An Overview of

Optical Fibre
Technology

Zulfiqar Ali Mirani

Senior Electronics Engineer
Civil Aviation Authority - Pakistan
Contents

1 Introduction
2 Fibre Theory
3 Fibre Manufacture
4 Splicing
5 System Design
6 Light Sources
7 Fibre Optic Sensors
1. Introduction

1.1 What are Optical Fibres ?

Optical Fibres are fibres of glass, usually about 120

micrometres in diameter, which are used to carry
signals in the form of pulses of light over distances up
to 50 km without the need for repeaters. These signals
may be coded voice communications or computer data.

1.2 History

Interest in the use of light as a carrier for information

grew in the 1960's with the advent of the laser as a
source of coherent light. Initially the transmission
distances were very short, but as manufacturing techniques for very pure glass arrived in
1970, it became feasible to use optical fibres as a practical transmission medium. At the
same time developments in semi-conductor light sources and detectors meant that by
1980 world wide installation of fibre optic communication systems had been achieved.

1.3 Advantages

Capacity

Optical fibres carry signals with much less energy loss than copper cable and with a much
higher bandwidth . This means that fibres can carry more channels of information over
longer distances and with fewer repeaters required.

Size and Weight

Optical fibre cables are much lighter and thinner than copper cables with the same
bandwidth. This means that much less space is required in underground cabling ducts.
Also they are easier for installation engineers to handle.

Security

Optical fibres are much more difficult to tap information from undetected; a great
advantage for banks and security installations. They are immune to Electromagnetic
interference from radio signals, car ignition systems, lightning etc. They can be routed
safely through explosive or flammable atmospheres, for example, in the petrochemical
industries or munitions sites, without any risk of ignition.

Running Costs

The main consideration in choosing fibre when installing domestic cable TV networks is
the electric bill. Although copper coaxial cable can handle the bandwidth requirement over
the short distances of a housing scheme, a copper system consumes far more electrical
power than fibre, simply to carry the signals.
1.4 Disadvantages

Price

In spite of the fact that the raw material for making optical fibres, sand, is abundant and
cheap, optical fibres are still more expensive per metre than copper. Having said this, one
fibre can carry many more signals than a single copper cable and the large transmission
distances mean that fewer expensive repeaters are required.

Special Skills

Optical fibres cannot be joined (spliced) together as a easily as copper cable and requires
additional training of personnel and expensive precision splicing and measurement
equipment

1.4 Areas of Application

Telecommunication's

Optical fibres are now the standard point to point cable link between telephone
substations.

Local Area Networks (LAN's)

Multimode fibre is commonly used as the "backbone" to carry signals between the hubs of
LAN's from where copper coaxial cable takes the data to the desktop. Fibre links to the
desktop, however, are also common.

Cable TV

As mentioned above domestic cable TV networks use optical fibre because of its very low
power consumption.

CCTV

Closed circuit television security systems use optical fibre because of its inherent security,
as well as the other advantages mentioned above.

Optical Fibre Sensors

Many advances have been made in recent years in the use of Optical Fibres as sensors.
Gas concentration, chemical concentration, pressure, temperature, and rate of rotation
can all be sensed using optical fibre. Much work in this field is being done all over the
world.

2. Optical Fibre- Theory

2.1 Total Internal Reflection

Reflection and Refraction of Light

When light travelling in a transparent material meets the surface of another transparent
material two things happen

1. some of the light is reflected

2. some of the light is transmitted into the second transparent material

The light which is transmitted usually changes direction when it enters the second
material. This bending of light is called refraction and it depends upon the fact that light
travels at one speed in one material and at a different speed in a different material. As a
result each material has its own Refractive Index which we use to help us calculate the
amount of bending which takes place. Refractive index is defined as:-

where

n is the refractive index

C is the speed of light in a vacuum

V is the speed of light in the material

Two possible cases exist.

These are:-

1. where light goes from a material with a low refractive index to one with a high
refractive index, OR
2. where light goes from a material with a high refractive index to one with a low
refractive index.

