BASIC

CHEMISTRY
Prepared by:

CARLOS C. SISON, DEM, PECE
CHEMISTRY
Is a branch of science that focuses on the structure,
composition, and properties & reaction of matter

The science that deals with the materials of the universe
and the changes that these materials undergo.

Not only concern with the composition and changes in
composition of matter, but also with the energy & energy
changes associated with matter.



Why do we have to study chemistry?


Whats the relevance with food science?

The branches of Chemistry
1. Inorganic Chemistry
It deals with all elements but carbon, as well as with some carbon
compounds derived mainly from mineral sources.
2. Organic chemistry
Concern with compounds containing the element carbon derived
from living organisms.
Why does soda fizz when
you open the bottle?
MATTER
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass (i.e. anything
that has density). It commonly exists in three phases: solid, liquid, and
gas.

Solid composed of particles that are lightly packed and have a regular
arrangement. It has definite shape and volume.
Liquid composed of particles whose arrangement and packing are
somewhat between those in solid and gas. It has definite volume but
has no specific shape (it takes the shape of its container).
Gas composed of particles with no regular arrangement and no
appreciable packing. It has no definite shape or volume.


Matter
Solid
Liquid
Gas
comes in 3 phases
Solid
Definite Shape
Definite Volume
Liquid
Indefinite Shape
takes the shape of
the container
Definite Volume
Gas
Indefinite Shape
takes the shape of
the container
Indefinite Volume
can expand and be
compressed
Matter
Pure substances
(homogenous composi-
tion)
Mixture of two or
more substances
Elements Compounds
Solutions
(homogenous
composition-one
phase)
Heterogenous
Mixture (two or
More phases)
Classification of Matter
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Pure Substance is any variety of matter that is homogeneous and with
constant composition by mass. It can be classified into two: element and
compound.
Element is the simplest form of matter since it contains only one kind of atom.
Elements are defined by the number of protons they possess.
Compounds contains two or more elements that are chemically combined in a
definite proportion by mass to form a new substance. Can be classified into bases,
acids, and salts.

Mixtures composed of two or more distinct substances, which can be
separated by physical means. It can be classified into two: homogeneous
and heterogeneous.
Homogeneous has a uniform composition throughout. Its components cannot be
distinguished from one another since the whole mixture has only one phase.
Heterogeneous one with two or more distinct phases. Can be classified further into
suspensions, colloids, and course mixtures.
Mixture:
Something that has variable composition.
Mixtures can be separated into pure substances: elements and/or
compounds.
Mixtures can be classified as either homogeneous (ex: salt solution) or
heterogeneous.

The development of Atomic Theory
Democritus (470-380 BC)
atomos: indivisible; the smallest bit of matter that cannot be divided further
Aristotle (384-322 BC) & others
no matter how small the portion of matter, it remains uniform in composition.
John Dalton (1766-1844)
J. Jakob Berzelius (1779-1848)
Substances always combine in fixed proportions

J.J. Thomson (1890s)
The atoms of any element can be made to emit tiny negative particles,
called electrons.

Ernest Rutherford

Nuclear atoman atom with a dense center of positive charge (the
nucleus) around which tiny electrons moved in a space that was
otherwise empty.

Basic Vocabulary
Matter: Anything that has mass and volume

Mass: Amount of matter in an object

Weight: Measure of the force of attraction between objects due to mass and gravity

Volume: Amount of space an object takes up

Density: Measurement of how much mass is contained in a given volume

Protons- particles in the nucleus with positive charge

Electrons- particles orbiting around nucleus with negative charge

Neutrons- particles in the nucleus with no charge

Basic Vocabulary
Mixtures: Matter that consists of two or more substances mixed but not
chemically combined

Solutions: Homogeneous Mixture in which one substance is dissolved into
another

Solute = Substance that gets dissolved (Ex. Kool-Aid powder)
Solvent = Substance that does the dissolving (Ex. Water)

Acid: Compound with a pH below 7 that tastes sour and is a proton donor.
Ex. Citrus foods

Base: Compound with a pH above 7 that tastes bitter and is a proton
acceptor.
Ex. Cleaning Products (soap)

Density is a property of
matter representing the
mass per unit volume.
For equal volumes, denser
object has larger mass.
For equal masses, denser
object has small volume.
Density : solids > liquids >>>
gases
In a heterogeneous mixture,
denser object sinks.
All Matter in universe is composed of Atoms.
Atoms are mostly empty space.

Atoms have Electrons which are very small and are negatively charged and have a
negligible mass (mass = 0).

