) In design of distribution systems, the design velocity should not be less than
0.6m/ s to avoid low velocity conditions which may encourage deposition and / or
corrosion resulting in deterioration in quality. However, where inevitable due to
minimum pipe diameter criteria or other hydraulic constraints, lower velocities
may be adopted with adequate provision for scouring.
iii) In all hydraulic calculations, the actual internal diameter of the pipe shall be
adopted after accounting for the thickness of lining, if any instead of the nominal
diameter or outside diameters ( OD).
iv)In providing for head loss due to fittings, specials and other appurtenances,
actual head loss calculations based on consideration included in subsection 6.2.9.
should be done instead of making an arbitrary provision.
5.9 Pipe Materials ( Para 6.3 Of CPHEEO)
Pipelines are major investments in water supply projects. Therefore pipe
materials shall have to be judiciously selected not only from the point of view of
durability, life and over all cost which includes, the pipe cost, the installation and
maintenance costs necessary to ensure the required function and performance of
the pipeline throughout its designed life time.
Choice of Pipe Materials
Types of Pipes:
The various types of pipes used are:
a. Metallic pipes : C.I., D.I., M.S., G.I.
i)Unlined Metalic pipes.
ii)Metallic pipes lined with cement mortar or epoxy lining
b. Non Metallic pipes
i) Reinforced Concrete, Prestressed Concrete, Bar wrapped Steel Cylinder
Concrete, Asbestos Cement.
ii) Plastic pipes : PVC, Polyethylene, Glass Reinforced Plastic, etc.
Selection of Pipes
* Several technical factors affect the final choice of pipe material such as
internal pressures, coefficient of roughness, hydraulic and operating conditions,
maximum permissible diameter, internal and external corrosion problems, laying
and jointing, type of soil, special conditions, etc.
27 * Selection of pipe materials must be based on the following considerations:
a)The initial carrying capacity of the pipe and its reduction with use,
defined, for example, by the Hazen Williams coefficient. C. Values of C
vary for different conduit materials and their relative deterioration in
service. They vary with size and shape to some extent.
b) The strength of the pipe as measured by its ability to resist internal
pressures and external loads.
c)The life and durability of pipe
d)The case of difficulties in transportation, handling and laying and
jointing under different conditions of topography, geology and other
prevailing local conditions.
e)The safety, economy and availability or manufactured sizes of pipes and
specials
f)The availability of skilled personnel in construction and commissioning
of pipelines.
g)The ease or difficulty of operations and maintenance.
The life and durability of the pipe depends on several factors including
inherent strength of the pipe material, the manufacturing process along with
quality control handling transportation laying and jointing of the pipeline
surrounding soil conditions and quality of water. Normally the design period of
pipelines is considered as 30 years.
Lined metallic pipelines are expected to last beyond the normal design life
of 30 years. However, the relative age of such pipes depends on the thickness and
quality of lining available for corrosion. The cost of the pipe material and its
durability or design life are the two major governing factors in the selection of the
pipe material. The pipeline may have very long life but may also be relatively
expensive in terms of capital and recurring costs and, therefore, it is essential to
carryout a detailed economic analysis before selecting a pipe material.
The metallic pipes are being provided with internal lining either with cement
mortar or epoxy so as to reduce corrosion, increase smoothness and prolong the
life.
Underground metallic pipelines may require protection against external
corrosion depending on the soil environment and corrosive ground water.
Protection against external corrosion is provided with cement mortar guiniting or
hot applied coal-tar asphaltic enamel reinforced with fiberglass fabric yarn.
The determination of the suitability in all respects of the pipeline for any
work is a matter of decision by the Engineer concerned on the basis of the
requirements for the scheme. It is necessary that a quantitative and qualitative
assessment is made to arrive at the most economical and reliable pipe materials.
The check list for selection of pipe materials prescribed in table 6.7 of
CPHEEO is to be prepared to the facilitate the decision makers in selecting the
28 economical and reliable pipe materials for the given condition and it is strongly
recommended for large and medium projects more than 15 mld.
Risk factors should be identified clearly in the project report. Risk analysis
should be carried out to arrive at the correct decision in selecting the pipe
material.
1. Cast Iron (CI) Pipe (Para 6.4. CPHEEO)
CI pipes are vertically cast or centrifugally cast. Vertically cast Iron pipe
shall confirm to IS 1537 1976 and the centrifugally cast spun iron pipe shall
confirm to IS 1536: 2001. Vertically cast Iron pipes has been largely superceded
by centrifugally spun cast iron pipes. Centrifugally cast iron (spun) pipe is
available and manufactured to a diameter of 80mm to 1050mm. The CI pipe have
been classified as LA, A and B classes according to their wall thickness. Class LA
pipe have been taken as the basis for classification of pipe Class A pipe more 10%
and Class B have 20% increase in thickness over Class LA.
Widely used because of its good casting qualities and continue to
give satisfactory service even after a century of use.
The pipes are Spigot and socket type
Several type of joints such as rubber gasket joint known as Tyton
joints, Mechanical joint and conventional joint know as Lead joints
are used.
used for carrying potable water, sewer main etc.
2. Steel Pipe ( Para 6.5 of CPHEEO)
Manufacture of steel pipes shall be with mild steel plate grade Minimum
tensile strength of 330 mpa, 410 mpa & 450 mpa confirming to IS 2062. ( Steel
plate of Minimum tensile strength of 410 mpa is normally used)
Larger size of pipe are made by welding together the edges of suitably
curved plates as per IS 3589: 2001.
IS 3589 : 2001 stipulates the nominal size of steel pipe ranging 168.3mm
to 2540mm outer diameter with varying thickness of plate 2.6mm to
25mm.
To be provided protection against corrosion. As against internal
corrosion rich cement mortar or epoxy lining should be done internally by
centrifugal process. The outer coating for under ground pipe line may be
in cement - sand guiniting or not applied coal-tar asphaltic enamel
reinforced with fibre glass fabric yarn.
Small size of pipe having threaded ends could be joined with jointed
materials like yarn.
29 3. Ductile Iron Pipes ( 6.6 Of CPHEEO)
Ductile iron confirming to IS 8329 : 2000 specification prescribes standards
for centrifugally cast ductile iron pipe ( DI pipe).
DI pipes are available in the range of 80mm to 1000mm diameter and in
length of 5.5 to 6m.
DI pipes are normally provided with cement mortar lining at the factory by
centrifugal process.
DI pipe have excellent properties of machinability, impact resistance,
high wear and tear resistance high tensile strength, ductility and corrosion
resistance. Free from cracks.
These pipes are approximately 30% lighter than conventional CI pipes.
DI fittings are manufactured conforming to IS 9523 : 1980 and the
laying and jointing done as in the case of CI pipe ( viz. rubber gasket etc.)
4. Asbestos Cement (AC) Pipes ( Para 6.7 of CPHEEO)
A.C. pipes conforming to IS : 1592 2003 was made of a mixture of
Asbestos paste and cement compressed by steel roller to form laminated material
of great strength and density.
AC pipe are manufactured from class 10 to 25 and nominal diameters of
50mm to 1000mm with test pressure of 10 to 25 kg / cm 2.
AC pipes are classified as class 10,15,20 & 25 kg / cm 2 respectively.
Working pressure shall not be greater then 50% of the test pressure for
pumping mains and 67% for gravity main.
AC pipes have two type of joints cast iron detachable ( CID) joints and
AC coupling joints.
5. Concrete Pipe ( Para 6.8 of CPHEEO)
Reinforced cement concrete ( RCC ) pipes are classified as P1, P2 and P3
with test pressure of 2,4 and 6 kg / cm
2
respectively. For use as gravity main, the
working pressure should be 2/3 of the test pressure and for the pumping main,
the working pressure should not exceed half of the test pressure.
J ointed with RCC collars with jute yarn rope dipped in Cement mortar.
6. Pre stressed Concrete (PSC) Pipe ( Para 6.9 of CPHEEO)
The PSC pipes are ideally suited for water supply mains where pressure in
the range of 6 kg / cm
2
to 20 kg / cm
2
are encountered.
PSC pipes consists of a concrete lined steel cylinder with steel joint rings
welded to its ends wrapped with a helix of highly stressed wire and
coated with dense cement mortar or concrete.
30 PSC pipes are jointed with flexible rubber rings.
Confirming to IS 784 : 2001 specification.
PSC pipe competes economically with steel for pipe diameter of 600mm
and above.
The PSC pipes are classified as 4 KSC, 6 KSC, 8 KSC, 10 KSC, 12 KSC,
16 KSC, 18 KSC, and 20 KSC pipe and that denotes the working pressure
excluding surge pressure and the site test pressure will be 1.5 times of the
above working pressure vide IS 784 : 2001.
7. Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder Pipes (BWSC Pipes) (Para 6.9.4 Of CPHEEO)
(IS: 15155-2002)
Bar wrapped cylinder pipes (BWSC pipes) are being manufactured
as per IS 15155-2002. BWSC pipe is a modified version of PSC pipes with steel
cylinder embedded in it. The joints are welded and covered with cement mortar
coating. The joints are more reliable than conventional rubber ring joints. The
O&M expenditure would be less. It is advantagements to use BWSC pipe in water
supply and sewerage projects on grounds of good hydraulic properties, long life
better corrosion resistant properties etc., The BWSC pipe have been introduced as
approved pipe material in TWAD schedule of rates for the year 2004-05, In
Circular NO.43/AC/P&D/2005 Dt.04.10.2005, TWAD Board directed that the use
of BWSC pipe has to be encouraged in water supply and sewerage projects in
view of its techno economic advantage and lesser O&M cost. The technical
committee instructed to consider BWSC pipe as are of the alternative in water
supply and sewerage projects with Techno economic consideration.
8. Plastic Pipes ( Para 6.10 Of CPHEEO)
Poly Vinyl Chloride ( PVC ) pipe conforming to IS 4898 1988. PVC
pipe have advantages of resistance to corrosion, light weight, toughness,
rigidity, economical in laying, jointing and maintenance, case of
fabrication.
Available in size of outer dia 20 to 315mm at working pressure of 2.5, 4,
6, 10 kg / cm2.
Superior compared to conventional pipe especially AC.
J ointing of PVC can be made by solvent cement, rubber ring joint, flanged
joints, threaded joints.
For bedding pipe trench is filled with sand and compacted by tapping with
wooden stick.
Note: In Circular No.42/DO/P&D/2005 Dt.04.10.2005. TWAD Board
instructed to considered PVC pipe upto 315 mm OD as one of the alternative in
water supply and sewerage projects with techno economic consideration.
9. Polyethylene Pipes ( Para 6.11 of CPHEEO)
High density polyethylene pipe ( HDPE) has excellent free flowing
properties.
31
Required for water distribution system ranging from 15-150mm dia and
occasionally upto 350mm
Conforming to IS 4984 1987.
They can withstand movement of heavy traffic
HDPE pipes can be jointing by welding.
10. Medium Density ( MDPE) PIPE ( para 6.11)
Manufactured conforming to ISO 4427 specification for carrying potable
water.
The pipes are supplied in coil.
11. Glass fibre reinforced plastic (GRP)Pipes ( 6.12 of CPHEEO)
GRP pipes are now manufactured in India conforming to IS 12709.
The diameter range is from 350mm to 2400mm. The pressure class is
3,6,9,12 & 15 kgs / Sq.cm. The factory test pressures are 4.5,9,13.5, 18,
22.5 kg / sqcm. The factory test pressures are 6, 12, 18, 24 and 30 kgs /
sq.cm.
Standard length are 6 and 12 meter.
Widely used in foreign countries.
GRP pipes are corrosion resistant and have smooth surface and high
strength, lighter in weight.
Pipes are jointed by using double bell coupling.
12. G.I. Pipe.
The pipe shall be galvanized mild steel not finished seamless or welded or
screwed and socketed conforming to the requirement of IS 1239 (Part.I) for
medium grade
Shall with stand a test pressure of 50 kg / cm
2
Normally used for hill areas.
5.10.Structural Requirements ( Para 6.13.1)
Structurally closed conduits must resist a number of different forces
singly or in combination.
a) Internal pressure equal to the full head of water to which the
conduit can be subjected ( ie. Hydrostatic Test pressure).
b) Unbalanced pressure at bends, constructions and closures which
have been discussed in 6.16.18 of CPHEEO Manual.
c) Water hammer
d) External load in the form of back fill, traffic and their own weight
between external supports (Piers or hangers).
e) Temperature induced expansion and contraction.
Internal pressure including water hammer creates transverse stress or hoop
tension. Bend and closures as dead ends of gates produce unbalanced pressures
32 and longitudinal stress. When conduits are not permitted to change length,
variations in temperature like wise create longitudinal stress. External loads and
foundation reactions ( Manner of support ) including the weight of the full conduit
and atmospheric pressure produce flexural stress.
5.11 Depth of Cover: ( 6.13.4 Of CPHEEO)
One meter cover on pipeline is normal and generally sufficient to protect
the pipe lines from external damage. When heavy traffic is anticipated, depth of
cover has to be arrived at taking in to consideration of the structural and other
aspects as detailed in 6.13.2 CPHEEO Manual. When freezing is anticipated
1.5m cover is recommended.
5.12. Testing of the Pipe Line ( Para 6.4.4. Of CPHEEO)
After laying and jointing, the pipe line must be pressure tested to ensure
that pipes and joints are found enough to withstand the maximum pressure likely
to be developed under working conditions.
The yield test pressure to be imposed should be not less than the maximum
of the following.
1 times the maximum sustained operating pressure.
1 times the maximum pipeline static pressure.
Sum of the maximum sustained operating pressure and the maximum
surge pressure.
Sum of the maximum pipeline static pressure and the maximum surge
pressure subject to a maximum equal to the work test pressure for any pipe
fitting incorporated.
The field test pressure should wherever possible be not less than 2/3 work
test pressure appropriate to the class of pipe except in the case of spun iron
pipes and should be applied and maintained for atleast four hours.
Where the field test pressure is less than 2/3 the work test pressure, the
period of test should be increased to atleast 24 hours. The test pressure
shall be gradually revised at the rate of 1 kg / cm
2
/minutes.
In case of gravity pipe, maximum working pressure shall be 2/3 work test
pressure.
The hydrostatic test pressure at works and at field after installation and the
working pressure for different classes of pipes are given in Annexure 5
5.13 Water Hammer (Surge Pressure ) (Para 6.17 CPHEEO)
Occurrence
If the velocity of water flowing in pipe is suddenly diminished, pressure
would be develop in the pipe line due to frictional resistance and wave
propagation. This pressure rise or water hammer is manifest as a series of shocks,
33 sounding like hammer blows, which may have sufficient magnitude to rupture the
pipe or damage connected equipment. It may be caused by the nearly
instantaneous or too rapid closing of a valve in the line or by an equivalent
stoppage of flow which would take place with the sudden pressure. The pressure
wave due to water hammer travels back upstream to the lintel end of the pipe,
where it reverses and surges back and forth through the pipe , getting weaker on
each successive reversal. The Velocity of the wave is that of an acoustic wave in
an elastic medium, the elasticity of the medium in this case being a compromise
between that of the liquid and the pipe. The excess pressure due to water hammer
is additive to the normal hydrostatic pressure in the pipe and depends on the
elastic properties of the liquid and pipe and on the magnitude.
Causes for Water hammer
The Causes of water hammer are
i) rapid closure of valves
ii) Sudden shut off or unexpected failure of power supply to centrifugal
pump.
iii) Pulsation problems due to hydraulic rams and reciprocating pumps.
Computations for Water Hammer
Maximum water pressure (which occurs at the critical time of closure Tc or
any time less than Tc ) is given by the expression.
H max = C Vo
G
Where,
H max =maximum pressure rise in the closed conduct above the normal pressure
in m,
C = Velocity of pressure wave travel in m/sec.,
G = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81m/Sec
2
Vo = normal velocity in the pipeline, before sudden closure. in m/sec.
C = 1425
1+kd
ECt
Where,
k = bulk modulus of water (2.07 x 10
8
kg/m
2
)
d = diameter of pipe in m
Ct = wall thickness of pipe in m and
E = modulus of elasticity of pipe material in kg/m
2
Table below gives of E that may be adopted for different materials.
