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Abstract:
In this report we studied the basics of the GSM. In
which we went through the GSM architecture,
different interfaces used in GSM, the internal
components of GSM. Then we went through the most
important phenomenon of channel allocation and
frequency re-use, different types of interferences,
power control to minimize the effect of interferences.
Techniques for improing channel capacity are also
coered.
Submitted
by:
!li "aseer #$%&'(
!rsalan ). Tarar #$***(
Saqib !qeel #$%%+(
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Table of Contents
1-CHAPTER 1 ..................................... ...................................... 4
1.1 Te !e"innin" of #S$ ........................................................ %
1.&. T'o $ain Standards of #S$ .......................... ..................... (
1.). #S$ fre*uency bands: ....................................... ................ (
1.4 Specifications and Caracteristics for #S$: ......................... +
1.% Radio Transmission Aspects: ............................................... +
1.( !asic Arcitecture: ....................................... ...................... ,
&-CHAPTER & ..................................... ...................................... -
&.1 #S$ ARCH.TECT/RE: ........................................................ 10
&.$.$ .unctions of a Mobile Station/ ................................................................ $0
&.$.& 1ase Station System #1SS(/ ................................................................... $$
&.$.+ Mobile Switching 2enter #MS2(/ ............................................................. $$
&.$.+.$ The MS2 connects to the following elements/ ..................................... $&
&.$.3 4peration and Maintenance Subsystem #4MS(/ ..................................... $&
&.& #S$ 1ET23R4 AREAS ...................................................... 1)
&.&.$2ell/ .................................................................................................. ....... $+
&.&.& 5ocation !rea/ ........................................................................................ $3
&.&.+ MS26758 Serice !rea ............................................................................ $3
&.&.3 95M" Serice !rea/ ................................................................................ $3
)-CHAPTER ) .......................................................................... 1%
).1 CHA11E5 ASS.#1$E1T STRATE#.ES: 1 ............................ ... 1(
+.$.$ .I:;< 2=!"";5 !SSIG"M;"T/ ............................................................... $>
+.$.& 184?I"G ST8!T!G;@/ ........................................................................... $>
+.$.+ <@"!MI2 2=!"";5 !SSIG"M;"T/ ......................................................... $>
).& .1TER6ERE1CE A17 S8STE$ CAPAC.T8: 1 ........................... 1+
+.&.$ T@9;S 4. T=; I"T;8.;8;"2;/ .............................................................. $%
+.&.& 24-2=!"";5 I"T;8.;8;"2;/ ................................................................ $'
+.&.+ !<)!2;"T 2=!"";5 I"T;8.;8;"2;/ ..................................................... &0
).) $inimi9ation of Ad:acent Cannel .nterference: 1 ............... &&
+.+.$ .iltering/ .................................................................................. ............... &&
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+.+.& 2hannel !ssignment Strategy/ .............................................................. &&
4-CHAPTER 4 .......................................................................... &)
4.1 Po'er Control: 1 ............................................................ ... &4
3.$.$ 4pen loop power control/ ...................................................................... &3
3.$.& .ast closed-loop power control/ ............................................................. &3
4.& Traffic 5oad and Cell Si9e:) ............................................... &4
3.&.$ 2ell splitting/ $ ....................................................................................... &B
3.&.& Sectoring/ $ ........................................................................................ .... &%
.............................................................................. .............. &-
%.0 References: .............................................................. ........ )0
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1-CHAPTER 1
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1.1 Te !e"innin" of #S$
1980: In the early 1980s, as business was becoming increasingly international, the
communications industry focused exclusively on local cellular solutions, with very
few compatible systems. Nevertheless, it was clear there would be anes collating
demand for a technology that facilitated flexible and reliable mobile
communications. he problem was lac! of capacity. "y the early 1990s, it was clear
that analog technology would not be able to !eep up with demand. #$% is
worldwide standard that allows users of different operators to connect and to
shares the services simultaneously. #$% has been the bac!bone of the phenomenal
success in mobile telecommunication over the last decade. Now, at the dawn of the
era of true broadband services, #$% continues to evolve to meet new demands.