Electrons move in orbits around the center of the atom - in relatively distinct areas
called Energy Levels (i.e. Orbits or shells).

The farther from the center an electron is the more energy it has.
Electrons (& therefor atoms, can gain and lose energy) and do this by moving
between energy levels.

Atoms have a Nucleus which contain Protons & Neutrons.
Protons are Positively Charged and have a mass =1
The number of protons in an atoms nucleus determines what element it is.
Neutrons have no charge and are therefor called Neutral and have a mass = 1.

Sub-Atomic Particles
Part of Atom Charge Location Mass/Size
Electron - negative outside
nucleus
.0006 amu
(too little to
count)
Proton + positive inside nucleus

1 amu
Neutron no charge inside nucleus 1 amu
Atomic building blocks
Name Symbol Charge Mass
Electron e -1.6022 x 10
-19
C 9.1094 x 10
-31
kg
(J.J. Thompson, 1897)
Proton p +1.6022 x 10
-19
C 1.6726 x 10
-27
kg
(E. Rutherford, 1920)
Neutron n 0 1.6749 x 10
-27
kg
(James Chadwick, 1932)
Periodic Table
An arrangement of elements according to increasing atomic
number (Z) which shows the periodic or regularly repeating
nature of elemental properties.

Rows = periods = number of shells

Columns = groups or families = number of valence electrons

Main group (A), Transition Metals, Lanthanides and
Actinides
Types of Elements
The elements can be categorized as:

Metals
The leftmost elements of the periodic table
Roughly 70% of all of the elements

Nonmetals
The rightmost elements of the periodic table

Semimetals (Metalloids)
The elements between the metals and nonmetals
Properties are not quite metal or non-metal


Periodic Table
Examples of Elements
H = Hydrogen
C = Carbon
O = Oxygen
N = Nitrogen
S = Sulfur
Na = Sodium
Ca = Calcium
K = Potassium
I = Iodine
Cl = Chlorine
P = Phosphorus
Using the Periodic Table
Atomic Number
Equal to # protons = # electrons
Periodic Table is arranged by this number


Symbol
Shorthand for the element Note 2
nd
letter is
always lowercase


Atomic Mass Number
Total AVERAGE mass of Protons + Neutrons +
Electrons

17
Cl
35.5
Atomic Structure
17
Cl
35.5
Total Mass of Nucleus
36 - 17 = 18 neutrons
Element Name
Chlorine
Total # of protons and electrons (in a neutral atom)
17 protons in nucleus
17 electrons orbiting nucleus
Notice: electrons follow energy level rules

(Round Atomic Mass)
Electron Energy Levels
Electrons are arranged in Shells around nucleus in
predictable locations
Fill seats closest to nucleus first
Seats available

Shell #1 2 electrons
Shell #2 8 electrons
Shell #3 8 electrons
Shell #4 18 electrons
Shell #5 32 electrons
Shell #6 50 electrons

Ex. Carbon has 6 total electrons so
Two electrons on first energy level
Four electrons on second energy level

Question: Could we fit more electrons on the second energy level if there were more electrons in carbon??
Valence Electrons
An electron on the outermost energy shell of an atom.
Important to understand because this is a key factor in how atoms will
BOND with each other.
Octet rule stable atom will have 8 electrons in that outer shell.
Electron negativity the ability of the electrons to draw each other
together (i.e. left-to-right electron negativity increases because proton
all increases).
Practice Valence # of

19
Potassium?

10
Neon?

7
Nitrogen?

8
Oxygen?


More Practice ! ! !
Determine the name, number of protons, neutrons and
electrons for each element shown and draw

15
P
31
8
O
16
26
Fe
56
Interactions of Matter

Atoms interact through the process of Chemical Bonding.

Process is determined by the number of electrons found
in the outermost energy level of an atom.

Involves the transfer & sharing of electrons between
atoms.

Chemical Bonds
When a Chemical Reaction occurs atoms gain, lose or share electron.

Atoms always want to have their outer energy level full of electrons.

When an atom has a different number of protons & electrons it is called an
Ion.

If an ion has more protons than electrons - it is Positively Charged
If an atom has more electrons than protons it is Negatively Charged.
Atoms of opposite charge are attracted to each other.

There are three types of chemical bonds. Ionic bonds, Covalent Bonds, &
Metallic Bonds.

Predicting Bonds
Ionic Bond = it involves metals and non-metals
Covalent bond = it involves two non-metals
Metallic bond = it involves two metals

Do you understand why? HINT: the numbers at the top of the table indicate the # of valence electrons for each column
Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic- Two elements bond by transferring electrons to create ions that attract together (+ is
attracted to - after an electron is transferred). When there is giving away or sharing of electrons.