These two cases are shown in the diagrams below.

Figure 1 n1 < n2 Figure 2 n1 > n2

Total Internal Reflection

In the second case above, q 2 is always greater than q 1 . So, as we increase q 1,

eventually q 2 will reach 90o before q 1 does. At this point where q 1 has reached a value
called the critical angle (q c ).

The transmitted ray now tries to travel in both materials simultaneously For various
reasons this is physically impossible so there is no transmitted ray and all the light energy
is reflected. This is true for any value of q 1, the angle of incidence, equal to or greater
than q c This phenomenon is called Total Internal Reflection (TIR).

We can define the two conditions neccessary for TIR to occur

1. The refractive index of the first medium is greater than the refractive index of the
second one.
2. The angle of incidence, q1, is greater than or equal to the critical angle, qc

The phenomenon of TIR causes 100% reflection. In no other situation in nature, where
light is reflected, does 100% reflection occur. So TIR is unique and very useful.

2.2 Optical Fibres

Structure of Fibre

Optical fibres are very fine fibres of glass. They consist of a glass core, roughly fifty
micrometres in diameter, surrounded by a glass "optical cladding" giving an outside
diameter of about 120 micrometres. They make use of TIR to confine light within the core
of the fibre.
 Figure 3 Structure of an Optical Fibre

The Structure of a Fibre

The core has a higher refractive index than the cladding. Although the cladding does not
carry light, it is nevertheless an essential part of the fibre. The cladding is not just a mere
covering. It keeps the value of the critical angle constant throughout the whole length of
the fibre.

Figure 4 Structure of a Fibre

Optical Fibres are optical waveguides. This means that wherever the fibre goes the light,
which is confined to the core of the fibre, also goes. So optical fibres can be used to make
light bend round corners

Propagation of light in the fibre

The angle  in the Figure 5 is called the Acceptance Angle. Any light entering the fibre at
less than this angle will meet the cladding at an angle greater than C . If light meets the
inner surface of the cladding (the core - cladding interface) at greater than or equal to C
then TIR occurs. So all the energy in the ray of light is reflected back into the core and
none escapes into the cladding. The ray then crosses to the other side of the core and,
because the fibre is more or less straight , the ray will meet the cladding on the other side
at an angle which again causes TIR. The ray is then reflected back across the core again
and the same thing happens. In this way the light zig zags its way along the fibre. This
means that the light will be transmitted to the end of the fibre.

Figure 5 Propagation of Light in a Fibre

In reality the light which enters the fibre is a focused beam, consisting of many millions of
"rays" behaving in a similar way. They all zig zag along the core of the fibre, crossing over
each other, and filling up the core with light. A pulse of light travelling along the core of the
fibre is really a bundle of these rays.

2.3 Types of Fibres:

There are two main fibre types:

(1) Step index (multimode, single mode)

(2) Graded index (multimode)

Step Index Fibre:

Step index fibre is so called

because the refractive index of
the fibre 'steps" up as we move
from the cladding to the core of
the fibre. Within the cladding
the refractive index is constant,
and within the core of the
refractive index is constant.

Multimode

Although it may seem from

what we have said about total
internal reflection that any ray of light can travel down the fibre, in fact, because of the
wave nature of light, only

certain ray directions can actually travel down the fibre. These are called the "Fibre
Mode". In a multimode fibre many different modes are supported by the fibre. This is
shown in the diagram below.

Figure 7 Multimode fibre

Single Mode

Because its core is so narrow Single Mode fibre can support only one mode. This is
called the "Lowest Order Mode". Single mode fibre has some advantages over multimode
fibre which we will deal with later

Figure 8 - Single Mode Fibre

Graded Index Fibre

Graded Index Fibre has a different core structure from single mode and multimode fibre.
Whereas in a step-index fibre the refractive index of the core is constant throughout the
core, in a graded index fibre the value of the refractive index changes from the centre of
the core onwards. In fact it has what we call a Quadratic Profile. This means that the
refractive index of the core is proportional to the square of the distance from the centre of
the fibre.