&ne of #$%'s great strengths is its international roaming capability, giving
consumers a seamless service in about 1(0 countries. his has been a vital driver in
growth, with around )00 million #$% subscribers currently in *urope and +sia. In
the +mericas, today's , million subscribers are set to grow rapidly, with mar!et
potential of -00 million in population, due to the introduction of #$% 800, which
allows operators using the 800 %./ band to have access to #$% technology too.
he *uropeans reali/ed this early on, and in 1980 the 1onference of *uropean 2osts
and elegraphs 31*24 formed a study group called the #roup $pecial %obile
3#$%4 to study and develop a pan5*uropean public land mobile system.
he proposed system had to meet certain criteria6
1. good sub7ective speech 8uality,
0. low terminal and service cost,
). support for international roaming,
9. ability to support handheld terminals,
-. support for range of new services and facilities
(. spectral efficiency
,. I$:N compatibility
#$% is a standard for a #lobal $ystem for %obile communications. #lobal $ystem
for %obile communications, a mobile phone system based on multiple radio cells
3cellular mobile phone networ!4. It has been agreed upon and is completed by
*$I, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute.
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1.&. T'o $ain Standards of #S$
wo main standards are followed6
1. #$% 900 3global system for mobile communications in the 900 %./ band4
0. :1$ 1800 3digital cellular system for the 1800 %./ band4
1.). #S$ fre*uency bands:
Figure 1.3a: #$% ;re8uency "ands
2ictorial representation of the uplin! and downlin! fre8uencies is given as
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F
igu
re
1.3b: 2ictorial <epresentation
1.4 Specifications and Caracteristics for #S$:
= Frequency band>the fre8uency range specified for #$% is 1,8-0 to 1,990 %./
3mobile station to base station4.
= Duplex distance>the duplex distance is 80 %./ :uplex distance is the distance
between the uplin! and downlin! fre8uencies. + channel has two fre8uencies, 80
%./ apart.
= Channel separation>the separation between ad7acent carrier fre8uencies. In #$%,
this is 000 !./.
= Modulation>%odulation is the process of sending a signal by changing the
characteristics of a carrier fre8uency. his is done in #$% via #aussian minimum
shift !eying 3#%$?4.
= Transmission rate>#$% is a digital system with an over5the5air bit rate of 0,0
!bps.
= Access method>#$% utili/es the time division multiple access 3:%+4 concept.
:%+ is a techni8ue in which several different calls may share the same carrier.
*ach call is assigned a particular time slot.
= Speech coder>#$% uses linear predictive coding 3@214. he purpose of @21 is to
reduce the bit rate. he @21 provides parameters for a filter that mimics the vocal
tract. he signal passes through this filter, leaving behind a residual signal. $peech
is encoded at 1) !bps.
1.% Radio Transmission Aspects:
;or the #$%5900 system, two fre8uency bands have been made available6
1. 890 5 91- %./ for the uplin! 3direction %$ to "$4
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0. 9)- 5 9(0 %./ for the downlin! 3direction "$ to %$4.
he 0- %./ bands are then divided into 109 pairs of fre8uency duplex channels
with 000 !./ carrier spacing using ;re8uency :ivision %ultiple +ccess 3;:%+4.
$ince it is not possible for a same cell to use two ad7acent channels, the channel
spacing can be said to be 000 !./ interleaved. &ne or more carrier fre8uencies are
assigned to individual "ase $tation 3"$4 and a techni8ue !nown as ime :ivision
%ultiple +ccess 3:%+4 is used to split this 000 !./ radio channel into 8 time slots
3which creates 8 logical channels4. + logical channel is therefore defined by its
fre8uency and the :%+ frame time slot number. "y employing
eight time slots, each channel transmits the digiti/ed speech in a series of short
bursts6 a #$% terminal is only ever transmitting for one eighth of the time.
1.( !asic Arcitecture:
+ #$% system is basically designed as a combination of four ma7or subsystems6
1. <adio subsystem 3<$$4
0. Networ! 3switching4 subsystem 3$$$4
). &peration and maintenance subsystem 3&%$4
Figure 1.6: %ain 1omponents of #$% Networ!
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&.1 #S$ ARCH.TECT/RE:
Figure 7.0.1: #$% +rchitecture
&.1.1 6unctions of a $obile Station:
he %obile $tation 3%$4 performs the following6
#lobal $ystem for %obile 1ommunication 3#$%4
1. <adio transmission termination
0. <adio channel management
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). $peech encodingAdecoding
9. <adio lin! error protection
-. ;low control of data
(. %obility management
%. 2erformance measurements of radio lin!