Covalent- Two elements bond by sharing electrons (strongest bond type). When electrons are
being shared.



Metallic- Two metals bond and form a common electron cloud. This is a cluster of shared
electrons (weakest bond type). Valence electrons are not owned, they only move around.
Chemical Reactions
Chemical Reaction - a chemical reaction occurs
whenever a chemical bond is formed or broken.
Two (2) types (sometimes 3) of chemical reactants:
Reactants - substances existing before the reaction
Products - substances existing after the reaction
Catalysts - substances which speed up the rate of a
reaction
Chemical Equations are a shorthand way of showing
chemical reactions.
Separates products and reactants.
Usually follow flow of energy.

Chemical Reaction Basics
H2 + O2 --> H
2
O
Reactants - substance that enters into a reaction

Products - substance that is produced by a chemical reaction
Reactants Products
Types of Reactions
Romance Chemistry :)
Synthesis - Marriage/Dating
A + B = AB
Decomposition - Divorce/Breakup
AB = A + B
Single-Replacement - Dance Cut In
A + BC = AC + B
Double-Replacement - Dancing couples switch partners.
AB + CD = AC + BD
Cartoon Chemistry
This is an example of synthesis
Cartoon Chemistry
This is an example of a decomposition
Cartoon Chemistry
This is an example of a single replacement
Cartoon Chemistry
This is an example of a double replacement
Structural and Chemical Formulas
Chemical formulas show the number of and types of atoms in
a molecule.
Structural Formulas are used to graphically represent a
chemical formula.
Useful in visualizing how chemicals react and form new ones.
When drawing them use the following rules:
The Periodic table abbreviation is used to represent the
atoms.
A single straight line (---) represents a single bond
Two parallel straight lines (==) represent double bonds

Example Formulas
Chemical Name Chemical Formula Structural Formula
Water H
2
O
Carbon Dioxide CO
2

Methane CH
4

Glucose C
6
H
12
O
6

Compounds
Compounds are made of 2 or more different atoms combined
to form Molecules.
H + O H
2
O =
H
O
H
Chemical formula lists the number
of different atoms in a single
molecule
Structural formula shows the
arrangement of the atoms in a
single molecule
Molecules
Glucose Sugar
C
6
H
12
O
6
Chemical formula
C
H
O H
C C
C
C C
H
H
H
H
H
H
O H
O
O H
H O
O H
Structural formula
Compounds
Inorganic Compounds
or
Organic Compounds
Usually dont contain Carbon
Generally come from the earth
Generally simple molecules
Always contain C & H and usually O, N,
sometimes S & P
Originate in organisms
Generally complex molecules
Examples of Inorganic Compounds
H + O = H
2
O = Water
H + Cl = HCl = Hydrochloric Acid
C + O = CO
2
= Carbon Dioxide
Na + Cl = NaCl = Common Table Salt
Examples of Organic Compounds
C, H + O
Carbohydrates = Sugars,
starches & cellulose
C, H + O Lipids = Fats & Oils
C, H, O, N, &
sometimes P + S
Proteins
C, H, O, N, + P
Nucleic Acids DNA & RNA
Isotopes
An isotope is a variation of an element with the same
number of protons and electrons (same atomic number)
but can have different number of neutrons (different
mass numbers).

Isotopes
Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes whose nuclei
spontaneously break apart.
The half-life of a particular radioisotope is constant.
They are used in radiometric dating and as
radioactive tracers.
E.g., Pygmy Woolly Mammoth
(1800 years old)
Radioisotopes
Name,
Symbol
Atomic #
(Z)
Mass #
(A)
Protons Neutrons Relative
Abundance
Structural
stability
Carbon-12
Carbon-13
Carbon-14
6
6
6

12
13
14
6
6
6
6
7
8
98.9%
1.1%
Trace
Stable
Stable
Radioactive
Hydrogen-1
Hydrogen-2
Hydrogen-3
1
1
1
1
2
3
1
1
1
0
1
2
99.8%
0.2%
Trace
Stable
Stable
radioactive
Characteristics of Radioisotopes
Half-life: the time it takes for one half of the nuclei in a radioactive
sample to decay.

Radiometric Dating: measure the ratio between levels of stable and
radioactive isotopes to determine time elapsed.

Radioactive Tracers: radioisotopes used to follow chemicals through
chemical reactions and trace their path as they move through the cells
and bodies of organisms.
Ions
An Ion is an atom or molecules, which has lost or gained one or more electrons,
making it positively or negatively charged.