Figure 9 - Graded Index Fibre

Graded index fibre is actually a multimode fibre because it can support more than one
fibre mode. But when we refer to "multimode" fibre we normally mean "step index
multimode".

2.4 Pulse Spreading

The data which is carried in an optical fibre consists of pulses of light energy following
each other rapidly. There is a limit to the highest frequency, i.e. how many pulses per
second which can be sent into a fibre and be expected to emerge intact at the other end.
This is because of a phenomenon known as pulse spreading which limits the "Bandwidth"
of the fibre.

Figure 11 Pulse Spreading in an Optical Fibre

The pulse sets off down the fibre with an nice square wave shape. As it travels along the
fibre it gradually gets wider and the peak intensity decreases.

Cause of Pulse Spreading

The cause of cause spreading is dispersion. This means that some components of the
pulse of light travel at different rates along the fibre. there are two forms of dispersion.

1. Chromatic dispersion
2. Modal dispersion

Chromatic Dispersion

Chromatic dispersion is the variation of refractive index with the wavelength (or the
frequency) of the light. Another way of saying this is that each wavelength of light travels
through the same material at its own particular speed which is different from that of other
wavelengths.

For example, when white light passes through a prism some wavelengths of light bend
more because their refractive index is higher, i.e. they travel slower This is what gives us
the "Spectrum" of white light. The "red' and "orange" light travel slowest and so are bent
most while the "violet" and "blue" travel fastest and so are bent less. All the other colours
lie in between.

This means that different wavelengths travelling through an optical fibre also travel at
different speeds. This phenomenon is called "Chromatic Dispersion".

Figure 10 Dispersion of Light through a Prism

Modal Dispersion

In an optical fibre there is another type of dispersion called "Multimode Dispersion".

More oblique rays (lower order modes) travel a shorter distance. These correspond to
rays travelling almost parallel to the centre line of the fibre and reach the end of fibre
sooner. The more zig-zag rays (higher order modes) take a longer route as they pass
along the fibre and so reach the end of the fibre later.

Now:-

Total dispersion = chromatic dispersion + multimode dispersion

Or put simply: for various reasons some components of a pulse of light travelling along an
optical fibre move faster and other components move slower. So, a pulse which starts off
as a narrow burst of light gets wider because some components race ahead while other
components lag behind, rather like the runners in a marathon race.

Consequences of pulse spreading

Frequency Limit (Bandwidth)

The further the pulse travels in the fibre the worse the spreading gets

Figure 12 - Merging of Pulses in a Fibre.

Pulse spreading limits the maximum frequency of signal which can be sent along a fibre.
If signal pulses follow each other too fast then by the time they reach the end fibre they
will have merged together and become indistinguishable. This is unaceptable for digital
systems which depend on the precise sequence of pulses as a code for information. The
Bandwidth is the highest number of pulses per second, that can be carried by the fibre
without loss of information due to pulse spreading.

Distance Limit

A given length of fibre, as explained above has a maximum frequency (bandwidth) which
can be sent along it. If we want to increase the bandwidth for the same type of fibre we
can achieve this by decreasing the length of the fibre. Another way of saying this is that
for a given data rate there is a maximum distance which the data can be sent.

Bandwidth Distance Product (BDP)

We can combine the two ideas above into a single term called the bandwidth distance
product (BDP). It is the bandwidth of a fibre multiplied by the length of the fibre. The BDP
is the bandwidth of a kilometre of fibre and is a constant for any particular type of fibre.
For example, suppose a particular type of multimode fibre has a BDP of 20 MHz.km,
then:-

1 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 20 MHz

2 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 10 MHz

5 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 4 MHz

4 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 5 MHz

10 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 2 MHz

20 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 1 MHz

The typical B.D.P. of the three types of fibres are as follows:-

Multimode 6 - 25 MHz.km

Single Mode 500 - 1500 MHz.km

Graded Index 100 - 1000 MHZ.km

NB: The units of BDP are MHz.km (read as megahertz kilometres). They are not MHz/km
(read as megahertz per kilometres). This is because the quantity is a product (of
bandwidth and distance) and not a ratio.