Values of E for Different Materials
34
Material E (kg/m
2
)
Polyethylene soft 1.2 x 107
Polyethylene hard 9 x 107
P V C 3 x 108
Concrete 2.8 x 109
Asbestos Cement 3 x 109
Reinforced Cement Concrete 3.1 x 109
Prestressed Concrete 3.5 x 109
Cast Iron 7.5 x 109
Ductile Iron 1.7 x 1010
Wrought Iron 1.08 x 1010
Steel 2.1 x 1010
If the actual time of closure T is greater than the critical time Tc, the actual
water hammer is reduced approximately in proportion to Tc/T.
Water hammer wave velocity may be as high as 1370 m/s for a rigid pipe or
as low as 850 m/s for a steel pipe and for plastic pipes may be as low as 200m/s.
Control Measures
The internal design pressure for any section of a pipeline should not be less
than the maximum operating pressure or the pipeline static pressure obtaining at
the lowest portion of the pipeline considering any allowance required for surge
pressure. The maximum surge pressure should be calculated and the following
allowances made:
(a) If the sum of the maximum operating pressure or the maximum pipeline
static pressure which ever is higher and the calculated surge pressure does
not exceed 1.1 times the internal design pressure, no allowance is
required.
(b) If the sum exceeds 1.1 times the internal design pressure, then protective
devices should be installed and
(c) In no case sum of the maximum operating pressure and the calculated
surge pressure should exceed the field hydrastatic test pressure.
(d) Effect of water hammer could be controlled by
(i) installing special devices in the pipe lines (automatically controlled
quick closing valves, bypasses and pressure relief valves.
(ii) employing surge tank- simplest of form of surge tank is a stand pipe
placed at the end of the line next to the point of velocity control.
5.14 Economic Size of pumping :
35 The economical size of pumping main is based on analysis of the
following factors.
i) Design period or period of loan repayment
ii) Quantities to be conveyed during different phases.
iii) Different pipe sizes against corresponding hydraulic slopes.
iv) Different pipe materials and relative costs as laid
v) Recurring cost on power.
vi) Cost replacement of pump sets at an intermediate stage of design period.
Duty capacity and installed costs of pump sets required against
corresponding sizes of pipeline considered
5.15. Structural Loads on Rigid Pipes (Data matrix of TWAD Board Engineer)
Structural loads on Rigid Pipes are due to (i) fill material (ii) concentrated
load and (iii) superimposed uniformly distributed load.
Elaborate procedure has been developed by Matson for calculation of
structural loads under conditions of pipes in trench, which will be worked out by
the designers.
5.16 Strength of Pipes for various Bedding
The manner in which the pipe is supported in trench and the nature of the
backfill material affect the distribution of load and the internal stresses. Load
factor of bedding and several type of bedding are indicated below It is customary
to use two-thirds of the effective strength as design strength.
Type of bedding Load Factor
Ordinary bedding 1.5
First Class bedding 1.9
Concrete cradle bedding 2.25 to 3.4
Example:
Let the load on a pipe (of certain diameter laid at required depth and trench
width) due to fill material, concentrated moving load and superimposed uniformly
distributed loads worked out in according with Matsons formula be 10000
kg/metre length.
Let the three edge bearing strength of pipe be 7500 kg/metre.
With a factor of safety of 1.50, safe permissible load =7500/1.5
=5000 kg/metre
load factor required =10000/5000 =2.0
Hence concrete bedding should be selected.
For the same pipe with a structural load of 5000 kg/metre, the load factor is
1.0 and ordinary bedding will be sufficient.
Thus the choice of the bedding to be selected depends on the structural load
on the pipes calculated in terms of the procedure outlined above.
36
Audit Approach
PIPE
According to Para 6.3.1 of CPHEEO Manual, the cost of the pipe materials
and its durability are the two major governing factors in the selection of pipe
materials and the exercise prescribed in Ttable 6.7 of the ibid Manual the
selection of pipe materials had to be carried out for selecting the economical
and reliable pipe materials. The Manual also stipulates that selection of pipe
for water supply works should be done economically as it involves major part
of the project cost and designed on the basis of procedure stipulated in
Appendix 6.5 Design for Economic Size of pumping main of ibid Manual.
But while selecting the pipe materials for pumping main and conveying main
of water supply schemes, techno-economic selection of pipe materials
stipulated in the CPHEEO Manual was not adopted involving extra cost.
Cases will be available in designing pumping main adopting MS Pipe/CI
Pipe/DI pipe instead of adopting PSC Pipes by erroneous adoption co-efficient
of roughness (C value) for both metallic pipe lined with cement mortar or epoxy
and prestressed concrete (PSC) pipe (ie. Value in both cases is 140). Para 6.9
of ibid Manual also stipulates that PSC pipe competes economically with
metallic pipe for diameter 600 mm and above and ideally suited for water
supply main where pressure is in the range of 6 kg/cm
2
to 20 kg/cm
2
.
Cases for adoption of DI pipe instead of CI pipe or MS pipe where the designed
pressure of pumping main is much below the working pressure of CI or MS
Pipe.
According to TWAD Board Circular of February 1999, AC class 15 pipes upto
to size of 300 mm dia could be used for pumping main. But cases of using PSC
pipes/CI pipes/DI pipes could be identified and commented.
While designing the pumping main it would be verified whether intermediary
sump was at higher ridge point so as to reduce the pressure head was provided
so that comparatively lesser class of pipe could be used for the pumping main
Failure to provide intermediary sump and suitable device to control surge
pressure resulting in frequent burst and leakage of pumping main leading for
interruption in power supply. Such defective design and cost involved on
rectification work had to be analysed and commented.
NOTE: While objecting use of metallic pipe the Board used to contend that the
metallic pipe was used to avoid illegal tapping of water from main, to complete
the work within the time schedule and prevalency of rocky reaches. Those
contentions were not tenable due to the fact that illegal tapping was not possible
in PSC pipes also and the Board had allowed the same time for manufacturing,
supplying, laying, jointing PSC Pipes and MS pipes. Further Board used PSC
Pipes in pumping main even for hard rock reaches in other similar water supply
37 schemes by providing sand cushion or refilling the trenches as stipulated in the
Standard IS Specification.
Even where higher class of pipes are used than the actual requirement to
withstand the designed pressure on the pumping and distribution main,
cases of leakages were noticed. Consequently, water could not be
pumped to the designed level and supply effected. This was due to
distortion at flexible joint. Thus due to defective joints, water could not
be supplied. This could be commented. On non achievement of the
objective due to defective execution of work
Cases where PSC/CI/DI Pipe is used instead of AC Pipes on the ground
that the pipeline has to be laid on heavy traffic area. This contention is
not correct. According to Para 6.13.4 of CPHEEO Manual one metre
cover on pipeline is normal and generally sufficient to protect the
pipeline from external damage. When heavy traffic is anticipated, depth
of the cover had to be arrived at taking into consideration of the
structural and other aspects as detailed in Para 6.13.2 of CPHEEO
Manual. In as much as the pipe line are laid along the road side, the
question of increase in stress on the pipe causing damage would not
arise. Besides the Board has not worked out extra cover if any required
for.
6. SELECTION OF PUMPS
1. In a water supply system pumping machinery serves the following purposes:
a) lifting water from the source (surface or ground ) to purification works or
the service reservoir;
b) boosting water from source to low service areas and to the upper floor of
the storied buildings; and
c) transporting water through treatment works, draining of settling tanks
and of treatment units, withdrawing sludge, supplying water especially
water pressure to operating equipment and pumping chemical solutions to
treatment units.
While deciding the type of pump for the specific requirements, it is necessary to
analyze different type of pumps and their suitability to meet the requirements.
2. The following pumps are generally used in water supply schemes.
a. Centrifugal pumps
b. J et pumps
c. Turbine pumps (oil lubricated or water lubricated vertical pump)
d. Submersible pumps.
38 3. The selection of pump sets for different types of sources and conditions are as
follows:
4.1. Borewells (Chapter 7 of Quality Control Manual)
Sl.No. Site condition Preferable
Pump Selection
i. 100mm dia Bore well Jet pumps (Packer type )
Ii 150 mm dia Bore well(not straight) Jet Pumps (Packer type )
Iii 150mm dia Bore well with yield less than 50 lpm Jet Pumps (Packer type )
Iv 150 mm dia Bore well(with yield more than 50
lpm in urban area)
Submersible pumpsets
V 150 mm dia Bore well in rural area
a. yield between 50 & 100 lpm
b. yield more than 100 lpm
Jet (with jet setting 20 m )
Submersible pumpsets.
4.2.Wells and Other Sources
Sl.
No.
Site Condition Preferable pump
selection
I Inside the river one or more number of
Infiltration wells.
- Submersible pumpsets
Ii Inside the river one/more Infiltration wells with
foot bridge arrangements.
- Turbine pumps
Iii Collector well connected the bank with foot
bridge
- Turbine pumps
Iv Low lift raw water pumping, dry well built in
the river / dam bank with suction head not to
exceed 6m
- Centrifugal pumps
V For the above site condition when suction head
exceeds 6m
- Turbine pumps
Vi Clear water ground level reservoir / sump - Centrifugal/Turbine
pumps
Vii Clear water/raw water booster pumping station. - Centrifugal pumps
Viii Line booster (small discharge <1000 lpm) - Centrifugal pumps
Ix Line booster (large discharge ) Not desirable (sump has
to be constructed )
X Open well with suction head less than 6m in - Centrifugal pumps or
39 the lean period open well submersible
pumps
Xi Open well with the water level goes down and
the discharge is less than 50 lpm (both urban &
Rural areas)
- J et / open well subersible
pumpsets.
xii For the above site condition when the
dischartge is more than 50 lpm and the depth of
well is more than 15m
a. Rural areas
b. Urban areas
-
Jet pumps (HP not to
exceed 20)
Turbine pumps
xiii For the above site condition with the depth of
well is more than 15m and there is possibility
of flooding.
a. Urban areas
b. Rural areas
-
Submersible pumps
Jet Pumps (Not
exceeding 20 HP)
xiv Major schemes. - Turbine / Centrifugal
pumps.
Note 1 For major urban schemes, only centrifugal or turbine pumpsets
(1500 RPM or 1000 RPM) should be selected. In no case open well
submersible pump sets should be selected of turbine pump owing to higher
speed (3000 rpm) and lesser efficiency.
2. While selecting centrifugal pumps, the net positive suction head
available for the particular condition should be indicated.
3. As for as the pumps are concerned, the following terms are very relevant
in their usage.
Duty of pump set
The duty of pump set is the discharge in liters per minute against the total
dynamic head (static head, friction losses and other losses ) to which each pump
has to be operated.
Shut off head
Shut off head is the maximum head developed in the pump against zero
discharge.
Net positive suction head (NPSH )
a. NPSH required
40 This is the energy head destroyed in the suction passage of pumps during entry.
b. NPSH available
This is the head available after deducting from the atmospheric pressure the
sum of static head, friction loss and vapour pressure at the attitude
Always NPSH available should be more than NPSH required.
5. Life of Pump and Motor
The life expectancy of electrical pumping machineries is 12 years as per
TNPWD Code Appendix VII-A . The pump set and motors will start losing it
efficiency year by year. However by doing upkeep preventive measures and
doing necessary special repairs, the efficiency can be maintained with
extension of life period upto 15 years.
If they are replaced after 15 years, the advantages of latest technology
available at that time of replacement can be made use of which will improve
the efficiency of the system.
(vide CE/SR/MDU Letter 15.12.2003 )
Appendix 6.5 of CPHEEO Manual stipulates the life of electric motor and
pump are 15 years.
6. Criteria for Pump selection (Para 11.1.3 of CPHEEO)
Prior to the selection of a pump for a pumping station, detailed
consideration has to be sent to various aspects, viz.,
a. Nature of liquid, may be chemicals or if water, then whether raw or
treated
b. Type of duty required, i.e. Whether continuous, intermittent or
cyclic.
c. Present and projected demand and pattern of change in demand
d. The details of head and flow rate required
e. Type and duration of the availability of the power supply
f. Selecting the operating speed of the pump and suitable drive/
driving gear.
g. The efficiency of the pumps/s and consequent influence on power
consumption and the running costs.
h. Various options possible by permuting the parameters of the
pumping system, including the capacity and number of pumps
including standbys, combining them in series or in parallel.
i. Options of different modes of installation, their influence on the
costs of civil structural constructions, on the case of operation and
maintenance and on the overall economics.
41 7. Types of Head affecting pumping system (Para 11.6 of CPHEEO Manual)
A pump or a set of pumps has to satisfy the needs of the pumping system.
Hence one had to first evaluate the head needed to be developed by the pump for
delivering different value of flow rate. The following head affect the pumping
system.
a) Static Head
This is the difference between the level of the liquid in the suction-sump and
the level of the highest point on the delivery piping, obviously the static head is
more at the low water level (LWL ) and less at the high-water level (HWL).
b) Friction Head
This is sum of the head-losses in the entire length of the piping, from the foot
value to the final point of delivery piping, also the losses in all the valves i.e.
the foot valve, non-return (reflux) valve and the isolating (generally, sluice or
butterfly ) valves, and the loss in all pipe-fittings such as the bends, tees,
elbows, reducers, etc.
c) Velocity Head
At the final point of delivery, the kinetic energy is lost to the atmosphere. To
recover this loss, a bell-mouth is often provided at the final point of delivery.
The kinetic energy the final point of delivery has also to be a part of the
velocity head.
8. Parameters and Suitability of Pump (Para 11.1.7 of CPHEEO)
Based on the considerations of parameters of head, discharge and speed in
the selection of a pump as envisaged in Para 11.1.4 and consideration of the
suction lift capacity laid in para 11.1.5 of CPHEEO a summary view is compiled
of the application-parameters and suitability of pumps of various types and
presented in Table below However, these are general guidelines . Specific
designs may either not satisfy the limits or certain designs may exceed the limits.
APPLICATIONS OF PUMPS
Pump Type Suction capacity to lift Head range Discharge range
Low
3.5m
Mediu
m 6m
High
8.5m
Low
upto
10m
Mediu
m 10-
40m
High
above
40m
Low
upto 30
L/s
Mediu
m upto
500 L/s
High
above
500L/s
Centrifugal,
Horizontal end
suction
Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok No Ok Ok No
Centrifugal
horizontal axial
split casing
Ok No No Ok Ok No No Ok Ok
Centrifugal,
horizontal
multistage
Ok Ok No No Ok Ok Ok Ok No
Jet-centrifugal,
combinations
When limitations of suction
lift are to be overcome.
Ok Ok No Ok No No
Centrifugal,
vertical turbine
When suction lift is to be
avoided
Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok
42
Centrifugal,
vertical
submersible
When suction lift is to be
avoided
Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok Ok
Positive
displacement
pumps
Normally self priming Limited only by the pressure
which casing can withstand
Ok Ok No
Easy adoptation for dosing or
metering
9. Drive Rating: (Para 11.1.9 of CPHEEO)
After the operating point of a pump is decided as discussed in Clause 11.17
of CPHEEO, the efficiency of the pump can be estimated from figure 11.1 ibid.
(TWAD issued orders to adopt 60% centrifugal pump and 70% for turbine and
submersible pump). The rating of the drive should be such that it would not get
overloaded when the pump would be delivering the high discharge as with HWL
and the suction-sump. Also, the drive rating should be adequate to provide for
negative tolerance on efficiency and the positive tolerance on discharge applicable
for variation and actual pump performance from the rated performance.
The power needed to be input to the pump is the power to be output by
drive i.e., the pump shaft. Since most drives are coupled direct to the pump, the
power at the pump shaft denotes brake power of the drive (or brake horse power).
All drives are rated only as per their brake power capacity often quoted in Brake
Kilowatt (BKW) or Brake Horse Power (BHP)
To provide margin over BKW or BHP at the operating point so that the
overloading would not be happen as HWL, the following margins are
recommended:
BKW/BHP required at the operating point
BHP BKW
Multiplying factor for
deciding motor HP
Upto 2 Upto 1.5 1.5
2 to 5 1.5 to 3.7 1.4
5 to 10 3.7 to 7.5 1.3
10 to 20 7.5 to 15 1.2
20 to 100 15 to 75 1.15
Above 100 Above 75 1.1
Note: 1 kilowatt =1.34 Horse Power
After multiplying, the next available range of motor HP has to be selected.