Ions that have lost electrons are called Cations. Positively charged ion.

Ions that have gained extra electrons are called Anions. Negatively charged ion.

Ionic compounds have both cations and anions (so that their net charge is zero).

Change in electrons which gives an atom a charge (+ or -).

You can only add or subtract electrons! (protons dont change).
Ions (cont.)
Ions have electric charge:
+ when 1 or more electrons are lost
- when 1 or more electrons are gained
When an atom/molecule is an ion, its charge must be specified:
Sodium Ion: Na
+
Chloride Ion: Cl
-
Hydroxide Ion: OH
-

Notes on Electric Charge:
Opposite charges attract

Like charges repel
+ -
+ +
- -
Ionic Charges & the Periodic Table
Group 1 metals form 1+ cations (Na
+
sodium ion)
Group 2 metals form 2+ cations (Ca
2+
calcium ion)
Group 13 metals form 3+ cations (Al
3+
aluminum ion)
All other metals (i.e. the transitional metals, Pb, etc.) form more than one type of
cation
Roman numerals must be used to indicate the charge of the cation
Example:
Fe
3+
is called iron(III)
FeCl
3
is called iron(III) chloride
Exceptions:
Ag
+
, Cd
2+
& Zn
2+
Group 15 nonmetals form 3- anions (N
3-
nitride ion)
Group 16 nonmetals form 2- anions (O
2-
oxide ion)
Group 17 nonmetals form 1- anions (Cl
-
chloride ion)
Group 18 nonmetals do not form ions
Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation numbers are assigned to each element

They represent a predicted charge of an atom/ion when it bonds with
another element.
(tells us if the atom would prefer give or take electrons, and how many).

They help us to predict what compounds will form when two elements get
together.

Oxidation numbers are labeled like this:
Na
1+

O
2-

How to Use Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation Number indicates the number of electrons lost, gained or
shared when bonding with other atoms.

Ex. Na wants to lose an electron. If an electron is lost, it becomes a +1
charge

So: oxidation number for Na = 1+


Ex. Cl wants to gain an electron. If an electron is gained, it becomes a -
1 charge

So: oxidation number for Cl = 1-


Label the oxidation numbers on your periodic table at the top of each column as shown here: Each
column going down the periodic table has elements with the same oxidation number.

1+ 2+ 3+ 4(+/-) 3- 2- 1- 0
Rules for using Oxidation numbers to create compounds
1. Positive ions can only bond with negative ions and vice versa.

2. The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in a compound must
be zero (the key is to stay balanced).

3. If the oxidation numbers are not equal to zero, then you must add
additional elements until they balance at zero.

4. When writing a formula, the symbol of the positive (+) element is
followed by the symbol of the negative (-) element.


Examples of Forming Compounds
Write the symbols of the component elements A and B with their charges
(superscripts) x+ and y-, respectively. Write the positive ion first and the negative
ion last.

Crisscross the superscripts and write them as subscripts. Disregard the signs of
the charges when thy become subscripts.

Ex. Na
1+
+ Cl
1-
= NaCl

Ex. H
1+
+ O
2-
= H
2
O

Ex. Al
3+
+ S
2-
= Al
2
S
3


Balancing Equations
Rules:

We can not add or subtract subscripts from either side of the equation.
We can only add coefficients to the front of each compound.

Ex. 2H2 + O2 --> 2H2O
H = 4 H = 4
O=2 O = 2

Before must match After

Chemical vs. Physical Change
Physical Properties are properties which can be measured without changing the
identity and composition of a substance. (i.e. color, odor, density, boiling point,
melting point, polarity, solubility, opacity, viscosity, etc.)

Physical Change - a change that can occur without changing the identity of the
substance (changes that do not result in the production of new substance).

Ex. Melting, freezing, condensing, breaking, cutting, crushing, bending, etc.

Chemical Properties are properties that lead to changes in the identity and
composition of a substance. (i.e. combustibility, reaction with water, pH, etc.)

Chemical Change - process by which a substance becomes a new and different
substance (changes that result in the production of another substance)

Ex. Burning, rusting, decomposition, digestion, respiration, photosynthesis etc.

Acids and Bases
Solutions can be acidic or basic.

Acids and Bases have unique properties when dissolved in water.