Choice of Fibre

Multimode Fibre

Muitimode fibre is suitable for local area networks (LAN's) because it can carry enough
energy to support all the subscribers to the network. In a LAN the distances involved,
however, are small. Little pulse spreading can take place and so the effects of dispersion
are unimportant.

Single Mode Fibre.

Multimode Dispersion is eliminated by using Single Mode fibre. The core is so narrow that
only one mode can travel. So the amount of pulse spreading in a single mode fibre is
greatly reduced from that of a multimode fibre. Chromatic dispersion however remains
even in a single mode fibre. Thus even in single mode fibre pulse spreading can occur.
But chromatic dispersion can be reduced by careful design of the chemical composition of
the glass.

The energy carried by a single mode fibre, however, is much less than that carried by a
multimode fibre. For this reason single mode fibre is made from extremely low loss, very
pure, glass.

Single mode low absorption fibre is ideal for telecommunications because pulse
spreading is small.

Graded Index Fibre

In graded index fibre rays of light follow sinusoidal paths. This means that low order
modes, i.e. oblique rays, stay close to the centre of the fibre, high order modes spend
more time near the edge of core. Low order modes travel in the high index part of the
core and so travel slowly, whereas high order modes spend
predominantly more time in the low index part of the core and so travel faster. This way,
although the paths are different lengths, all the modes travel the length of the fibre in
tandem, i.e., they all reach the end of the fibre at the same time. This eliminates
multimode dispersion and reduces pulse spreading.

Graded Index fibre has the advantage that it can carry the same amount of energy as
multimode fibre. The disadvantage is that this effect takes place at only one wavelength,
so the light source has to be a laser diode which has a narrow linewidth.

Figure 13 - Ray Paths in Graded Index Fibre

2.5 Attenuation

Attenuation is specified in db.km-1

Where

I out = outgoing intensity (intensity is measured in W.m-2)

I in = ingoing intensity (W.m-2)

Attenuation in a fibre is measured using an OTDR (Optical Time-Domain Reflectometer)

which looks at the light reflected back long the fibre when a pulse of light is sent down the
fibre. Another method is to send light from a continuous source of light and measure the
power emerging at the other end of the fibre.

Optical Time Domain Reflectometer

Causes of Attenuation

The light travelling along a fibre is attenuated, i.e. its intensity decreases as it moves
along the fibre. This happens for 3 main reasons

Atomic absorption of light photons

Scattering of light by flaws and impurities

Reflection of light by splices and connectors

We will look at each of these factors in turn.

Atomic Absorption

The atoms of any material are capable of absorbing specific wavelengths of light because
of their electron orbital structure. This absorption can be observed if you look into the
edge of a pane of glass. The light which emerges has a green colour because so much
red and blue light have been absorbed by the atoms of the glass. In the same way, as
light passes along an optical fibre. more and more light is absorbed by the atoms as it
continues on its path

Scattering by Flaws and Impurities

This type of scattering is called "Rayleigh Scattering". The amount of Rayleigh Scattering
which takes place depends on the relative size of the scattering particle and the
wavelength of the light. If the wavelength of the light is large compared to the size of the
scattering particle then little light is scattered. If the wavelength of the light is small
compared to the scattering particles then a lot of light is scattered. So long wavelengths
are preferred in fibre optics because of the lower absorption. Thus 1500 nm is better than
1300 nm which is better than 850 nm

Reflection by Splices and Connectors

In a long fibre cable there may be many splices which join the individual lengths of fibre
together. In a Local Area Network there will be many connectors because of the number
of subscribers to the system. At each connector and/or splice some light will be reflected
back along the fibre in the opposite direction. This will happen even for the most perfect
splice or connector. Light reflected backwards does not leave the fibre but is no longer
usefully available for the rest of the fibre, i.e. it is no longer part of the ongoing light.