BHP=Quantity to be lifted in lpm x total head in m
60x76.06xEfficiency in percentage
43
7. TREATMENT
Treatment of water (Chapter 7 of CPHEEO Manual & Data Matrix)
a. Aim : To improve the raw water quality to the drinking water standards
and stop water borne transmission of epidemics .
b. Methods of treatment : Depends on the nature of source and its water quality .
Subsurface source Generally Chlorination will be sufficient except where
iron is present .
Surface source : Aeration ( if required) Pre chlorination ( optional )
Sedimentation either plain or with coagulation and flocculation , and
post chlorination .
1. Aeration
Aim : i. to remove objectionable tastes and odours .
ii. for expulsion of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide .
iii. to precipitate impurities iron and manganese present.
iv. For increasing the dissolved oxygen content to water for imparting
freshness.
Types of aeration
i. Spray Type
44 ii. Multiple tray or water fall
iii. Cascade type
iv. Diffused air aerators
v. Mechanical aerators
2 Pre Chlorination
Aim : i. to prevent biological growth in raw water
ii. for reduction of colour .
iii. for destruction of some taste & odour producing compounds .
iv. for oxidation of iron, manganese and hydrogen sulphide .
v. to aid coagulation.
vi. for minimizing post-chlorination dosage .
Dosage : 1 to 5 ppm depending on the degree of pollution .
3. Plain Sedimentation
Aim : To separate suspended impurities from water by gravitation .
Detention period : One to several days for sedimentation without subsequent
filtration to 4 hours for sedimentation in conjunction with
filters .( much longer settling time for basins preceding slow
sand filters than for rapid sand filters ) .
Loading rate: 2.4 to 24m
3
/ day / m
2
4 Chemical dosing
Aim : i. For coagulation, flocculation .
ii. disinfection and softening .
iii. algal and corrosion control .
iv. for fluoridisation .
Types :(i) Dry feed .
(ii) Solution feed .
Strength of solution :To be not more than 5% for manual feed and not more than
10% for mechanical feed.
Alum is the most common coagulant used and economical.
Lime is also added when PH and alkalinity are low
Dosage for alum : 20-100 mg / 1 (1-5 grain / gallon )
Dosage for lime: About one third that of alum
Density of lime =670 kg / m
3
Density of alum =980 kg / m
3
5 Flash mixing
Aim : To disperse the coagulant evenly in the water.
Generally used when flow exceeds 300 Cu.m / hour.
Head loss : 0.20 0.60 m of water
45 Ratio of tank dia. To height : 1.1 to 3.0
6. Coagulation and Flocculation
Aim :The addition of a coagulant like alum promotes the formation
of micro floes which are the nuclei for the absorption of
turbidity and colour causing particles.
During flocculation, the micro floc particles formed during
rapid mixing are brought together to aggregate into larger
rapidly settle able floes by controlled agitation of water .
Detention Period :15-30 minutes in flocculation zone .2-3 hours in settling or
clarifier zone .
Dosage :To be decided by J ar Test .
7. Sedimentation
Aim: To remove readily settling sediments such as sand, silt, coagulated
impurities such as colour and turbidity and precipated
The range of surface loadings and detention periods for average
design flow for different types of sedimentation tanks are as follows:
Tank type
Surface
loading
m
3
/m
2
/d
@
Detention
period
Particles
normally
removed
Range
Typical value
for design
Range
Typical value
for design
Plain
Sedimentation
Upto
6000
15-30 0.01-1.5 3-4
Sand, silt &
clay
Horizontal
flow, circular
25-75 30-40 2-8 2-2.5
Alum and
iron floge
Vertical flow
(upflow)
clarifier
40-50 1-1.5 Flocculant
8. Filtration
Aim i. to separate the suspended and colloidal impurities in the water .
ii. to produce sparkling and aesthetically attractive water free from disease
producing organism .
Types : Slow sand filters, Rapid sandfilters
46 a. Slow Sand Filters : Slow sand filters can provide a single step treated for
polluted surface waters of low turbiding (<20 Ntu)
Filtration rate Normal operation: 0.1 m/hr
Maximum overload rate:0.2 m /hr .
Allowable head loss : 0.6 to 1.3 m .
Depth of filter sand : initial 1.0 m
Final (minimum) 0.4 m
Depth of gravel : 30cm thick in 3 to 4 layers graded from 2 to 45 mm .
Depth of water over sand : 1.0 m.
Free board : 20 cm.
Depth of filter box : 2.7 m
Effluent weir level above sand level : 20-30 mm
Recommended Number of slow sand Filter : Area in m
2
Number of bed
required.
Minimum 2
Area upto 20 m
2
2
20-249 m
2
3
250-649 m
2
4
650-1200 m
2
5
1201-2000 m
2
6
b. Rapid Sand Filters : The rapid sand filter comprises of a bed of sand
serving as a single medium granular matrix supported
on gravel overlaying an under drainage system.
Filtration rate 80-100 lpm/m
2
or 4.8-6m/hr at normal rate :10 m/h at
max..prudent arrangement would be at 4.8 m/hr
Head loss allowed : 1.8 to 2.0 m .
Depth of sand : 60-75 cm thick
Depth of gravel : Gravel is placed between the sand and the under
drainage system to prevent sand from entering the
under drains and to aid distribution of waste water.
47 Varying from 25 to 65mm at bottom and 2 to 5 mm at
top with a depth 0.45m.
Depth of water over sand :1.0-2.0 m.
Size of Filter bed :100 m
2
(max ) for a single unit comprising Two
halves 50 m
2
each .
No. of Units :4 ( min ) and 2 for small plants .
Overall depth : minimum 2.6 m including a free board of 0.5 m
Ratio of length to width : 1.25-1.33
9. Wash water Gutter :Horizontal travel of dirty water over the surface of
filter shall not be more than 0.6 to 1.0 m before
reaching the gutter .
Bottom of gutter should clear the top of Expanded
sand by 50 mm or more .
Upper edge of gutter should be placed as far above the
surface of the undisturbed sand surface as the wash
water rises in 1 minute .
10. Back wash . Back wash should be arranged at such a pressure that
the sand expands to about 130 to 150 of its undisturbed
volume or 5 m head of water as measured in under
drain. Normally the wash water is applied at 36 m
(600 lpm/m
2
) for a period of 10 minutes
11.Pressure Filters
Same principle as gravity type rapid sand filters; but
water is passed through the filters under pressure.
Tank axis may be vertical or horizontal.
Disadvantages: (i). Pretreatment is not possible without secondary
pumping.
(ii) Complicates effective feeding mixing and flocculation.
(iii) Adequate contact time for chemicals not possible
(iv) Observance of effectiveness of back was not possible
(v) Difficult to inspect clean and replace.
Advantages : i. Secondary pumping is avoided for treated water.
ii. Filter backwash is less complicated.
iii. Suitable for small industries and swimming pools.
12.Post Chlorination
48
Aim : For disinfection of potable water by the use of gaseous chlorine or
chlorine compounds to destroy bacteria through the germicidal
effects of effects of chlorine; may be done at head works / treatment
works and supplemented by additional chlorination in loose pockets
of distribution system.
Dosage: When prechlorination is adopted relatively small doses will be
required generally 1 to 2mg/l.
Contact period : 30 minutes (minimum).
Residual Chlorine : 0.2-0.8 ppm throughout the distribution system.
PH Value : 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11
Residual or free
Available chlorine
In ppm : 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8
Quantity of chemical required in kg/day: Dosage in mg/1 X Quantity of water
to be treated in mld.
Specific gravity of Chlorine : 2.49
Density of Chlorine : 3.214 g/litre.
8. TERMS AND CONDITIONS OF SUPPLY OF ELECTRICITY BY
TAMIL NADU ELECTICITY BOARD
Definitions
a) Average Demand: - for the month means the ratio of the total kilowatt hours in
the month to the total hours in the month.
b) Maximum Demand: in a month means the highest value of the average kilovolt
amperes delivered at the point of supply of the consumer during any consecutive thirty
minutes in the month.
c) Permitted Demand: means the demand permitted by the competent authority
of the TNEB taking into account the constraints in the TNEBs electricity grid.
d) Sanctioned demand or Contracted demand - means the demand sanctioned by the
competent authority of the TNEB and specified in the agreement.
II. Load
a) Connected Load: means the aggregate of the manufacturers ratings of all
equipments connected in the consumers installation and of all the portable equipments.
49 This is expressed in KW or HP. If rating is in Kilovolt (KVA), it is converted to KW by
multiplying it by a power factor of 0.85. If the rating is in HP, it is converted to KW by
multiplying it by 0.746.
Note:
1) Standby motors/pump sets capacity should also be taken into account for the purpose
of connected load.
2) In case of water supply and drainage works, the standby motors/pump sets capacity
need not be taken into account for the purpose of connected load.
The local bodies may be permitted to install standby motors in their L.T. services for
water works and drainage pumping works. The local bodies should provide double throw
change over switch or inter locking arrangement so that only one motor could be operated
at a time. This should be ensured by the field officers.( Memo
No.SE/RE&S(D)/DE/SS/A1/C.3315-1/85 Technical Branch dated 16.3.85 &
SE/IEMC/EE.3/AEE.2/D.708/93 dt.21.9.93)
b) Load Factor: means the ratio of the Average Demand for the month in kilowatts to
the Maximum Demand for the month in kilowatts.
III) Power Factor
a) Power Factor means the ratio of the real power to the apparent power. Real power is
expressed in KW and the apparent power expressed in KVA.
Average Power Factor means the ratio of the kilowatt hours to the kilo volt ampere
hours consumed during the month.
IV. Voltage
a) Low Voltage means a voltage which does not exceed 250 volts under normal
conditions subject to the percentage variation allowed under the Indian Electricity Rules
1956.
b) Medium voltage means a voltage which is higher than 250 volts but which does not
exceed 650 volts under normal conditions.
c) High voltage means a voltage which is higher than 650 volts but which does not
exceed 33 KV.
d) Extra High Voltage means a voltage which is higher than 33 KV under normal
conditions.
V. System of Supply
a) Low Tension Supply
50 Alternating current 50 Hertz or cycles
1) Single phase 240 volts between phase and neutral.
2) Three phase 415 volts between phases.
b) High Tension Supply
Alternating current 50 Hertz or cycles
Three phase 11 KV or 22 KV between phases.
VI Categories of Supply
a) Single phase, 2 wire, 240 volt for :-
1) General supply not exceeding 4000 watts of connected load, (including power
loads), the capacity of any individual motor should not exceed 1.5 HP.
b) Three phase, 4 - wire, 445 volts between phases and 240 volts between phase
and neutral for :-
1) General supply exceeding 4000 watts
2) Power load exceeding 1.5 HP upto 130 HP
c) Three phase, 3 wire, 11 KV and above between phases for power installations
exceeding 130 HP or 97 KW connected load.
N.B. : 1) A consumer shall avail only. Low Tension supply if the connected load is 75
HP (56 KW ) or below,
2) A consumer shall avail only. High Tension supply if the connected load exceeds 130
HP ( 97 KW)
3) When the connected load is between 75 HP and 130 HP, the consumer has the option
to avail either Low Tension or High. Tension supply. In calculating the connected load
for the purpose, the lighting load upto the permissible limit as laid in the Tariff
Notifications will be excluded.
General
Normally for High Tension Service, H.T. metering will be provided on the H.T. side.
In case where L.T. metering is provided for a H.T. service, the average losses in the
transformer would be calculated as follows and this would be added to the energy
consumption indicated by the meter, when the transformer capacity is above 50 KVA.
720 x 1.0 x KVA of the transformer / 100 units per month. Similarly the following
percentage will be added to the recorded maximum demand on the L.T. side to arrive at
the equipment H.T. demand.
1% of the transformer capacity for transformer above 50 KVA 1
51 For all L.T. service Electricity Board will provide L.T. metering on the consumers
premises at a suitable place.
Installation of Capacitors
All L.T. consumers with a connected load of motors of 25 HP and above (Total of the
ratings of the installed motors) all L.T. consumers using welding transformer
(irrespective of their rating) shall install capacitors of rating not less than these specified
below : (Clause 17.01)
Rating of motor (HP) Rating of capacity KVAR
3 1
5 2
7.5 3
10 4
15 6
20 8
25 9
30 10
40 15
60 20
75 24
100 30
125 39
If the L.T. consumers with a connected load of 3 HP & above do not install
capacitors as required above, they will be charged a compensation amount at 10% of the
current consumption charges for the two preceding assessment periods i.e., four months.
If still capacitors are not provided within 2 nonths, services will be disconnected.
In respect of H.T. service connections, the average power factor of the consumers
installation shall not be less than 0.90 lag.
Where the average P.F. of a H.T. service connection is less than the stipulated limit of
0.90 lag, compensation charge at the rate of 1% of the current consumption charges of
that month for every 0.01 reduction in P.F. will be levied 9(Clause 17.04).
In the event of the average P.F. of H.T. service connection going below 0.70 lag
consecutively for three months, in addition to the levy of compensation charges at the
above rate, the service connection will be disconnected after giving seven days notice.
The service connection will be reconnected after the P.F. correction is carried out. An
discount of 1% for maintaining power factor above 0.95 lag is allowed to the consumers
by TNEB.
Tariff & Billing
52 a) Water supply & drainage come under Tariffs II LT & HT
b) The maximum demand charges for any month and at the point of supply shall be
based on the KVA demand recorded in that month or 100% of the sanctioned demand
(Now 90% of the sanctioned demand) whichever is higher, In addition, for exceeding the
sanctioned maximum demand, the charges per KVA exceeded shall be at double normal
rate (Clause 18.02)
Audit Approach
The following points could inter alia be seen
Whether pumpset designed for 15 years.
Whether higher capacities of pumps and motors were installed. This can
be verified with the designed capacity with actual capacity used over a
period of time.
Whether the recorded demand was more or less equal to the contract
demand. If wide variation collect the recorded demand for the past
period (say 1 to 3 years) and comment the excess with financial
implication.
Verify the current consumption bill and ensure whether penalty paid for
low power factor if so it may be commented with money value on the part
of failure to improve the stipulated power factor with suitable capacitors.
9. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The purpose of the distribution system is to convey wholesome water to the
consumer at adequate residual pressure in sufficient quantity at convenient points.
Water distribution usually accounts for 40 to 70% of the capital cost of the water
supply project. As such proper design and layout of the system is of great
importance. Metering is recommended for all cities.
In the continuous system of supply, water is made to consumer all the
twenty-four hours a day, whereas in the intermittent system, the consumer
gets supply only for certain fixed hours(a few hours in the morning and a
few hours in the evening). The intermittent supplies system suffers from
several disadvantages and does not promote hygiene and hence wherever
possible, intermittent supply should be discouraged and is uneconomical.
To ensures equalization of supply of water throughout the area Zoning in
the distribution system is essential. The zoning depends upon (a) density of
population (b) type of locality (c) topography and (d) facility of isolating
for assessment of waste and leak detection. If there is an average elevation
53 difference of 15 to 25m between zones, then each zone should be served by
separate system. The neighboring zones may be interconnected to provide
emergency supplies. The valves between the zones, however, should
normally be kept closed and should not the partially opened. The layout
should be such that the difference in pressure between different areas of the
same zone or same system does not exceed 3 to 5m.
water could be conveyed by gravity or by pumping, or gravity-cum-
pumping. Any of these three modes could be selected based mainly on the
elevation of the source of supply with respect of the town
The location of service reservoirs is important for regulation of pressures in
the distribution system as well as for coping up with fluctuating demands.
In a distribution system fed by a single reservoir, the ideal location is a
central place in the distribution system, which effects maximum economy
on pipe sizes, Where the system is fed by direct pumping as well as through
reservoirs, the location of the reservoirs may be at the tail end of the
system. If topography permits, ground level reservoirs may be located
taking full advantage of differences in elevation. Even when the system is
fed by a central reservoir, it may be desirable to have tail end reservoirs for
the more distant districts. These tail end reservoirs may be fed by direct
supply during lean hours or booster facilities may be provided.