Acids = sour taste
Bases = bitter taste

Indicators are substances that change color when mixed with a solution, which
helps to determine if a substance is an acid or a base (i.e. pH paper, Litmus paper,
cabbage juice).
Acids
Acids are substances that donate Proton (H+). Acid came from the Latin term for sour.
Acids contain hydrogen and produce positive ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
Acids = good electrolytes (are able to conduct electricity)
Acid turn blue litmus paper to red
Acids have pH between 0 and 7
Acids neutralize bases, forming salt and water

Examples of acids:
Lemon Juice
Citric Acid
Carbonic Acid
HCl

Example: Hydrochloric acid: HCl(aq) + H
2
O(l) H
3
O
+
+ Cl
-
(aq)


Bases
Bases are substances that accept protons.
Bases are substances that increases the concentration of hydroxide ions
(OH-) when mixed with water.
Bases = weak electrolytes
Bases turn red litmus paper to blue
Bases have pH between 8 and 14
Bases neutralize acids, forming salt and water

Examples of bases:
Ammonia
Soap
Bleach (chlorine)

Example: Potassium hydroxide: KOH(aq) + H
3
O
+
K
+
(aq) + H
2
O (l)



Combining Acids and Bases
Mixing acids and bases is a balancing act.







Acid + Base = neutral (water and salt)

Measuring Acids and Bases
pH scale - used to measure the acidity of a solution.
Measures the power of hydrogen.
Measure pH with indicators.
pH scale goes from 0 14

0 = very acidic
14 = very basic
7 = neutral

Acids and Bases
Conservation Laws
Conservation of Atoms
- Atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
- Atoms are conserved in chemical & physical processes.

Conservation of Electrons

Conservation of Mass
- Mass is neither created nor destroyed during physical &
chemical transformations.

The conservation of atoms, electrons, & mass is the fundamental
principle of Stochiometry.
Conservation of Energy

Energy is neither created nor destroyed in any process, although it
may be transferred from one body to another or converted from one
form into another.

Forms of Energy:

- Kinetic energy
- Potential energy
- Chemical energy
- Thermal energy
- Radiant energy

Heat & Temperature
Temperature is _____.
how hot or cold something is (a physical property)
related to the average (kinetic) energy of the substance (not the total energy)
Measured in units of
Degrees Fahrenheit (
o
F)
Degrees Celsius (
o
C)
Kelvin (K)

Heat is energy that _____.
flows from hot objects to cold objects
is absorbed/released by an object resulting in its change in temperature

Heat absorbed/released is measured by changes in temperature.

Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit Scale, F
Waters freezing point = 32F, boiling point = 212F

Celsius Scale, C
Temperature unit larger than the Fahrenheit
Waters freezing point = 0C, boiling point = 100C

Kelvin Scale, K
Temperature unit same size as Celsius
Waters freezing point = 273 K, boiling point = 373 K
Temperature of ice water and boiling water
Heat
Heat is the flow of energy due to a temperature difference.
Heat flows from higher temperature to lower temperature
Heat is transferred due to collisions between atoms/molecules of
different kinetic energy.
When produced by friction, heat is mechanical energy that is
irretrievably removed from a system.
Processes involving Heat:

1. Exothermic - a process that releases heat energy.
Example: when a match is struck, it is an exothermic process because energy is produced
as heat.
2. Endothermic a process that absorbs energy.
Example: melting ice to form liquid water is an endothermic process.
Energy in Chemical Reactions
Internal
Energy
Reactants
Products
Activation
Energy (E
A
)
Energy Released
(Q)
Exothermic Reactions
Internal
Energy
Reactants
Products
Activation
Energy (E
A
)
Energy Absorbed
(Q)
Endothermic Reactions
Energy in Reactions (cont.)
Internal Energy
2Na(s) + 2H
2
O(l)
2NaOH(aq) + H
2
(g)
Low Activation
Energy (E
A
)
Large amount of
Energy Released (Q)
Example: Sodium Water Reaction
Heat (cont.)
The heat energy absorbed by an object is proportional to:

The mass of the object (m)
The change in temperature the object undergoes (DT)
Specific heat capacity (s) (a physical property unique to
the substance)

To calculate heat (Q):
Q = s
.
m
.
DT
Specific Heat Capacity (s)
The amount of heat energy (in J or Cal) required to increase the temperature
of 1 gram of a substance by 1
o
C (or 1K)

The Units of Specific Heat Capacity:
1. J/g
o
C (SI)
2. cal/g
o
C (metric & more useful in the lab)

Specific Heat Capacity is a unique physical property of different
substances
Metals have low specific heat capacity
Non-metals have higher specific heat capacity
Water has an unusually large specific heat capacity

s = Q/(mDT)