2.6 Numerical Aperture

One of the properties of a fibre which we need to know is called the Numerical Aperture.
The numerical aperture is defined as
It is a measure of the light gathering power of the fibre. It lies between 0 and 1. A
numerical aperture of 0 means that the fibre gathers no light (corresponding to q A = 0o). A
numerical aperture of 1 means that the fibre gathers all the light that falls onto it
(corresponding to qA = 90o)

3. Fibre Manufacturing

There are two main stages to the manufacture of optical fibres. These are:-

1) the making of the preform

2) the extrusion of the preform

Perform Manufacture

The most common method of making fibre preforms is known as Modified Chemical
Vapour Dispersion (MCVD). An outer glass "bait tube" is heated by a traversing burner.
Through this tube a mixture of gases is passed at a steady rate, which when heated
undergoes a chemical reaction. The gas mix contains compounds of silicon, metal
halides, oxygen and dopant materials which will determine the refractive index of the
glass of the core. The solid end products of the reaction are deposited on the interior of
the bait tube as "soot". This soot will eventually form the core of the fibre while the bait
tube will form the cladding. When enough soot has been deposited the gas flow is
stopped and the heat is turned up so that the soot melts to form a sintered glass.

Finally the tube is heated up enough to soften the bait tube and the sintered glass so that
the whole tube collapses to form a solid rod. This is illustrated in the diagram below.

Figure 15 Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition

Extrusion of the Preform

The preform now has the same internal structure as the fibre to be drawn. The preform is
held vertically and passed through an oven which softens its end. This end is now
stretched to form a glass fibre. The interior of the fibre retains the same refractive index
structure as the preform with the same relative dimensions. The fibre passes through a
device for monitoring its diameter so that the size of the fibre stays within predefined limits
It then passes through a coater which coats it with a plastic buffer. This part of the
process is crucial since the strength of the fibre depends on freedom from any surface
contamination. The fibre must therefore be coated before any contamination such as
dust, etc, in the surrounding air can reach it. Finally the fibre is rolled on to a drum for
distribution or for further work on it such as incorporation into a fibre cable. This is
illustrated in the diagram on the right.

Figure 16 Extrusion of the Preform

4. Splicing

Optical fibres have to be joined together to make longer lengths of fibre or existing fibre
lengths which have been broken have to be repaired. Also the ends of the fibre have to
be fitted with convenient connectors (terminations) to allow them to be easily plugged into
equipment such as power meters, data transmitters, etc. Unlike electrical cables where all
that is needed is to solder lengths of cable together, the process of joining two fibres
(splicing) or terminating the end of a fibre is more complex and requires special
equipment.

Splicing is the process of joining the two bare ends of two fibres together. The ends of the
fibre must be precisely lined up with each other, otherwise the light will not be able to
pass from one fibre across the gap to the other fibre. There are four main alignment
errors and any splicing technique is designed to deal with ends of these errors.

Possible alignment errors during splicing

There four alignment errors in splicing optical fibres. These are:-

Lateral,
Axial,
Angular,
Poor End Finish.

These are illustrated in the diagrams below.

Figure 20 Lateral Misalignment Figure 17 Angular Misalignment

Figure 18 Axial Misalignment Figure 19 Poor End Finnish

There are two main types of splicing:

Fusion Splicing and;

Mechanical Splicing

Fusion Splicing

Figure 21 Fusion Splicing

 Fusion Splicer

You can see this process by clicking on the icons below.

Alignment Pre-Fuse Fuse

In fusion splicing the ends of the fibres are aligned either manually using micro-
manipulators and a microscope system for viewing the splice, or automatically either
using cameras or by measuring the light transmitted through the splice and adjusting the
positions of the fibres to optimise the transmission The ends of the fibres are then melted
together using a gas flame or more commonly an electric arc.