General Design guide lines for Distribution System (Para 10.3 OF CPHEEO)
1.Peak Factor:
The per capita rate of water supply indicates only the average consumption of
water per day per person over a period of one year. In the design of water supply
distribution system, it is to be recognized that consumption varies with the season,
month, day and hour. As far as the design of distribution system is concerned, it is
the hourly variation in consumption that matters. The fluctuation in consumptions
accounted for, by considering the peak rate of consumption ( which is equal to
average rate multiplied by a peak factor) as rate of flow in the design of
distribution system.
The following peak factors are recommended for various population figures:
For population less than 50,000 3.0
For a population range of 50,000 to 2,00,000 2.25
For population above 2,00,000 2.0
For Small Water Supply Schemes
(Where supply is effected through
standposts for only 6 hours) 3.0
54 Note
Fire demand can be assessed as per the norms given in section 2.2.8.3.
Reference can also be made to IS 9668-1980
2. Residual Pressure:
Distribution system should be designed for the following minimum residual
pressures at ferule points:
Single storey building = 7m
Two storey building = 12m
Three storey building = 17m
Distribution system should not ordinarily be designed for residual pressures
exceeding 22 meters. Multistoried buildings needing higher pressure should be
provided with boosters.
3.Minimum Pipe Sizes
Minimum pipe sizes of 100mm for towns having population upto 50,000 and
150mm for those above 50,000 are recommended. For dead ends, less than
100mm can be considered. If it is a grid, less than 100mm can be used in situations
where no further expansions contemplated.
4. Elevation of Reservoir
The elevation of the service reservoir should be such as to maintain the
minimum residual pressure in the distribution system consistent with its cost
effectiveness. The hydraulic gradient in the pipe should normally be between 1
and 4 per thousand at peak flow. A suitable combination of pipe sizes and staging
height has to be determined optimization of the system. The staging height of
service reservoirs is normally kept as 15-20m.
5. Boosting:
For distant localities, boosters may be provided instead of increasing the size
of mains or height of the reservoir unduly for maintaining the required pressure.
6. Service Reservoirs ( Para 10.4 Of Cpheeo)
The service reservoirs provide a suitable reserve of treated water with
minimum interruptions of supply due to failure of mains, pumps etc.
They also enable meeting the widely fluctuating demands when the
supply is by intermittent pumping. They are also helpful in reducing
the size of the mains which would otherwise be necessary to meet the
55 peak rates of demand. They can serve as an alternative to partial
duplication of an existing main as the load on the main increased.
The capacity of the service reservoir to be provided depends upon the
better economic alternative amongst various options. A system
supplied by pumps with 100% standby will have less storage capacity
than that with less standby provision. Similarly a system divided into
interconnected zones will require less storage, capacity for all the
zones except for the zones at higher elevations.
The minimum service or balancing capacity depends on the hours and
rate of pumping in a day, the probable variation of demand or
consumption over a day. The estimation of demand in a day for a
town is determined based on household survey.
Typical example on estimation of storage capacity is given in
Appendix. 10.1 of CPHEEO.
Capacity of Storage reservoir
i) Power is not available from 6 AM to 10 AM daily
a) 16 hours pumping during 10 pm to 6 am and 10 am to 6
pm=39% daily demand
b).8hours pumping during 4 am 6 am and 12 noon to 6 pm =46 %
daily demand
ii) Power is available throughout 24 hours
a) 16 hours pumping during 4 am to 12 noon and 1pm to 9 pm=
15% daily demand
b) 8 hours of pumping during 4 am to 8 pm and 2 pm to 6 pm =
33% daily demand
The capacity of service reservoir is fixed on the basis of hours of
pumping and the peak rate of supply . The peak rate of supply is
usually taken to be twice the average rate and the capacity of service
reservoir is fixed at 8 hours or one third of days supply. (para 1.9.3. of
notes on water supply schemes issued by Chief Engineer, PWD,
Chennai in 1971.)
The ground level reservoir is generally preferred as storage reservoir
which is circular or square or rectangular in shape. The economical
water depth for reservoirs with flat bottom upto 1000m3 capacity is
between 3 and 5.5m. The reservoirs should be covered to avoid
contamination and prevent algal ladders, Suitable provisions should be
made for manholes, mosquito-proof ventilation, access ladders, and
56 overflow arrangements, water level indicator, and if found necessary,
lighting arresters.
7.Balancing Reservoirs (Para 10.5 of CPHEEO)
The tank is said to be floating on the line when connected by a single pipe
to source and the distribution system. When the rate of supply exceeds the
demand, water flows into the tank. When demand exceeds supply, water flows
through the same pipe from the tank. The relation between rate of supply, rate of
demand and tank capacity is based on a study the service required as in case of
service reservoirs.
When the balancing tank floating on the line is designed for the full service
storage based on a study of the hydrograph of demand, its location and altitude is
governed by the same conditions as are applicable to the service reservoir. Where
the distribution system designed for direct pumping into the system it is
advantageous to provide a balancing tank at the end of the system with a nominal
capacity ( 1 or 2 hours) to provide pressure relief and improve the tail end
distribution. The balancing reservoir has the advantage of minimum of pipe work
and operational maintenance.
8.House Service Connections (Para 10.9 of CPHEEO)
The supply from the street main to the individual buildings is made through a
house service connection. This consists of two parts viz., the communication pipe
which runs from the street main to the boundary of the premises and the service
pipe which runs inside premises. The communication pipe is usually laid and
maintained by the local authority at cost of the owner of the premises while the
service pipe is usually laid by the consumer at his cost.
The water supply in a building may be through one of the following or
combinations both depending upon the intensity of pressure obtained in the street
main and the hours supply.
a. Direct supply system, and
b. Down take supply by time with or without sump and pump
Under Down take supply system, the supply may be delivered directly to the
overhead storage tank or to the ground level storage tank. Separate tanks should be
provided for flushing and other purposes. The capacity of the overhead and ground
level storage tanks are decided by the local bye-laws. Generally a capacity of 50%
of the daily requirement is provided in the level storage tank. For overhead tanks
directly receiving water from public mains, the capacity should take care the total
daily requirement, which could be reduced to 75% if supply is pumped from the
ground level tank.
The pumps shall be designed for peak rate at 3 times the average over 24 hours; or
average rate of the 50% of the daily requirement over the actual hours of supply,
whichever is cater. A standby pump set of equal capacity shall be provided.
57 The down take system of water supply in high rise buildings may be one or a
combination of the following systems viz., overhead storage system, break
pressure tank system and hydro-pneumatic system.
9. Clear Water sump (Datamatrix of TWAD Engineers)
Capacity : If point of supply is near the filter plant, clear water reservoir may be a
service reservoir of 8 hours storage capacity, if gravity is possible or of 30 minutes
storage in case of continuous pumping. If pumping is intermittent, the capacity should
be such that the filtrate could be drawn during non-pumping hours from a continuously
worked filter.
If point of supply is at a distance from the filter plant, capacity of clear
water reservoir may be for 30 minutes storage either for gravity or for pumping if the
transmission main carries average discharge of 24 hours basis. Otherwise the capacity
should be increased to absorb the difference between the rate of inflow and rate of draw
down in the clear water reservoir.
At Head works / Treatment works site, a storage capacity varying from 2
to 12 hours is recommended depending on length and size of main and nature and
frequency of power failures.
Note :
Distribution system should be designed economically since it involves more than half the
cost of water works.
Distribution system should not be designed for residual pressure more than 22m.
Distribution by direct pumping is to be avoided.
Fire hydrants should be located at required points in the distribution system in
consultation with the agency in charge of fire service.
Special care should be taken to have an adequate horizontal and vertical separation
between water mains and sewer lines.
The lateral separation should be a minimum of 0.3m while the bottom of the water main
should be atleast 0.5 m above the top of the sewer line. A water main should neither pass
through nor come in contact with any part of a manhole.
Audit Approach
Whether the distribution system is created to the designed level of water
supply. Cases where pumping main, etc. were designed adopting 55 lpcd
and distribution system created adopting 40 lpcd in CWSS may be
identified analysed and the extra cost on creation infrastructures may be
commended.
58
Pumping system, pumping main created under separate scheme, but
distribution system not created for long time or partially created resulting
in under utilisation of assets.
Service reservoirs constructed adopting the norms for individual power
pump schemes with higher capacity whereas as per norms prescribed by
CPHEEO, the capacity is comparatively much lesser with reference to
power supply and hours of pumping.
In case of the distribution system were designed adopting 55 lpcd, in Rural
area, it should be ensured house service connection was envisaged and
specific undertaking from local bodies obtained thereof. Cases where
distribution system designed adopting 55 lpcd without providing HSC may
be identified and commented.
10. RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEME
Rural Water Supply Distribution System ( Para 10.8 of CPHEEO Manual)
The water supply in rural areas is effected by one of the following two methods .
(i) Shallow well or deep bore well fitted with hand pump
(ii) Piped water supply with or without house connection through over head
tank and standpipes located at strategic points within the community .
Piped water supply is distributed through the distribution system. The
elevation of the over head tank is fixed by taking into consideration the
residual pressure to be maintained at a farthest end of the distribution system
and the length of the connecting pipe. When water is supplied only through
stand posts, the tank is generally constructed with a staging height 6 m for
communities with population upto 1500 and with a staging height of 7.50m
for communities with population greater than 1500 .
When house connections are also provided, the height of staging may be
suitably increased to ensure minimum prescribed terminal pressure.
The distribution system for rural water supply scheme is designed for the peak
demand which is assumed to be four times the average demand (duration of supply is
59 6 hours) Techniques are available for the optimization of rural water supply
distribution system.
Background
Drinking water supply is a state subject. In the Forth Five Year Plan,
Government of India provided assistance to the States to carry out identification of
problem villages and to accelerate the pace of coverage of problem villages. In 1972-
73, GOI introduced the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) to
assist the State and Union Territories with 100% grants in aid to implement the
schemes in such villages with the introduction of Minimum Needs Programme
(MNP) during the Fifth Five Year Plan (from 1974-75), it was withdrawn. ARWSP
was however, reintroduced in 1977-78 when the progress of supply of safe drinking
water to the identified problem villages under MNP was not found to be satisfactory.
The entire programme was given a mission approach when Technology Mission on
Drinking Water and Related Water Management also called National Drinking Water
Mission (NDWM) was introduced as one of five Social Mission in 1986. NDWM
was renamed as Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM) in
1991. ARWSP was continued till 1998-99. But the objectives of the programme
could not be attained as envisaged due to lack of sufficient funds and re emergence of
not covered habitations etc. In March 1999, GOI approved Major Policy changes for
implementation of Rural Water Supply Programme during the 9
th
Plan period and
Sector Reforms Project (SRP) was launched on a pilot basis in the year 1999-2000
with the objective of institutionalizing community participation in capital cost
sharing, operation and maintenance and water quality monitoring and surveillance in
identified pilot district. 67 districts in 26 States were selected under SRP. The SRP
was slightly improved and is being now launched as `Swajaldhara from 25
th
December 2002.
Programmes of RGNDWM (w.e.f. April 1, 1999)
Funds are provided to the States by the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking
Water Mission under the following programme
a) Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP)
To supplement the efforts of the States Governments in providing access to
safe drinking water to all rural habitations of the country
- implementing agencies for the programme may be decided by the
State (viz Rural Development Department/Panchayat Raj
Department, etc.)
- implementation should be entrusted to one single department for
better implementation, monitoring etc.
- Panchayat Raj Institutions should also be involved in the
implementation
- Nodal department in the State Government will have the overall
responsibility for planning, implementation, supervision and
monitoring
60 - In case the implementation is entrusted to District Rural
Development Agency (DRDA) there should be a close co-ordination
between the State Nodal Department and the DRDA so as to ensure
avoidance of duplication of efforts and dovetailing of the activities
with the normal schemes under MNP and ARWSP.
- To provide potable drinking water to the population at 40 litre per
capita per day (lpcd) for humans to meet the following requirements
Purpose Quantity (LPCD)
Drinking 3
Cooking 5
Bathing 15
Washing utensil & house 7
Ablution 10
- Dual Water supply Policy may be adopted for rural habitation facing
acute water quality problem. In these habitation even if safe water is
provided upto 10 lpcd which would be sufficient for drinking and
cooking purposes it may be considered as a habitation with a safe
source of drinking water. For other activities like washing ablution
etc., water available from unsafe source can be utilised without any
problem.
- Criteria for identification of problem habitation categorized as Not
covered (NC), No Safe Source (NSS), Partially covered (PC) and
Safe Source (SS) habitation
NC: Public drinking water source does not exists within 1.6 km in
plains or 100 metre elevation in hilly area.
NSS: Habitations where quantum of available safe water is not
enough to meet drinking and cooking need, Water source affected
with salinity, iron, fluoride, etc.
PC: Habitation having safe water but the level of supply ranged
from 10 lpcd to 40 lpcd.
Priority for coverage
1. Coverage of NSS habitation. Among them priority be given to
SC/ST habitation
2. Quality affected habitation
3. Upgradation of level of supply to 40 lpcd
4. Coverage of schools and Angan wadis.
Fundingallocation of Central assistance under ARWSP is subjected
to the matching provisional expenditure by the States under State
Sector MNP. Releases under the ARWSP would not exceed the
provision for Rural Water Supply made by the State Government
under their MNP. The shortfall if any during previous year will be
61 deducted from the instalment of ARWSP funds for the current
financial year.
25% of ARWSP fund should be earmarked for SC habitation and
another 10% for ST habitation and 10% funds for O & M.
Operation & Maintenance: upto 15% of the funds released every year
under ARWSP to State may be utilised for operation & Maintenance
of assets created subject to ceiling of matching grant provided by the
State out of the MNP provision and the approved norms funds
earmarked for O&M of assets is not to be permitted for creation of
capital assets.
b)Sector Reforms Project (SRP)
Institutionalising Community Participation in the rural water supply
programme sharing capital cost, operation and maintenance ,
monitoring etc.
20% of annual outlay of ARWSP Central outlay will be earmarked for
SRP
Funds will be released directly to the District Water and Sanitation
Mission which will have their own separate Bank account (SBI or its
associates banks) to receive and disburse the fund for project
implementation
At least 10% capital cost sharing and 100% sharing of O & M cost by
the user (Community). This contribution can be in the form of cash or
kind (labour, land or material) and cash compound should be atleast
50% of the contribution.
Institutional Set up:
(i) Constitution of Water and Sanitation Mission (WSM) at the State level
which consist of an Apex Committee headed by Chief Secretary and
an Executive Committee headed by an officer of the department
concerned with rural water supply, not below the rank of J oint
Secretary-responsible for overall policy guidelines.
(ii) Constitution of WSM at District level District Water Sanitation
Mission (DWSM): Constituted in the district and registered under
Society Actresponsible for formulation, management and
implementation
(iii) Village Water and Sanitation Committee (VWSC): set up in each
Gram Panchayat for implementation of Water supply scheme of their
own choice with active participation of villagersensuring
community participation and decision making in all scheme activities,
arranging community contribution to capital cost both in cash and kind
62 (land, labour or materials), planning of water and sanitation activities,
procuring materials, selection of contractors, supervision of
construction activities, signing of all completed works and community
development activities, commissioning and eventual take over of
completed water supply and sanitation works, managing and financing
of O & M of the services on a sustainable basis.
- Role of Womento create awarness on handling and
management of water supply
- Training activities to equip the villagers for implementation and
operation and maintenance and management of schemes of
their choiceDepartmental level, District level and NGOs
village level
c. Sub mission Project:
Submission Projects are undertaken by the States for providing safe
drinking water to the rural habitations facing water quality problem like Fluorosis,
Arsenic Brackishness excess Iron, etc and also for ensuring source sustainability
through rain water harvesting , artificial recharge, etc.
No separate fund released for implementation of sub mission Projects.