Near perfect splices can be obtained with losses as low as 0.02 dB (best mechanical
splice 0.2 dB)

One of the systems in top of the range fusion splicers is called a Profile Alignment System
(PAS). This system uses a TV camera to view the splice before it is fused. The image is
sent to a microcomputer inside the splicer which is programmed to recognise when the
cores of the two fibres form a continuous straight line. An adjustment is made to bring the
fibres form a continuous straight line. An adjustment is made to bring the fibres into
alignment in that plane. The camera then moves to a new position to view the splice in an
orthogonal plane. The same process aligns the fibres in this plane too. The camera then
goes back to the original view and starts to make fine adjustments in that plane. It goes to
the second plane and makes fine adjustments in that plane too. This goes on until the
alignment is as close as possible. At this point the arc is fired and the heat form the arc
melts the fibres together locally.

Mechanical Splicing

In mechanical splicing the two fibre ends are held together in a splice. This consists of
some device usually made of glass which by its internal design automatically brings the
two fibres into alignment. The openings at each end of the device are usually fluted to
allow the fibres to be guided into the capillary where the alignment takes place. The splice
is fist filled with an optical cement whose refractive index is the same as that of the core
of the fibre. After the fibres have been entered into the splice they are adjusted to give the
optimum transmission of light. At this point they are clamped in position and the whole
assembly is exposed to ultra-violet light which cures the cement.

Figure 22 Mechanical Splice

Mechanical splices are best used for multimode fibre. Some splices now exist which are
suitable SM fibre, but have a loss of 0.1dB. This is five times the loss of the best fusion
splice.

5. System Design

Fibre Optic Systems Design Considerations

In designing an fibre optic system there two main areas of crucial importance to consider.
These are:-

Power budget
Bandwidth Budget

We have to calculate both of these to see if our system will carry out the task required of
it. But often there are compromises which we must make on the basis of cost. Let's first
consider each of the above in turn

Power budget

Losses occur at many points in a fibre optic system. We have to ensure that the light
source launches enough power into the fibre to provide enough power at the receiver.
The receiver has limited sensitivity.

Transmitter output - Receiver input = Losses + Margin (All calculations are done in dB)

Types of Loss

Light source to fibre coupling loss

Connector loss
Splice loss
Coupler loss
Fibre loss
Fibre to receiver coupling loss
Margin

Light source to fibre coupling loss

For LED coupling to 62.5/125 MM (62.5m m core, 125m m cladding, multimode) a typical
loss would be 1 mW to 50m W.

I.e. 13 dB loss

A laser diode can couple several milliwatts of power into 62.5/125 MM fibre typically with
a dB loss so small that it's negligible (i.e. 0 dB loss).

These are however, more expensive, and shorter lived than LED's and require special
stabilised power supplies.

Couplers, connectors and splices

Simply multiply either the measured loss or the manufacturers specifications by the
number of these devices in the system. For small numbers of devices use the maximum
loss quoted per device. For large numbers of devices use the average loss quoted per
device.

Fibre Loss

Multiply the dB.km~1 loss figure for the fibre by the length of the fibre.

So called "transient" losses occur in the first few 100 m of MM fibre coupled to an LED.
So for short lengths of fibre the loss/km is greater than the manufacturer's figure.

Fibre / receiver coupling loss

This is not usually a problem since the area of the detector and its numerical aperture are
larger than those of fibre.

Margin

In addition to the above known losses it is usual to allow a margin, in case some of the
losses turn out to be higher than expected, but mainly to compensate for any future
degradation of the system which may happen with time.

We usually allow between 3 dB and 10 dB margin.

Bandwidth Budget

The bandwidth budget is a series of calculations which allows us to work out whether the
fibre system can support the data rate which we require. We do this by calculating the
overall Response Time of the system. This overall time response of a fibre system must
be less than the bit time of the signal.
Calculation of Response Time of a System

There are a number of coding systems for digital information. The simplest to use, from
the point of view of calculating response time is the Non Return to Zero coding (NRZ). For
an NRZ coding the bit time is given by

Where R is the rate at which information is being sent (i.e. the number of bits per second
or bit rate). For example, a bit rate of R = 1000 M bit/s the bit time is

Response time of a system is defined as longer of the rise time or the fall time of a bit
leaving the system.