Upto 20% of the ARWSP funds are to be earmarked and utilized for submission
projects.
d. Support Services
The following are support services
S.No Name of Service Funding pattern
1 Water quality monitoring
surveillance
100% funding as per the approved norms
by GOI
2 Rigs and Hydrofracturing units GOI and State Government share the cost
an 50:50 basis on purchase of rigs on a
very selective basis for remote and difficult
access area. The expenditure will however
be counted as matching provision for
central assistance under ARWSP
3 Human Resource Development 100% assistance from GOI
4 Information Education &
Communication
100% assistance from Central funds
63 5 Monitoring and Investigation
Units
The expenditure will be borne by Centre
and State on 50:50 basis
6 Monitoring and Evaluation 100% financial assistance to State for
carrying out evaluation
7 Management Information System 100% Central assistance for all MIS
activities
8 Research and Development Mission would provide necessary
assistance to the State
9 Provision of Drinking water in
Rural School
The expenditure would be shared by State
and Centre on 50:50 basis
e. Swajaldhara
The Sector Reforms Project has been slightly improved and is launched as
Swajaldhara on 25
th
December 2002. Swajaldhara will have two streams. First
(Swajaldhara I) will be for a Gram Panchayat (GP) or group of GPs or intermediate
Panchayat at Block level and the Second (Swajaldhara II) will have a district as the
Project area and is being implemented by respective agencies. Specific proposals
under Swajaldhara I will be sanctioned by the District Water and Sanitation
Committee (DWSC). The District is the unit for implementing the reforms initiative
under Swajaldhara II. In order to avail funds under Swajaldhara I & II, the State
Govt. would enter into Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the Department
of Drinking Water supply, Ministry of Rural Development, GOI.
The Minimum phase of community contribution for 40 litres per capita
per day (lpcd) service level will be 10% of the estimated capital cost of
the project and funding by Government of India would be restricted to
90% of the capital cost.
In case of all habitations fully covered in the States with 40 lpcd
drinking water facilities the service level can be improved to 55 lpcd
with 20% of the capital cost to be borne by community. In such
States, in case of water supply schemes providing more than 55 lpcd,
the additional cost would have to borne by the community/panchayat
raj institution/State Govt. Funding by GOI would be restricted to 80%
of the capital cost of 55 lpcd scheme only.
64
The community contribution towards capital cost of the scheme could
be in the form of Cash/kind/labour/labour or combination of those.
However atleast 50% of the community contribution will have to be in
cash. In case community contribution is more than 10% of the
scheme cost, the excess amount shall be taken into operation and
maintenance fund.
Operation, maintenance and management cost of the water supply
scheme will have to be fully borne by the concerned community/user
group/village water and sanitation committee (VWSC)/ panchayat Raj
Institution
GOI may provide upto 10% of the Capital cost as a one time incentive
to the O & M Fund created by the Panchayat Raj Institution/user group
and the State Government should also make an equal matching
contribution to the O & M Fund.
Institutional set up as in the same set up of Sector Project
Training programme etc as in the same manner of SRP
11. CERTAIN GUIDELINES OF TWAD BOARD /GOVERNMENT
OF TAMIL NADU AND GOVERNMNET OF INIDA
1.Investigation and preparation of outline Proposal:
In Major water supply schemes the preliminary investigation and detailed
investigation should be conducted thoroughly without leaving any vital field
details.
The period of investigation should not exceed normally more than one year for
water supply scheme and 1 years for drainage scheme.
As soon as the project estimates are administratively approved the competent
authority should get the detailed estimates prepared and accord technical
sanction to all the components within a period of 3 months.
Before taking up any sub works of the project a PERT CHART should be
prepared after thorough inspection of the site and discussion with the field
officers in charge of the work Activities on various sub heads of the
sanctioned project should be initiated in accordance with the PERT CHART.
65 Wide publicity and proper time should be given for all the major tenders before
fixing up the contracts.
The source creation shall take precedence over all other sub heads of the
sanctioned project in the normal courses. There were instances, where Service
Reservoir and distribution system are ready but the source is not created.
Unless it is satisfied with the existence of a proper source with adequate
quantity and quality to cater the needs there is no point in rushing up with the
other components of the project.
(G.O. Ms. No. 644 PWD dt: 31.3.80 read with B.P.Ms.No. 75 TWAD dated:
25.3.90)
11.2. Guidelines for adoption in preparation of Rural, Urban and Combined
Water Supply scheme.
(TWAD Board Lr. No. F. HOTC / AE-9/ P&D / 2001 dt: 7.6.2002 and
Technical committee meeting held on 30.5.2002)
Population Forecat:
Revised provision please sees in chapter 3.4
Demand Projection:
After arriving at required quantity of water based on the per capita supply
level. Provision may be made for industrial and commercial requirement at a
minimum of 10% of total requirements. In places where there are only
industries, this can be increased to actual requirements based on committed
requirements from the industries. Transmission losses at 10% of total
requirement may be provided.
Water available from existing other water sources may be deducted from the
calculated requirements after ascertaining the sustainability of the quality and
quantity of source from Hydrological reports.
Yield from the existing hand pumps need not be taken into account for demand
projection.
While designing a new river water based project, all the wayside habitations
irrespective of their status are to be included in the scope. The per capita
supply to be adopted for the wayside habitations are as detailed below.
For fully covered habitation -15 lpcd
For partially covered habitation - The extent to which shortage in level of
supply.
For not covered habitations -as per norms.
Source
As far as possible source with sustainable quality and quantity for the
design period of the project should be selected. The selected source shall
not be susceptible to pollution and damage due to sand quarrying at any
66 point of time. In case of insufficient supply of potable water dual water
supply system may be adopted. While locating the infiltration wells,
overlapping shall be avoided. Infiltration well shall be proposed only
where saturated sand depth of not less than 5m is available. This should be
ensured through probing. Confirmatory boring and study of lithology of
soil strata. The selected site should be identified with reference to the
standard bench mark on the bank.
Recharge structures will be proposed wherever required for the
sustainability of the drinking water source.
Power pumps to the borewells to be fixed only when the yield from the
borewell is more than 45 lpm and the water available is potable.
Hours of Pumping:
The norms for hours of pumping prescribed for
Individual power pump schemes under RWS 8 hours.
Individual power pump schemes under urban water supply scheme 16 hours.
Combined Water Supply schemes 16 hours.
If separate electrical feeder main is proposed then hours of pumping increased to 20
hours.
Transmission main:
Surge analysis ( Water Hammer ) should be made for all the cases of
pumping mains.
Size of main may be decided in the economic size calculation. The
following pipe materials may be adopted for transmission main.
Upto 160mm - PVC / UPVC
Above 150 to 300mm - AC / UPVC
Above 350 to 900mm - PSC / CI / DI
Above 900mm - Steel / PSC / BWSP
In Hilly terrain, G.I. pipe may be used.
PVC pipe upto 315 mm OD is to be adopted as one of the alternative for water
supply and sewerage project with techno economic consideration (TWAD
Circular No.42/DO/P&D/2005 dt.04.10.2005.
The TWAD Board in circular No. 29 / AE2/ P&D /2003 AE-5 / dt:30.06.2005,
directed to adopt AC Cl.15 from pipe size of 200 mm above and AC class 10
for pipe size below 200 mm.
AC pipes should be avoided within the Urban limits where heavy traffic is
anticipated.
While designing a combined water supply scheme uniform residual head at all
delivery points (Service Reservoirs and sumps) should be maintained.
Sufficient number of air valves, scour valves and line valves should be
provided in the pipe line based on terrain, fixed by LS plan drawn at 30 metre
intervals.
67 Air valves may be introduced at every 1000m for pipe lines upto 600mm dia.
For pipe line with size of main above 600mm dia air valves may be introduced
at 500m intervals.
To prevent pollution and damage to air valves by the public, air valve may be
fixed above a 2.75m standard DF pipe and the DF pipes may be encased with
concrete.
Scour valves should be provided at valley points with facility for easy disposal
of scoured water. For diameter more than 300mm the size of line valves may
be fixed at 2/3
rd
of pipe diameter. For line valves of diameter 500mm and
above by pass and gears arrangements and air valves on either side should be
provided for easy operation. Provision of reflux valves may be restricted to the
bearest minimum. By pass valves should be provided across the reflux
valves. Air valves should be provided on either side of the reflux valve in the
transmission main.
Economical size of pumping main factor to be adopted ( on 15 years loan with
rate of interest 12.5%)
Capital cost factor - 0.153
Equivalent cost factor - 0.165
Annuity factor 0.153
Pumping Plants ( Sump & Pump sets)
Detention time for sump with an inflow of less than 1 mld may be taken as
8 hours subject to a minimum of 30000 litres.
For inflow more than 1 mld the sump capacity may be fixed at 4 hours
storage subject to a maximum to 50 lakh litres.
The sump need not be circular shape. Suit to site condition. Priority may be
given for constructing the pump house over the sump.
For centrifugal, turbine and submersible pump 50% stand by may be
adopted except in the case of borewells.
Efficiency of pumps for design purpose may be taken as 60% for
centrifugal pump and 70% for turbine pump and submersible pumps.
Inside the pumping, plant butterfly valves with valve actuators may be
provided for valves of size 300mm and above.
For pumping plants with 100 HP and above provisions may be made for
SCADA with sensor for water level flow and pressure for collection of field
operating information and control from the central location.
Treatment Plant:
The treatment plant should be designed based on raw water quality.
Slow sand filter are easy to operate and maintain. These plants can be
maintained even by local bodies with unskilled labours. The operating
cost will be less when compared to rapid and sand filter. Even in places
with limited land availability feasibility of providing multi- storeyed
filters may be examined.
68 In case of raw water with turbidity level less than 100, preference shall
be given for provision of slow sand filters. For turbidity level between
60 and 100, a settling tank of 3 to 4 hours detention time may be
provided.
For water drawn from hill sources an aerator has to be provided.
Service Reservoir (SR):
The capacity of Service Reservoirs may be fixed on the following lines
(i)For Rural habitations
Population - ultimate
Less than 150 - 5000 lit. GLSR with spot supply
151 to 500 - 10000 lit. OHT 6m staging.
501 to 1250 - 30000 lit. OHT 6m staging.
1251 to 2500 - 60000 lit. OHT 7.5m staging.
2501 to 5500 - 100000 lit. OHT 7.5m staging.
Above 5000 as per requirement subject to a maximum of 1.50 lakh lit. with
suitable staging height.
(ii) For Urban Areas.
The capacity of Service Reservoir may be fixed at 1/3
rd
of daily
requirements. The staging height has to be fixed in such a way that a
minimum residual head of 8m is available in the distribution
system.
Whenever the ground terrain of the town area varies more than
8m zoning may be resorted to proposing separate Service
Reservoirs for each zone or providing more than 1 outlet from the
Service Reservoir.
Note: 1) The distribution system, service Reservoir and pumping main etc.
in rural area were designed for 8 hours considering limited hours of
power supply.
2) The capacity of over head Service Reservoir for comprehensive
water supply scheme are to be designed not less 50% of the ultimate daily
requirements of the individual habitation ( TWAD Circular Memo. No.
45997 / RWS/ 1113 / 82-3 / dated: 24.12.1982).
Distribution System:
The length of distribution system may fixed on the following norms for rural
habitations.
Population ( Ultimate)
Upto 300 - 750 m
301 750 - 1500m
69 751 1500 - 2250m
1501 3000 - 3000m
above 3000 - 3750m
The above norms are maximum limits. The distribution system length should
be restricted to actual street length. As house service connections are proposed
in the rural areas also , one public fountain for every 250 population ( present )
may be provided. In case of SC/ST areas the above norms may be relaxed.
For urban areas, the distribution system should be designed for ultimate
stage requirements to supply the requirements in 24 hours.
The following peak factor may be adopted for arriving the design
discharge.
Population ( Ultimate)
Upto 50000 - 3
50001 2 lakh - 2.5
Above 2 lakh - 2
Rural areas ( Where water supply is effected through stand post : 3 only)
Per capita cost:
The following per capita norms may be followed for sanction of estimate
by Chief Engineer/Superintending Engineer/Executive Engineer.
In plains - Rs. 1750/-
In hilly areas - Rs. 2000/-
Cost per litre - Rs. 20/-
Implementation of the project
Land required for different project components should be identified and
availability ensured before finalising the project. .
For implementation, the source creation work should be completed first
before commencement of other components.
Field particulars
All field particulars have to be furnished for preparation of detailed
estimate.
The alignment plan should be drawn with reference to FM sketches or
plain table survey or compass survey.
11.3. House service connection ( HSC)
New water supply schemes may be taken up in rural habitations only after
obtaining a firm commitment from the respective panchayat for giving House
Service Connection to atleast 30% of the house holds in the habitation. ( MD/
TWAD Lr.No. 1202/ AE3/PM/R/2002/ dt: 21.6.2002)
11.4.Water utilization committee
All water supply schemes and irrigation schemes involving drawal of
water of less than 1 mgd (million gallon daily) shall be approved by the District
70 Collector concerned. 1 mgd and above shall be placed before the water utilization
committee and the clearance obtained. ( G.O.Ms. No. 543 / PWD dt: 24.3.1980.)
11.5. Sustainability of water-designing infrastructure to wayside habitation of
cwss.
The existing level of supply should be assessed and its sustainability
should be certified by the Deputy Hydrogeologist of the respective Circle. The
per capita supply may be reduced from the 55 lpcd to the extent of sustainable
present level of supply for which sustainability certificate has been issued by
Deputy Hydrogeologist. If the present level of supply is not at all sustainable, a
per capita supply of 55 lpcd may be adopted for designing the scheme. (TWAD
Circular No.60/ DO / P&D / dated: 8.8.2002)
11.6. Guidelines for improvements and augmentation of existing water supply
facilities.
( TWAD circular No. 38/ PO / P&D / 2001 / dt; 22.4.2002)
Improvements and augmentation of the existing water supply facilities
should be considered whenever there is failure of potable source, prevalence of
inadequate supply and there is an actual need for augmentation / improvements.
On the contrary in the several cases it has been noticed that habitations/town with
sufficient level of potable water supply with level sources are being considered
under river bed water supply project just to facilitate river water supply to the
fully covered habitations / town. This practice not only results in unnecessary
expenditure on the limited budgetary allocation, but also cuts the supply intended
for other needy areas. Hence water supply scheme should be designed to benefit
the actual needy areas and should be implemented mainly to benefit the needy
population.
Similarly, the improvements / augmentation should be considered only after
taking into consideration the following aspects.
Present level of supply and quality of water should be ascertained with
reference to the existing source.
Actual requirements based on the population forecast should be properly
derived.
Existing condition of the infrastructure like head works, pumping main
service reservoir, Pump rooms, Distribution system should be examined
with reference to the suitability for the improvement proposed.
It should be ascertained that the supply intended for the beneficiary in the
original scheme has not been diverted to other areas necessitating the
improvements / augmentation.
71 The improvements for augmentation should be designed to serve the beneficiary
on a long term basis and should not be to get over the present crisis alone.
11.7. Guidelines for Accelearated Urban Water Supply Programme
(AUWSP)
(revised by GOI, Ministry of Urban Development Poverty Alleviation in letter No.
Q 12045/23/92 CPHEEO dated 27.8.2001)
General Guidelines:
1 The population of the towns should be less than 20000 as per 1991 census. For
this purpose, the documents published by the Registrar General, Census
Department shall be the basis.
2 95% dependability and reliability of the raw water source shall be established by
the implementing agency, for which a certificate to the effect may be obtained
from the competent authority of the nodal agencies responsible for the surface
and ground water resources and included in the DPR, so as to ensure availability
of water as per the demand through out the design period of the scheme. The
location of the proposed source should be finalized in consultation with the
nodal agency and the concerned urban local body.
3 A commitment from the implementing agency for maintenance of separate
account of the scheme may be included in the DPR.
4 The following stipulation are fulfilled in the detailed project report (DPR) and it
should contain a resolution of municipality/urban local body/O&M agency
Consent of the urban local body for execution of the scheme through
the State Implementing Agency
Commitment for contribution of 5 % of the project cost from the urban
local body.
Acceptance of the scheme for taking over after completion and
commissioning for operation and maintenance and implementation of
the tariff, as proposed in the DPR so as to ensure sustainable O & M
mechanism and sustainable tariff system, duly approved by the State
Government.
Commitment for creation of adequate infrastructure with urban local
body for trouble free O & M of the scheme, regular exercise for leak
detection survey & repairs to control underground leakage with the
help of the State Implementing Agency and adequate training to the
O & M staff of urban local body by the executing agency during the
implementing of the scheme.
Certificate regarding the availability of land required for
construction of the scheme may be appended with the DPR. In case
Government land is made available, a certificate from the competent
authority is desirable. In case the land is to be acquired from a
private party, an advance action should be initiated and the Action
Taken Report should be appended with the DPR.