A system which can transmit 1 Mbit/s, for example, must have a response time less than
1m s, then one bit will be trying to rise while the previous bit is still falling. As a result bits
of information will merge together.

Calculation of overall response time

The overall response time is affected by only 3 individual response times.

transmitter
fibre
receiver

Components such as splices and connectors have a negligible effect on response time.
The light can pass through them without any delaying effect.

The overall response time is given, in general, by the formula:

Where t is the response time of component So for a fibre system we would use the
formula
where

ttx = response time of the transmitter

tf = response time of the fibre

trx = response time of the receiver

suppose

ttx = 2ns

tf = 1ns

trx = 0.5ns

then

t2=(2x10-9)2+(1 x10-9)2+(0.5x10-9)2

= 5.25 x 10-8

= t= 2.29 ns

Thus, if we know the individual response time, we can calculate the response time of the
whole system, and knowing that we can decide whether the system is fast enough for the
information rate we want it to carry. The response times of the transmitter and the
receiver will be given by the manufacturer. The fibre response time, however, has to be
calculated, because it depends on the length of the fibre and therefore is different for
different systems.

Calculation of Fibre Response Time

This is composed of two things

Modal Response Time

Chromatic Response Time

Each of these contribute a component to the response time of the fibre in the following
way:

Where

tm = modal response time

tc = chromatic response time

Modal Response Time

The modal response time is given by

where

Dm = Modal Dispersion L = Length of fibre and Dm is given by:-

where

BDP = Bandwidth distance product

For example, a fibre of bandwidth of say 200 MHz.km has a model dispersion of 5ns.km -1.

Chromatic Dispersion

For chromatic dispersion where response time also depends on the range of wavelengths
launched into the fibre we use the formula:

where

Dc = Chromatic Dispersion

D l = Range of wavelengths of the light launched into the fibre (sometimes called the
linewidth)

L = Length of fibre

For example, 200 m length of 85/125 fibre and chromatic dispersion

100 ps.nm-1.km-1

For 850nm LED, D l = 50nm

then
Notice that D l is converted to nm and L is converted to km. Dc is expressed in the
number of seconds per nanometre per kilometre in this case 100 ps, i.e. 110 x 10 -12 per
nm per km, [ps.nm-1.km-1]

Thus the overall response time of the above fibre is given by:-

6. Light Sources

There are two main light sources used in the field of fibre optics.-

Light Emitting diodes (LED's)

Laser Diodes (LD's)

LED's

An LED is a p-n junction diode in a transparent capsule usually with a lens to let the light
escape and to focus it. LED's can be manufactured to operate at 850 nm, 1300 nm, or
1500 nm. These wavelengths are all in the infrared region. LED's have a typical response
time of 8 ns, a linewidth of 40 nm, and an output power of tens of microwatts.

Figure 23 Planar LED

Laser Diodes

A laser diode Is an LED with two important differences

(1) The operating current is much higher in order to produce OPTICAL GAIN

(2) Two of the ends of the LD are cleaved parallel to each other. These ends act as
perfectly aligned mirrors which reflect the light back and forth through the "gain medium"
in order to get as much amplification as possible

The typical response time of a laser diode Is 0.5 ns. The linewidth is around 2 nm with a
typical laser power of 10's of milliwatts. The wavelength of a laser diode can be 850 nm,
1300 nm, or 1500 nm.

Figure 25 Laser Diode

7. Fibre Optic Sensors

Fibre Optic System

Telecommunications System

A Telecommunications Link is the simplest of fibre optic systems. It consists basically of a

transmitter, a fibre link and a receiver. The transmitter will normally be equipped with a
laser diode, usually with an output wavelength of 1300 nm or 1500 nm. The fibre link will
be made of single lengths of Single Mode optical fibre of length 2 km fusion spliced
together. The link will be able to carry thousands of telephone conversations
"simultaneously" by means of TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING.