72 5. The State Land Selection Committee (SLSC) may monitor/review from time
to time the physical and financial progress of the schemes already approved
by GOI before selecting new towns so as to assess/identify the shortcomings
and suggest remedial measures to complete the schemes as per the schedule.
6. While selecting project towns by SLSC, priority must be accorded to towns
with special problems like:
a) Very low per capita supply
b) Very distant or deep water source
c) Drought-prone area
d) Excess salinity, fluoride, iron content in the water source
e) High incidence of water born diseases
7. Priority is to be given by the SLSC to rehabilitation and augmentation
schemes rather than new schemes
8. No change/alteration in the priority list of towns selected by the SLSC will be
permitted.
9. The DPR should contain:
A commitment to launch the scheme immediately after receiving
technical approval of Government of India/Administrative Approval of
the scheme by the State Government with necessary budgetary provision
Commitment from the State Power Department / Statement Electricity
Board to ensure interrupted power supply to the scheme
A certificate/commitment to the effect that, the works for different
components of the scheme included in the DPR have not commenced and
no expenditure has been booked.
Whether any Government of India fund from any other Central
Development Programme was obtained during the last five
years/proposed to be obtained or not. If yes, details may be indicated in
the DPR.
Details of the total annual and expenditure of the agency responsible for
O&M for the last 5 years in order to assess their financial soundness to
take over the scheme for O&M after its commissioning.
Permission/action initiated to obtain permission from various
departments, e.g. Revenue, Water Resources, Forest, Rural, Highways,
Railways, etc. wherever necessary, for implementation of the scheme.
Technical Guidelines:
2. While preparing the DPRs, technical guidelines stipulated in the revised
Manual on Water Supply & Treatment published in May 1999 by this
Ministry may be considered in addition to AUWSP guidelines.
3. The design period for 20 to 25 years as per guidelines of AUWSP may be
considered for the scheme. In addition, a gestation period of 2 to 3 years
may be adopted to decide upon the base year, intermediate stage and
ultimate stage of the scheme.
73 4. The demand of per capita water supply may be considered as below:
- 70 lpcd for the population to be provided with house service connection
- 40 lpcd for the population to be provided with Public Stand Post (upto a
maximum of 30% of the population)
- In addition, losses/unaccounted for water (UFW) to a maximum limit of
15% of the total demand may be considered.
- The aforementioned per capita supply levels include requirement of water
for commercial, institutional and minor industries. However, in case of
bulk demand for industries, commercial areas and institutions, the same
should be assessed separately with proper justification. The proportionate
cost for such bulk demand must be borne by the respective
organisation/establishment. A commitment to the effect may be obtained
from such organisation/establishment, duly recommended by the urban
local body and incorporated in the DPR.
Pattern of Finance
AUWSP will be funded on grant basis by the Central Government 50%
and the State Government 50% including 5% beneficiaries/town contribution.
In case of Union Territories 100% financing is available from Central Share.
Release of Fund:
25% of the Central Share will be released to the State Government or
the designated agency on selection of the scheme
Second installment of the Central Share (i.e. 50% of the eligible
Central Share) will be released on (i) release of the first installment of
the State Share, (ii) completion of ground work for execution of the
scheme including award of contracts, (iii) utilisation of atleast 50% of
the amount released for the scheme (ie. including state share), (iv)
submission of detailed project report and its approval.
Third and final installment amounting to 25% of Central Share will be
released on (i) release of second installment of State Share (ii)
utilisation of 80% of the total funds released for the scheme.
11.8. Exemption from Central Excise & Customs Duty
In notification 91/2002 cus, 92/2002 cus, 93/2002/cus and 47/2002 CE
dated 6
th
September 2002 Government of India have been issued orders to extend
exemption of Customs and Central Excise duties in respect of water treatment
project and pipes needed for delivery of water from its source to the plant and
from there to the storage facilities for supply of drinking water for human and
animal consumption.
Pre-requisite site for claiming exemption :
(i) Should have water treatment.
74 (ii) Specific certificate by District Collector / District Magistrate in
which the treatment plant located in produced to the Excise
Department having jurisdiction over the manufacture products used
for the water supply scheme.
Explanation: for the purposes of this exemption, water treatment plants includes a
plant for desalination, demineralization or purification of water or for carrying out
any similar process or processes intended to make the water fit for human or
animal consumption but does not include a plant or plant supplying water for
industrial purpose.
12. MISCELLANEOUS
12.1. Preventive maintenance (Para 10.10 of CPHEEO Manual):
Preventive maintenance of water distribution system pipelines assures the
twin objectives of preserving the hygienic quality of water in the distribution
mains and providing condition for adequate flow through the pipe lines. Some of
the main functions in the management of preventive aspects in the maintenance of
mains are assessment, detection and prevention of wastages of water from pipe
lines, maintaining the capacity of pipe line and cleaning of pipe line .
a) Wastage:
Wastage is due to leakage in water mains due to corrosion, fracture, faulty
joints, ferrule connection, service pipes and fittings inside the consumers
75 premises due to joints corrosion faulty washers on glands in valves and taps,
abandoned service pipes and ferrule connections in mains; and failure to turn off
taps in premises willfully or inadvertently.
b) Leakage Detection :
Leakage detection survey is confined only to the areas with heavy leakages
as arrived at by the waste assessment survey. The survey consists of :
i) Finding leaks in the pipes by visual determination of surface; and
ii) Traversing the sub zone in the night by sounding rod, or electronic
leak locator for pinpointing of leaks in pipes .
C. Cleaning of pipes
The necessity for systematic and periodic cleaning of pipelines is borne out
by the fact that the carrying capacity of the pipes gets reduced due to growth of
slimes, incrustation deposits. Flushing and swabbing of pipes, which are simple
and inexpensive can go a long way in maintaining the capacity.
The old cast iron and steel pipes which are cleaned can be protected from
further incrustations or corrosion by cement lining. Insertion of a plastic pipes has
also practiced with success .
d. Protection against pollution near sewers and drains
A water main should be laid such that there is at least 3 m separation,
horizontally from existing or proposed drain or sewer line. If local conditions
prevent this lateral separation of water main may be laid closer to a storm or
sanitary sewer, provided that the main is laid by separate trench or on an
undisturbed earth shelf located on one side of the sewer at such elevation that the
bottom of the water main is at least 0.5m above the top of the sewer.
In situations where water mains have to cross house sewer; storm drain, or
sanitary sewer then it should be laid at such an elevation that the bottom of the
water main is 0.50 m above the top of the drain or sewer with the joints as remote
from the sewer as possible. This vertical separation should be maintained for a
distance of 3 m on both sides measured normal to the sewer or drain it crosses .
Where conditions prevent the minimum vertical separation set forth above,
or when it is necessary for the water main to pass under a sewer or drain, the water
main should be laid with flanged cast iron pipe, with rubber gasket joints for a
length on either side of the crossing to satisfy the lateral separation of 3 m. A
vertical separation of 0.50m between the bottom of the water main and the top of
the sewer should be maintained with adequate support for the larger sized sewer
lines, to prevent them from settling on or breaking the water main. In making
such crossings, it is preferable to have the sewer also of casting flanged pipe with
76 rubber gasket joints and both the water and sewer mains pressure tested to assure
water tightness before back fillings.
Where a water main has already been laid and where a new sewer is to be
laid, the above aspects may also be taken into consideration and the water main
may be realigned, when it is not possible to lay the sewer consistent with the
above recommendations.
Since water expands nearly about 10% in volume with an irresistible
pressure, freezing solid conditions should not be allowed in any pipe system to
avoid interruption of service and prevent damage to the pipes .
11.2. Method of raising revenue (Para 17.4 of CPHEEO Manual)
The sources of revenue are the funds received by general taxation such as
water tax or a portion of the general property tax which is realized by assessment
on all taxable property and water rates paid by those who use the water, more or
less in proportion to the amount consumed .
Water tax
Since the provision of a water supply to a town enhances the value of the
property, a water tax is justifiable on the annual rental value of the property.
This may be a separate tax or included in the general property tax but it is
desirable that the revenue under this head is earmarked for water supply purpose .
Water rates
The revenue from the sale of water or water rates recoverable from parties
actually consuming the water such as for domestic purposes or for commercial and
industrial purposes is utilized to meet the annual recurring cost of operation and
maintenance and to provide for a reserve for meeting the capital expenses for
future improvement to the system .
Any major augmentation of the system should, however, be dealt with by
the new scheme for which the capital is to be raised in the usual manner .
The most equitable method will be based on metering of all the supplies.
The quantity actually accounted for by the meters is invariably less than the
quantity produced since there is a considerable wastage as unaccounted water,
which should also be considered in fixing the water rates. The water rates are to
be carefully fixed taking into account the following:
i) The rate should be high enough to fetch the necessary revenue and not
excessive as to discourage consumers from making needed use of the water
for domestic needs and for personnel hygiene in particular .
ii) The rate should be such as to make the amenity more or less self paying
and worked on a no profit no loss basis .
iii) The rate should be such as to provide for generating source for expanding
the system to take care or increasing requirements .
77 It is desirable that water supplies at least to all cities having a population of
one lakh and more are metered.
11.3. Water supply management (Para 17.5 of CPHEEO Manual)
Efficient and effective management of water supply systems is most
essential for their proper functioning. A water supply organization should be
treated as a business enterprise involving managerial skills and engineering
knowledge to make it successful in service, in safety and in financial
considerations. The quality of water supplied should be the prime consideration
for any water supply organization as the safety and health of the people depend
upon it.
The technical and engineering problems involved in the running of a water
supply organization call for a qualified Public Health Engineer as the head of the
management .
Scope
A good management of a water supply system includes a number of functions
such as
(i) Provision and maintenance of adequate facilities :
(ii) Good and smooth operation :
(iii) Efficient and economical maintenance :
(iv) Establishment of sound fiscal methods :
(v) Development of equitable water tax and water rates :
(vi) Efficient control of equipment and supplies :
(vii) Keeping the wastage of water to a minimum :
(viii) Good public relations and satisfactory service to consumers: and
(ix) Development of technical and financial plans for future expansion .
11.4. Project appraisal of water supply projects (Para 17.6 of CPHEEO
Manual)
Project appraisal is the analysis of costs and benefits of a proposed project
with an aim of obtaining a rational allocation of scarce resources among
alternative investment opportunities in view of achieving certain specified goals in
the National Development Programme. A project carefully analysed and revised
in the light of this analysis has a much improved chance of being implemented on
time and of yielding the desired benefits.
In projects analysis, there is a critically important distinction to be kept in
mind between two complementary points of view viz .
(i) Economic analysis ; and
(ii) Financial analysis .
78 Economic analysis is concerned with the total return or productivity or
profitability to the whole economy of all the resources committed to the project
regardless of who in the society contributes them and regardless of who in the
society receives the benefits. The social cost benefit or economic analysis aims at
evaluating the profitability according to the impact on the society as a whole,
while the financial cost benefit analysis tries to assess the profitability to the
operating entity .
On the other hand, financial analysis is concerned with the individual
financial entities which participate in a project, viz. entrepreneurs, businessmen,
farmers, public agencies, etc., which is interested in the return to the equity capital
one contributes. Project appraisal is very important for the developing countries
which are in the process of achieving stupendous task of recycling of financial and
other resources for productive purposes and welfare of the poor people .
The analytical techniques employed for Economic and Financial appraisal
comprise deriving valves for the net present worth ( NPW ), internal rate of return
( IRR ) and the benefit cost ratio ( B/C). These are defined as follows.
Net present worth ( or Net present value ) : ( NPW / NPV )
This is defined as the present worth of the net benefits of a project
discounted at the opportunity cost of capital .
i.e. Net present worth =( Present worth of benefits Present worth of costs )
Internal rate of return : IRR
This is defined as that discounted rate at which the present worth of
benefits, is equal to the present worth of costs. This measure represents the return
over the life of the project to the resources engaged in the project .
To determine IRR the NPW is first calculated at two different discounting
rates ( r
1
and r
2
) being the higher and lower discounting rates )
TRR =r
2
+(r
1
-r
2
) NPW
2
NPW
2
NPW
1
Benefit Cost Ratio : ( B.C. Ratio )
This is defined as the present worth of benefit divided by the present worth of cost
11.5. Project cycle (Para 17.6.2 of CPHEEO Manual)
Any project has to under go the following project cycle :
(i) Identification
The first phase of the cycle is concerned with identifying projects that have
a high priority with reference to the set objectives and needs of the country .
(ii) Preparation
The next stage is project preparation which should cover the full range of
technical, institutional, economic and financial conditions necessary to achieve the
project objectives.
A critical element of preparation is identifying and comparing technical and
institutional alternatives for achieving the project objectives. This has to be
79 followed by a more detailed investigation of the most promising alternative and
the most satisfactory solution is finally worked out .
(iii) Appraisal
As the project takes shape and studies are nearing completion, the project is
scheduled for appraisal. It is a critical stage of the project cycle because it is the
culmination of the preparatory work, provides a comprehensive review of all
aspects of the project, and lays the foundation for implementing the project and
evaluating it when completed .
Appraisal consists of four parts viz .,
(a) Technical
(b) Institutional
(c) Economic
(d) Financial
Technical appraisal is necessary to ensure that the project is designed in a
sound manner as least cost solution following all the accepted engineering
norms. The various technical alternatives considered and the solution proposed
are part of technical appraisal. This also includes appropriateness of technical
standards adopted, reality of the implementation schedule, likely hood of
achieving the expected results, review of capital cost and operating cost estimates
and engineering and other data, proposed procurement arrangements etc .
Second part is the appraisal of the institutional aspects of the project which
also includes recognition of the need for a continuous re examination of the
institutional arrangements with an open mind to accept new ideas and adopt a long
term approach that may extend over several projects .
Third is the economic appraisal which aims at assessing the contribution of
the project to the development objective of the country and this remains the basic
criterion for project selection and appraisal .
The fourth and the last one is financial appraisal which has several purposes
viz, to find out whether the project is financially viable to meet all its financial
obligations including debt servicing, to generate adequate working capital, to
generate funds from internal sources, to earn a reasonable return on its assets in
operation and make a satisfactory contribution to its future capital requirements.
The financial review often highlights the need to adjust the level and structure of
prices charged to the project .
It is the objective of economic analysis to identify whether projects have
Net Present Worth which will be a positive quantity and fulfill the prescribed
Benefit Cost ratio.
Negotiations with the Financing institutions
Negotiations is the stage at which the lending institution and the borrower
endeavour to agree on the measures necessary to assure the success of the project.
These agreements are then converted into legal obligations, set out in the loan
documents .
Implementation and Supervision
80 Implementation by the borrower and supervision by the lender form the
next stage. Progress reports followed by field visits constitute part of supervision .
Evaluation and Feed Back
This is the last stage of the project cycle and provides lesson of experience
which are built into subsequent project identification, preparation, and appraisal
work.
11.6. Financial appraisal (Para 17.6.3 of CPHEEO Manual)
Financial Appraisal of Water Supply Scheme is necessary :
(i) To ensure that the project is financially viable, whether the project will
meet all its financial obligations including debt servicing, whether there will
be adequate working capital ; whether the project can generate funds from its
internal resources to earn a reasonable return on its assets in operation and
make satisfactory contribution to its future capital requirements .
(ii) To adjust the level and structure of prices charged, when need arises ; and
(iii) To ensure recovery of investment and operating costs from the project
beneficiaries .
The finances of a project are closely reviewed through projections of the balance
sheet, income / expenditure statement, and cash flow. Where financial accounts
are inadequate a new accounting system has to be established with technical
assistance financed out of the loan .
The economic appraisal of a project aims at assessing the contribution of the
project to the development objective of the country whereas the financial appraisal
aims at ensuring the financial viability of the project .
Two important factors which lead to the distinction between financial analysis and
economic analysis are :
(a) Exclusion inclusion of some costs and benefits in the appraisal of a project
and
(b) Valuation of costs and benefits and market prices or some other prices .
In the Project Appraisal Technique , the costs and benefits of the project in
financial / economic terms are evaluated. It is easy to identify costs and benefits
in financial terms where as it is difficult to identify in economic terms. The
project incurs expenses on capital investment, such as machinery and equipment,
operation and maintenance cost, purchase of raw materials, payment of wages and
import of goods and services etc. In addition the projects has to pay taxes, import
duties, fees, repay the loan with interest and allow for the depreciation of fixed
assets . The project gets its return from the sale of goods and services and also
receives subsidy, if allowed by the Government, which reduces the costs or add to
the income .
81 Two types of costs and benefits are encountered in the appraisal of a project
one involves the use of resources, and the other which does not involve use of
resources, but it is a transfer of resources from the project to the Government or
any other institution / individual ( taxes, fees, duties, loan repayment and interest )
or vice versa ( subsidies ).
Audit approach on Implementation
Failure to conduct proper investigation and identifying a reliable, sustainable
dependable source to meet the ultimate requirements necessitating the
formulation of another scheme even during the execution of the former scheme
or before completion of the designed service life. The costs involved in
execution of the latter scheme especially headworks, pumping main, Booster
Station, sump etc. are avoidable.
According to the orders of the Board in March 1990, various components of
water supply schemes shall be executed only after ensuring adequate quality
and quantity of water sources. However without ensuring the availability of
water for the ultimate requirements, pumping main, distribution system were
constructed for ultimate requirement resulting in unfruitful extra expenditure. A
few type of cases are listed below:
(i) Failure to create reliable and dependable source before creation of
infrastructure rendered the entire infrastructures unutilized.
(ii) Creation of infrastructure for larger discharge than the yield
available.
(iii) Due to public objection required designed level of water could not be
extracted, but pumping main constructed for the original design
involving higher size of pumping main. Failure to revise the design
on the basis of actual yield resulted in extra cost on creation of
higher size of pumping main.
Avoidable delay in execution of the work resulted in non-achievement of
objective.
This was due to :
a) delay in obtaining permission from Highways department for laying
pumping main
b) delay in execution of work
The cause etc. thereof has to be analysed critically and commented.
Water supply scheme designed with drawal of source from another water
supply scheme. Though all infrastructures were created for supply of water,
the scheme held up due to non completion of the scheme from which source
was proposed to be drawn.
Under utilisation of the completed water supply schemes
The work of construction of head work, treatment plant, pumping main, clear
water reservoir, transmission main, feeder main with all facilities to supply water
to the intended habitations completed much earlier. But the infrastructures to
supply water to the group of habitation was either not completed or work not
taken up. Hence the assets created to supply water to designed level could not be
82 put into optimum use. Head works, pumping main completed which provided for
bulk provision of water to supply various other habitations. But evenafter
commencement of the water supply scheme, the work of distribution system was
not sanctioned and taken up for execution, to those habitations for which bulk
provision was made for.
83
ANNEXURE 1
Estimation of future population
Problem
The population of a town as per the Census records are given below for the
years 1921 to 1981. Assuming that the scheme of water supply will commence to
function from 1986, it is required to estimate the population 30 years hence, i.e. in
2016 and also the intermediate population 15 years after 1986, i.e.2001.
Year Population Increment
1921 40,185
1931 44,522 4,337
1941 60,395 15,873
1951 75,614 15,219
1961 98,886 23,272
1971 1,24,230 25,344
1981 1,58,800 34,570
Total 1,18,615
Average 19,769
Solution
Arithmetical Progression Method
Increase in population from 1921 to 1981
i.e. in 6 decades = 1,58,800
-40,185
1,18,615
or increase per decade =1/6 x 118,615 =19769
Population in 2001 =Population in 1981 + increase for 2 decades
=158,800+2 x 19769
=158,800 +39538
=198,338
Population in 2016 =Population in 1981 +Increase for 3.5 decades
=158,800 +3.5 x 19,769
=227,992
2. Geometrical Progression Method
Rate of Growth (r) =4337/40185= 0.108
Per decade between
1931 and 1921
1941 and 1931 =15873/44522= 0.356
1951 and 1941 =15219/60395= 0.252
1961 and 1951 =23272/75614= 0.308
1971 and 1961 =25344/98886= 0.256
1981 and 1971 =34570/124230=0.278
_____________________________________
6
| 0.108 X 0.356 X0.252 X 0.308 X 0.256X0.278
84
Geometric mean, r
g
=
Assuming that the future growth follows the geometric mean for the period 1921
to 1981 r
g
= 0.2442
Population in 2001 =Population in 1981 x ( 1 x r
g
)
2
=158800 x (1.2442)
2
=245,800
Population in 2016 = Population in 1981 x (1+ r
g
)
3.5
= 1.58,800 x
(1.2442)
3.5
=3,05,700
Methods of Varying Increment or Incremental Increase Methods
In this method a progressively decreasing or increasing rather than a
constant rate is adopted. This is a modification over the Arithmetical Progression
method.
Year Population Increase (x) Incremental
increase (Y
1921 40,185
1931 44,522 4,337
1941 60,395 15,873 11536
1951 75,614 15,219 654
1961 98,886 23,272 8053
1971 1,24,230 25,344 2072
1981 1,58,800 34,570 9226
Total 1,18,615 30233
Average =1/6 x 118615=1/5 x 30,233
=19769 = 6047
P
n
=P
1
+nX + n(n+1)Y
2
P2001 =P1981 +2x 19769 +2x3x6047
2
=158800 +39538 +18141 =216479
P
2016
=P
1981
+3.5.x 19769 +(3.5 x 4.5 x 6047) /2
=158800 +699192 +24,188
=252180
85
ANNEXURE II
Recommended guidelines for physical and chemical parameters.
Sl.
No.
Characteristics * Acceptable ** Cause for
Rejection
1 Turbidity (NTU) 1 10
2 Colour(Units on Platinum Cobalt scale) 5 25
3 Taste and Odour Unobjectionable Objectionable
4 PH 7.0 to 8.5 <6.5 or >9.2
5 Total dissolved solids)mg/1) 500 2000
6 Total hardness (as CaCO3 ) (mg/1) 200 600
7 Chlorides (as C1) (mg/1) 200 1000
8 Sulphaters (as SO4) (mg/1) 200 400
9 Fluorides(as F)(mg/1) 1.0 1.5
10 Nitrates(as NO3)(mg/1) 45 45
11 Calcium(as Ca) (mg/1) 75 200
12 Magnesium(as Mg) (mg/1) 530 150
If there are 20 mg/1 of sulphates, Mg content can be increased to a maximum of 12 mg/1
with the reduction of sulphates at the rate of 1q unit per every 2.5 units of sulphates.
13 Iron (as Fe) (mg/1) 0.1 1.0
14 Managanese (as Mn) (mg/1) 0.05 0.5
15 Copper (as Cu) (mg/) 0.05 1.5
16 Aluminimum (as A1) (mg/1) 0.03 0.2
17 Alkalinity (mg/1) 200 600
18 Residual Chlorine (mg/1) 0.2 >1.0
19 Zinc (as Zn) (mg/1) 5.0 15.0
20 Phenolic compounds (as Phenol)(mg/1) 0.001 0.002
21 Anionic detergents (mg/1)(as MBAS) 0.2 1.0
22 Mineral Oil (mg/1) 0.01 0.03
Toxic materials
23 Arsenic (as As) (mg/1) 0.01 0.01
24 Cadmium (as Cad) (mg/1) 0.01 0.01
86 25 Chromium (as hexavalent Cr) (mg/1) 0.05 0.05
26 Cyanides (as CN ) (mg/1) 0.05 0.05
27 Lead (as Pb) (mg/1) 0.05 0.05
28 Selenium (as Se) (mg/1) 0.01 0.01
29 Mercury (total as Hg) (mg/1) 0.001 0.001
30 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH ) (mg/1)
0.2 0.2
31 Presticides (total, mg/1) Absent Refer to WHO
guidelines for
drinking water
quality Vol.I.-1993
Radio activity +
32 Gross Alpha activity (Bq/1) 0.1 0.1
33 Gross Beta activity(Bq/1) 1.0 1.0
NOTES
* The figures indicated under the column Acceptable are the limits upto
which water is generally acceptable to the consumers.
** Figures in excess of those mentioned under Acceptable render the water not
acceptable, but still may be tolerated in the absence of a alternative and better
source but upto the limits indicated under column Cause for Rejection above
which the sources will have to be rejected.
+ It is possible that some mine and spring waters may exceed these radio activity
limits and in such cases it is necessary to analyze the individual radio-nuclides in
order to assess the acceptability or otherwise for public consumption.
b) Bacteriological Guidelines
The treated water should be bacteriologically in good quality and any trace
of bacteria of any kind must not be detectable in any 100 ml sample.
87
ANNEXURE III
Unit cost
1. Unit cost at 1998-99 rate for Ground Level Service Reservoirs
(sump) (including pipe connections)
S.No Description of work Rate for 1998-99
1 Upto 5000 litres 10.20 per lit.
2 Above 5000 litres and upto 10000 litres 7.40 per lit.
7 Above 200000 litres and upto 500000 litres 2.85 per lit
8 Above 500000 litres and upto 1000000 litres 2.55 per lit
9 Above 1000000 litres 1.75 per lit
2. Unit cost as per 1998-99 rates for RCC elevated Service Reservoirs
(including pipe connections)
S.No. Description of work Rate per 1998-99
Per litre
1 10000 litres 6 m staging 11.70
5 50000 litres 7.5 m staging 6.60
7 60000 litres 7.5 m staging 5.60
9 1 lakh litres 7.5 m staging 5.40
10 1 lakh litres 12 m staging 6.60
11 1.5 lakh litres 12 m staging 5.30
12 2.0 lakh litres 12 m staging 4.60
88 13 Above 2 to 5 lakh litres 12 m staging 4.20
14 Above 5 to 10 lakh litres 12 m staging 3.85
17 Above 20 lakh litres 12 m staging 3.40
3. Unit cost at 1998-99- rate for Treatment works
Sl. No Description of work
Rate per 1998-
99 per litre
1 Upto 2 mld 5.72
2 Above 2 mld and upto 5 mld 4.85
9 Above 200 mld 0.90
4. Unit cost at 1998-99 rate for pipe including anchoring arrangements
Pumping Plants
S.No. Description of Work
Rate per 1998-
99 per HP
I Pumpsets including cost of pipes, pipe
connection works transformer, etc.
BHP 1 to 2
BHP 3 to 5
BHP 6 to 10
BHP 11 to 15
BHP 16 to 35
BHP 36 to 50
BHP 51 to 100
Turbine pumpsets above 100 HP
Centrifugal pumpsets above 100 HP
12650
10350
8625
7475
6325
5750
5175
13800
11500
89
II Standby Pumpsets
(Rate for only pumpsets for jet, centrifugal and
turbine pumpsets)
1 to 2 HP
6 to 10 HP
11 to 15 HP
16 to 35 HP
36 to 50 HP
51 to 100 HP
above 100 HP
4025
3800
3450
3400
3275
3225
3100
90 ANNEXURE IV
Discharge in pipes flowing full
(Discharge in liters per minute ( diameter in millimeter)
grade 1
over 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
10 628 2031 3280
15 505 907 1631 2635 5616 10100
25 383 689 1238 2000 4263 7687 12390
35 319 574 1032 1667 3555 6393 10330 15490 22010 29980
50 263 474 851 1375 2932 5272 8517 12779 18150 24730
75 212 381 684 1105 2355 4236 6842 10260 14580 19860
100 181 326 586 946 2017 3626 5859 8786 12480 17010
150 146 262 470 760 1620 2914 4707 7058 10030 13670
200 125 224 403 651 1387 2495 4030 6043 8588 11700
250 111 199 357 577 1229 2211 3572 5357 7612 10370
300 100 180 324 523 1114 2004 3238 4835 6900 9399
350 92 166 298 481 1025 1844 2979 4467 6348 8648
400 86 154 277 448 954 1716 2771 4157 5906 8046
500 76 137 246 397 846 1521 2457 3684 5235 7132
600 69 124 223 360 766 1378 2226 3339 4744 6465
700 63 114 205 331 705 1268 2048 3072 4365 5947
800 59 106 191 308 656 1180 1905 2859 4061 5534
900 55 100 179 289 616 1108 1788 2682 3812 5193
1000 52 94 169 273 582 1046 1690 2534 3600 4906
1250 - - - 242 515 927 1498 2247 3193 4349
1500 42 75 136 219 467 840 1357 2035 2893 3941
1750 - - - 202 430 773 1249 1874 2662 3626
2000 36 65 116 188 400 719 1162 1743 2477 3375
2500 - - - 166 355 638 1030 1545 2196 2990
3000 29 52 93 151 321 578 934 1404 1990 2771
Note :
1) This table is prepared using Hazen Williams formula, taking the Hazen
Williams Coefficient C as 100
2) Adopt the appropriate Value for C particular pipe material.
3) The head loss factor and discharge factor for various values of C are as
follows : value of C : 80 100 120 130 140
Head Loss Factor : 1.511 1.000 0.713 0.615 0.536
Discharge Factor : 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.30 1.40
Explanation: The initial pressure with which water is pumped in a pumping main
would get reduced due to friction. This pressure loss due to friction is termed as
head loss and normally expressed as head loss as 1 m over a distance. For instance
if the head loss due to friction is 1m over a distance of (ie length of pumping main)
1000 m it is expressed as 1/1000 or 1 over 1000.
91
ANNEXURE V
Hydrostatic test pressure OF Pipe
S.No Pipe IS No
Usual Dia in
mm
Class
Test Pressure
at works
Kg/Cm
2
=10m of
water
Maximum
working
pressure at field
kg/cm
2
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 Spun Iron Pipe
IS:1536-1989 &
3114-1985
80,100,125,
150-50-500
600,700,750,
800,900,1000
1050
LA
A
B
35
35
35
12
18
24
2 Cast Iron Pipe
IS:1537-1976
80,100,125 150-
50-500
600,700,750
800-100-1200
1500
A-dia(mm)
Upto 600
600-1000
1000-1500
B-dia (mm)
Upto 600
600-1000
1000-1500
20
15
10
25
20
15
Not less than 2/3
of the works test
pressure
maintained for the
field test pressure
are less, the
period of test
should be atleast
24 hours, the test
pressure being
gradually raised
at the rate of
1kg/cm
2
/min
3 AC Pressure Pipes
IS:1952-2003
50, 65, 80,100,
125,
150-50-500 ,
600
10
15
20
25
10 MPA
15 1.0
20 1.5
25 2.0
2.5
Maximum
working pressure
will be half the
test pressure in
each case
4 RC Pipes IS:458-
1988
80,100,150
250-50-500-
100-1200
80,100,150,
250-50-500-
600,700,800,
900,1000
80,100,150,250,
300,350,400,
500,600,700,800
P
1
P
2
P
3
2
4
6
For use on gravity
mains only
working pressure
not to exceed
two-thirds of test
pressure
For use in
pumping mains
working pressure
not to exceed half
the test pressure.
5 PVC Pipe 20 mm to 315
mm OD
Cl.2.5
4
6
10
5
8
12
20
2.5
4
6
10
92
6 Steel cylinder RC
pipes IS 1916-1963
200-50-500, 600
700,900,1100,
1200-200-1800
1
2
3
4
5
5
10
15
20
25
7 Prestressed concrete
pipes IS 784-2001
80,100,125,150-
50-500-100-
1200-200-1800
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1.5 times
design
pressure
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
8 MS Tubes 1239 (part
I) 1982
6-100
6-150
6-150
Light
Medium
Heavy
50
50
50
9 Electrically Welded
steel pipes IS:3589-
2001
200-2500 1
2
3
15
20
25
Depending upon
thickness of steel
plate & tangible
strength given
separately
10 Ductile Iron Pipe
IS:8329:2000
80-2000 K7
K9
K10
Separately
given
As applicable to
CI/DI pipe
Note: 1. S.No. 1,3,4,5,7 & 9 are commonly used
2. Normal working pressure excludes surge pressure
3. Normal working pressure plus surge pressure not to exceed field test
pressure
4. RCC P. pipe shall be for use on gravity main only
5. Except for CI and Steel pipes, the normal working pressure shall be
generally half of the work test
pressure for pumping mains and two thirds for gravity mains
6. The sizes indicated against PVC pipes are outer diameter.
Electrically welded steel pipes - Hydraulic Pressure Test
The IS 3589 : 1981 has been revised and a third revision was issued in IS
3589 : 2001. In this revised publication, number of changes had been made and
one of the major change was in Hydraulic Pressure Test which is worked out by
the following formula.