Figure 26 Telecommunications Link

Fibre Optic Sensors

Microbending Sensor

A Microbending Sensor consists of two plates between which passes an optical fibre. The
plates have parallel grooves on their facing surfaces and the grooves from the two plates
interleave with each other. This means that the high point between two grooves on, say,
the upper plate lies above a groove on the lower plate. The fibre passing between the
plates is therefore bent alternatively up and down.

When a fibre is bent sufficiently the light in the core no longer meets the cladding at an
angle equal to or greater than the critical angle. TIR, therefore, does not occur. This
means that light escapes into the cladding and doesn't reach the end of the fibre This is
called "microbending loss". The more the plates press the more loss occurs. A detector at
the end of the fibre can thus measure how much pressure is on the pIates This has a
military application in submarine detection.

Fibre Optic Gyroscope

The fibre optic gyroscope consists of a long length of fibre wound into a coil. Laser light is
sent into both ends of the fibre using a beam splitter which reflects 50% of the light and
transmits 50%. Light travelling round the coil clockwise emerges from the end of the fibre
with the same phase as the light travelling in the anticlockwise direction. This is because
both have travelled exactly the same distance.

Fibre Optic Gyroscope

If the gyroscope is now rotated, say, in the clockwise direction, then the light travelling
round the fibre coil in the clockwise direction will take longer to reach the end of the fibre
because the end is always moving away from the light. Likewise light travelling in the
anticlockwise direction will take less time to reach the other end because that end is
moving towards the light. This introduces a phase difference between the two emerging
beams of light which is proportional to the rate of rotation of the gyroscope.

Evanescent Wave Sensor

Theory

The model of light travelling through glass in the form of millions of infinitesimally thin rays
works very well as a way of explaining Total Internal Reflection (TIR). As you might
expect, however, it is not the whole picture.

Light is, in fact, a wave motion. This means that it propagates through space, through
glass, through any transparent medium, in the form of electromagnetic waves which, like
all wave motions, tend to spread out as they travel.

Because of this characteristic of light waves we have to look at TIR at a boundary in a

little more detail. Some of the energy of the light waves in the core of the fibre does
actually penetrate into the cladding for a very short distance. We can think of it as
escaping from the core then immediately coming back in again. This thin penetration of
light energy into the cladding is called the Evanescent Wave.

In a single mode fibre in particular there is always a layer" of light energy surrounding the
core whenever light is travelling along the fibre. The energy flow of this evanescent wave
is parallel to the surface of the core and in the same direction as the main flow of energy
within the core.

Distribution of Energy for a Guided Wave

Single mode fibres, in particular, not only have to have a core made from low absoprtion
glass, but also the cladding has to be made of low absorption glass because the
evanescent wave carries a significant proportion of the guided energy. If a lot of this
evanescent energy is absorbed by the cladding then energy will be drawn out of the core
to replace it.

Application to Sensors

In a fibre what is a disadvantage can be used to our advantage in a sensor. We can

design a sensor where energy is absorbed from the evanescent wave in the presence of
certain chemicals. When the chemicals are not present then the evanescent energy is not
absorbed.
Evanescent Wave Chemical Sensor

In the detector cell shown in the above diagram, a liquid can be poured in to surround the
fibre. The fibre is not a standard communications fibre with a core and a cladding. It has
been manufactured without a cladding. Thus the sample poured in is in direct contact with
the evanescent wave. Any materials which absorb the particular wavelength of light being
carried by the fibre will take energy out of the evanescent wave. This in turn drains energy
from the interior of the fibre and the output at the detector is reduced.

Blood Components Meter

By choosing the correct wavelength we can quickly measure the concentrations of

specific components of blood such as total protein, cholesterol, urea, and uric acid. When
the concentration is high the output at the detector is less and vice versa

The concentrations of these chemicals are important to doctors in the diagnosis and
monitoring of certain disease conditions. Fibre optic sensors can give very results quickly
without the need to send samples away to an analytical laboratory.

Other Materials

A sensor like this can be used to analyse many other liquids including gases.