P =2ST/D
Where P =Hydraulic test pressure in Mpa
D =Specified out side diameter of pipe in mm.
T =Specified thickness of the tube in mm.
S =Stress 60% of the specified minimum yield in Mpa.
93
The maximum test pressure to be limited to 5 mpa where over applicable.
Hence the scheme designed from 2001, the above formula may be adopted for
working out the hydraulic test pressure for the specified steel grade used for
manufacturing the steel pipe where as in the earlier code (VTL IS 3589:1981) the
value of S who considered as 40% of the yield stress in mpa. Besides IS
35891:2001 also prescribe 3 steel grade with different tensile strength as detailed
below.
Steel grade
Tensile strength in
mpa.
Fc 330 330
Fc 410 410
Fc 450 450
The Hydraulic test pressure of different size of MS pipe adopted by TEAD board
is worked out given below for ready reference.
94
Sl.
No
Outer
diameter of
the pipe in
mm (D)
Specified
thickness
in mm (t)
Stressing Mpa (60% of
minimum tensible strength
(S) for Steel of minimum
strength of different grade
say
Hydraulic test pressure in
Mpa P =2st/D
For steel of minimum
tensile strength of
330
mpa
410
mpa
450
mpa
330 mpa
410
mpa
450
mpa
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 460 5 4.304 5.348 5.870
2 462 6 5.143 6.390 7.013
3 510 5 3.882 4.824 5.294
4 512 6 4.641 5.766 6.328
5 560 5 198 246 270 3.536 4.393 4.821
6 562 6 Mpa Mpa Mpa 4.228 5.253 5.765
7 612 6 3.882 4.824 5.294
8 614 7 4.515 5.609 6.156
9 712 6 3.337 4.146 4.551
10 714 7 3.882 4.824 5.294
11 764 7 3.628 4.508 4.948
12 766 8 4.136 5.138 5.640
13 814 7 3.405 4.231 4.644
14 816 8 3.882 4.824 5.294
15 864 7 3.208 3.986 4.375
16 866 8 3.658 4.545 4.988
17 916 8 3.459 4.297 4.716
18 920 10 4.304 5.348 5.870
19 1016 8 3.118 3.874 4.252
20 1020 10 3.882 4.864 5.294
21 1066 8 2.972 3.692 4.053
22 1070 10 3.701 4.598 5.047
23 1116 8 2.839 3.527 3.871
24 1120 10 3.536 4.393 4.821
25 1166 8 2.717 3.376 3.705
26 1170 10 3.385 4.205 4.615
27 1216 8 2.605 3.237 3.553
28 1220 10 3.246 4.033 4.426
29 1270 10 3.118 3.874 4.252
30 1272 11 3.425 4.255 4.670
31 1320 10 3.000 3.727 4.091
32 1322 11 3.295 4.094 4.493
33 1370 10 2.891 3.591 3.942
34 1374 12 3.459 4.297 4.716
35 1420 10 2. 789 3.465 3.803
95 36 1424 12 3.337 4.146 4.551
37 1470 10 2.694 3.347 3.673
38 1474 12 3.224 4.005 4.396
39 1520 10 2.605 3.237 3.553
40 1524 12 3.118 3.874 4.253
Ductile Iron Pipe ( IS 8329:2000)
( In mpa pressure head)
Size of
pipe in
mm
Allowable operating pressure
excluding surge
Allowable maximum test pressure
K7 K9 K10 K7 K9 K10
80 .8 6.4 7.7 1.7 9.6 9.6
100 .8 6.4 7.7 1.75 9.6 9.6
125 .8 6.4 7.7 1.75 9.6 9.6
150 .8 6.4 7.7 1.75 9.6 9.6
200 .8 6.2 7.4 1.75 7.9 9.6
250 .8 5.4 6.5 1.75 7.0 7.8
300 .8 4.9 5.9 1.75 6.4 7.2
350 .8 4.5 5.4 1.75 5.9 6.6
400 .8 4.2 5.1 1.75 5.6 6.3
450 .8 4.0 4.8 1.75 5.3 5.9
500 .8 3.8 4.6 1.75 5.1 5.8
600 .8 3.6 4.3 1.75 4.8 5.4
700 .8 3.4 4.1 1.75 4.6 5.1
750 .8 3.3 3.9 1.75 4.4 4.9
800 .8 3.2 3.8 1.75 4.3 4.8
900 .8 3.1 3.7 1.75 4.2 4.7
1000 .8 3.0 3.6 1.75 4.1 4.6
1100 .8 2.9 3.5 1.75 4.0 4.3
1200 .8 2.8 3.4 1.75 3.9 4.3
1400 .8 2.8 3.3 1.75 3.8 4.2
1500 .8 2.7 3.2 1.75 3.7 4.1
1600 .8 2.7 3.2 1.75 3.7 4.1
1800 .8 2.6 3.1 1.75 3.7 4.1
2000 .8 2.6 3.1 1.75 3.6 4.0
1 Mpa = 10.2 Kg / cm2
1 Kg/cm2 = 10m pressure head
96 Hydrostatic test for Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder (BWSC) pipe (IS 15155:2002)
The hydrostatic pressure is determined by the following formula:
2St
y
P =
D
y i
Where,
P =Minimum hydrostatic test pressure in N/mm
2
S =Stress in pipe wall during hydrostatic test in N/mm
2
, which shall be
0.75 times the specified minimum yield stress of the steel used, or as
specified by the purchase;
t
y
=Cylinder thickness in mm; and
D
y i
=Inside diameter of steel cylinder in mm.
Note: Normally the specified minimum yield stress of steel used for BWSC pipe
Fe =250 N/mm
2
The Hydrostatic test provision is worked our adopting minimum yield stress of steel
Fe =250 N/mm
2
Factory test pressure =75% of the minimum yield strength of steel used in the
cylinder or stress not exceed 187 N/mm
2
Site test pressure =66% of the minimum yield strength of steel used in the
cylinder or stress not exceed 165 N/mm
2
Working pressure =50% of the minimum yield strength of steel used in the
cylinder or stress not excess 125 N/mm
2
Clause 7.31 of IS 15155: 2002
Nominal Internal Diameter, Minimum wall thickness (t
min
) and Minimum thickness
of the Cement Mortar Lining (t
i min
) , Inside diameter of steel cylinder ( Dyi) in mm
factory test pressure, working pressure for difference size of pipe is given below
Nominal
Internal
Diameter
of Pipe
t
min
Minimum
wall
thickness
t
i min
Minimum
thickness of
the cement
mortar lining
Minimu
m
Cylinder
Thickne
ss
Minimum
Thickness
of J oint
Rings
Inside
diameter
of steel
cylinder
(Dyi)
Factory
test
pressure
N/mm
2
Working
pressure
N/mm
2
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
40
40
40
45
45
45
45
45
45
50
50
50
50
50
50
15
15
15
20
20
20
20
20
20
22
22
22
22
22
22
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
280
330
430
540
640
740
840
940
1040
1144
1244
1344
1444
1544
1644
2.1429
1.8182
1.3953
1.1111
1.1719
1.0135
0.8929
0.9973
0.9014
1.3112
1.2058
1.1161
1.0388
0.9715
0.9124
1.4286
1.2121
0.9302
0.7407
0.7813
0.6758
0.5952
0.6649
0.6010
0.8741
0.8039
0.7440
0.6925
0.6477
0.6083
97
Note:- (1) N/mm
2
=mpa, N/mm
2
x 10.2 =Kg/cm
2
(2) Pipe with internal diameters other than those mentioned in this table and
pipes for working pressure higher than 28 Kg/ Cm
2
can be supplied by mutual
agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer.
98
ANNEXURE VI
Economic Calculation of Pumping Main
Table . I Frictional loss
Size distance
mm* m intermediate stage Ultimate stage
Qty. Grade frictional Qty. Grade frictional
1pm Loss 1pm Loss

The initial choice of pipe size is with reference to the velocity range
normally between 0.3 and 0.6m/sec
Table II Total head
Size Static Lift *
mm m Intermediate stage Ultimate stage
Frictional Other. Total Frictional Other.
Total
Loss Losses Head Loss Losses Head

* Static head is the difference in level between foot value level of pumping installation at
Head works and hydraulic level at reservoir at 2m above the maximum water level of
reservoir or maximum ridge in the pumping main alignment, whichever is higher.
Table III Horse power
Size Intermediate stage Ultimate stage
Mm Oty Head BHP* Qty Head BHP*
1pm m 1Pm m
* BHP
(For 50% Qty . to lifted in 1pm X total head in m x 2
Efficiency) = 60 X 76.06
Table IV-cost of pump sets
Size
mm
1
Intermediate stage Ultimate stage Total
Cost
9
(4+8)
BHP Rate/ HP Amt
2 3 4
BHP Rate/ HP Amt. Eq.Cost
5 6 7 8
Col.8 =Col.7x Equivalent cost factor (for 15 years at the prevailing rate of interest)
99
Table V Electrical Energy
Size
mm
1
Intermediate stage Ultimate stage Total
Cost
11
(5+10)
BHP Units Cost Capitalized*
2 3 4
BHP Units Cost Capitalized*Eq.Cost
5 6 7 8
* Capitalized cost =Cost annuity factor for 15 years .
Equivalent =capitalized cost X Equivalence factor for 15 years.
Note : 1 In calculating the electrical energy, the average working hours should be taken
into account, for example : if the working hours or pumping hours is 16
Present population
Average working hours during intermediate stage 16 + ------------------------- x 16
Intermediate. Population
-------------------------------------------
2
Intermediate Population
Average working hours at ultimate stage 16 + ------------------------------ x 16
Ultimate population
--------------------------------------------
2
2. HT Supply shall be availed when connected load as per table III is 75 HP and above
and LT supply shall be availed when connected load as per table III is less than 75 HP
3. The head loss due to friction in pipe line is calculated by referring to velocity discharge
table or using the following formula
Frictional loss per m length of pipe as per Hazen Williams formula
.hf =1.13 x 10
9
Q
1.85
C
1.85
d
4.87
Where .hf =frictional loss inm
Q =discharge in m
3
/hr
.d=diameter of pipe in mm
c =Hazen-William Co-efficient of smoothness
Table VI. Cost of Pumping Main
Size of main Length of Rate Amount
main Rs.
mm m Rs/m
100 Table VII. Cost of Installation
Size of Cost of Cost of Total
main pumping pumpset Cost of
mm main (Total Cost) installation
(Amount from from
Table VI) Table IV)
1 2 3 4
(2+3)
Table VIII. Cost of Installation and Maintenance
Size of Total cost Cost of Total cost
Main of installation electrical of installation
mm (from Table energy and maintenance
VII) (Total cost
From Table V)
1 2 3 4
(2+3)
The size corresponding to minimum cost from the Table VIII is the most economical
size of the pumping main.
NOTE: 1. Now the Economic calculation of Pumping /Conveying/gravity main is
designed using computer software
2. The software package now being used in TWAD Board prescribed
for total head required at each reaches of the pipeline. Where as the
size, class and type of pipe of is adopted for the particular discharge
and slope manually. While choosing the pipe, the size and class and
type of pipe is used to inflate by them. This could be examined with
discharge table for CI Pipe using C value 100 is given in Annexure-
IV
101
ANNEXURE VI I
Earth work calculation for pipe laying.
Earth work excavation for pipe line works on linear measurement basis (TWAD Board
Schedule of Rate)
Type Dia in mm Width of
trench at
bottom in
m
Depth of
bottom of
pipe
below GL
in m
Outer dia
of the pipe
Earth
work
quantity
Refilling
quantity
CI 80 0.75 1.05 0.098 0.79 0.780
CI 100 0.75 1.05 0.118 0.79 0.777
CI 125 0.75 1.05 0.144 0.79 0.771
CI 150 0.75 1.05 0.170 0.79 0.765
CI 175 0.75 1.05 0.170 0.79 0.765
CI 200 0.80 1.10 0.222 0.88 0.841
CI 225 0.80 1.10 0.222 0.88 0.841
CI 250 0.80 1.20 0.274 0.96 0.901
CI 300 0.80 1.35 0.326 1.08 0.997
CI 350 0.90 1.45 0.378 1.31 1.193
CI 375 0.90 1.45 0.378 1.31 1.193
CI 400 0.90 1.55 0.429 1.40 1.251
CI 450 1.00 1.70 0.48 1.70 1.519
CI 500 1.00 1.85 0.532 1.85 1.628
CI 525 1.00 1.85 0.532 1.85 1.628
CI 600 1.10 2.05 0.635 2.26 1.938
CI 675 1.20 2.30 0.738 2.76 2.332
CI 700 1.20 2.30 0.738 2.76 2.332
CI 750 1.25 2.45 0.790 3.06 2.573
ACCL15 80 0.75 1.05 0.104 0.79 0.779
ACCL15 100 0.75 1.05 0.124 0.79 0.775
ACCL15 125 0.75 1.05 0.151 0.79 0.770
ACCL15 150 0.75 1.05 0.178 0.79 0.763
ACCL15 175 0.75 1.05 0.178 0.79 0.763
ACCL15 200 0.80 1.10 0.235 0.88 0.837
ACCL15 250 0.80 1.20 0.286 0.96 0.896
ACCL15 300 0.80 1.35 0.340 1.08 0.989
ACCL15 350 0.90 1.45 0.396 1.31 1.182
ACCL15 400 0.90 1.55 0.452 1.40 1.235
ACCL15 450 1.00 1.70 0.502 1.70 1.502
ACCL15 500 1.00 1.85 0.559 1.85 1.605
ACCL15 600 1.10 2.05 0.658 2.26 1.915
ACCL10 80 0.75 1.05 0.104 0.79 0.779
102 ACCL10 100 0.75 1.05 0.124 0.79 0.775
ACCL10 125 0.75 1.05 0.149 0.79 0.770
ACCL10 150 0.75 1.05 0.175 0.79 0.763
ACCL10 175 0.75 1.05 0.175 0.79 0.763
ACCL10 200 0.80 1.10 0.229 0.88 0.839
ACCL10 250 0.80 1.20 0.281 0.96 0.898
ACCL10 300 0.80 1.35 0.333 1.08 0.993
ACCL10 350 0.90 1.45 0.389 1.31 1.186
ACCL10 400 0.90 1.55 0.436 1.40 1.246
ACCL10 450 1.00 1.70 0.486 1.70 1.515
ACCL10 500 1.00 1.85 0.541 1.85 1.620
ACCL10 600 1.10 2.05 0.648 2.26 1.925
PVC 40 0.60 1.05 0.04 0.63 0.629
PVC 50 0.60 1.05 0.05 0.63 0.628
PVC 63 0.60 1.05 0.063 0.63 0.627
PVC 75 0.60 1.05 0.075 0.63 0.626
PVC 90 0.60 1.05 0.09 0.63 0.624
PVC 110 0.60 1.05 0.11 0.63 0.621
PVC 125 0.60 1.05 0.125 0.63 0.618
PVC 140 0.60 1.05 0.14 0.63 0.615
PSC 350 0.90 1.45 0.464 1.31 1.136
PSC 400 0.90 1.55 0.514 1.40 1.188
PSC 450 1.00 1.70 0.564 1.70 1.450
PSC 500 1.00 1.85 0.614 1.85 1.554
PSC 600 1.10 2.05 0.724 2.26 1.844
PSC 700 1.20 2.30 0.824 2.76 2.227
PSC 800 1.25 2.45 0.934 3.06 2.378
PSC 900 1.40 2.60 1.054 3.64 2.768
PSC 1000 1.50 2.70 1.164 4.05 2.986
GI 15 0.75 1.05 0.02 0.788 0.787
GI 20 0.75 1.05 0.03 0.788 0.787
GI 25 0.75 1.05 0.03 0.788 0.787
GI 32 0.75 1.05 0.04 0.788 0.786
GI 40 0.75 1.05 0.05 0.788 0.786
GI 50 0.75 1.05 0.06 0.788 0.785
GI 65 0.75 1.05 0.07 0.788 0.784
GI 80 0.75 1.05 0.09 0.788 0.781
GI 100 0.75 1.05 0.11 0.788 0.778
GI 125 0.75 1.05 0.14 0.788 0.772
GI 150 0.75 1.05 0.16 0.788 0.767

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