The MS has two very important entities ea!h with its own i"entity:
1. $ubscriber Identity %odule 3$I%4
0. %obile e8uipment
&.1.& !ase Station System ;!SS<:
In #SM, the "ase $tation $ystem is a term given to a $S% 3"ase $tation 1ontroller4
and the $TS 3"ase ransceiver $tation4 associated with it. he number of "$
associated with a "$1 is dependent on the manufacturer. +lthough not mandatory,
through interpretation of the &bis interface standard "$ and "$1 employed
within a "$$ will always be supplied by the same manufacturer.
he base station subsystem 3"$$4 is the section of a traditional cellular telephone
networ! which is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile
phone and the networ! switching subsystem. he "$$ carries out transcoding of
speech channels, allocation of radio channels to mobile phones, paging, 8uality
management of transmission and reception over the air interface and many other
tas!s related to the radio networ!
Figure '.1.': "$$ $tructure
&.1.) $obile S'itcin" Center ;$SC<:
+n %$1 is the point of connection to the networ! for mobile subscribers of a
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wireless telephone networ!. It connects to the subscribers through base stations
and radio transmission e8uipment that control the air interface, and to the networ!
of other %$1s and wireless infrastructure through voice trun!s and $$,. +n %$1
includes the procedures for mobile registration and is generally co5sited with a
visitor location register 3B@<4 that is used to temporarily store information relating
to the mobile subscribers temporarily connected to that %$1. he %$1 performs
the telephony switching functions of the system.
&.1.).1 Te $SC connects to te follo'in" elements:
= he home location register 3.@<4 for obtaining data about the $I% and mobile
services I$:N number 3%$I$:NC i.e., the telephone number4.
= he D%$ terrestrial radio access networ! 3D<+N4 which handles the radio
communication with )# mobile phones.
= he visitor location register 3B@<4 for determining where other mobile subscribers
are located.
= &ther %$1s for procedures such as handover.
&.1.4 3peration and $aintenance Subsystem ;3$S<:
he &perations and %aintenance 1enter 3&%14 is the centrali/ed maintenance
and diagnostic heart of the "ase $tation $ystem 3"$$4. It allows the networ!
provider to operate, administer, and monitor the functioning of the "$$. +n &%$
consists of one or more &peration E %aintenance 1entre 3&%14. he operations
and maintenance center 3&%14 is connected to all e8uipment in the switching
system and to the "$1. he implementation of &%1 is called the operation and
support system 3&$$4. he &$$ is the functional entity from which the networ!
operator monitors and controls the system. he purpose of &$$ is to offer the
customer cost5effective support for centrali/ed, regional and local operational and
maintenance activities that are re8uired for a #$% networ!. +n important function
of &$$ is to provide a networ! overview and support the maintenance activities of
different operation and maintenance organi/ations.
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Figure '.1.(: &+%
&.& #S$ 1ET23R4 AREAS
he #$% networ! is made up of geographic areas. +s shown in ;igure, these
areas include cells, location areas 3@+s4, %$1AB@< service areas, and public
land mobile networ! 32@%N4 areas.
Figure '.': #$% N*F&<? +<*+$
&.&.1Cell:
1ell is the basic service area. he cell is the area given radio coverage by one
base transceiver station. he #$% networ! identifies each cell via the cell global
identity 31#I4 number assigned to each cell.
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&.&.& 5ocation Area:
he location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber is
paged. *ach @+ is served by one or more base station controllers, yet only by a
single %$1. *ach @+ is assigned a location area identity 3@+I4 number.
Figure '.'.': @ocation +rea
&.&.) $SC=>5R Ser?ice Area
+n %$1AB@< service area represents the part of the #$% networ! that is
covered by one %$1 and which is reachable, as it is registered in the B@< of the
%$1 3see figure below4
Figure '.'.3: %$1AB@< $ervice +rea
&.&.4 P5$1 Ser?ice Area:
he area covered by one networ! operator is called 2@%N. + 2@%N can contain
one or more %$1s.
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).1 CHA11E5 ASS.#1$E1T STRATE#.ES:
1
;or the efficient utili/ation of the radio spectrum a fre8uency reuse scheme that is
consistent with the ob7ectives of increasing and minimi/ing interference is
re8uired. + variety of channel assignment strategies have been deployed. 1hannel
assignment strategies can be classified into two categories
1. ;ixed channel assignment
0. :ynamic channel assignment
he choice of the channel assignment strategy impacts the performance of the
system.
).1.1 6.@E7 CHA11E5 ASS.#1$E1T:
In a fixed channel assignment, each cell is allocated a predetermined set of a voice
channels. +ny call attempt within the cell only is served by the unused channels in
that particular cell. If all the channels in that cell are occupied, the call is bloc!ed
and the subscriber doesnGt receive service. $everal variations of the fixed
assignment strategy exist.
).1.& !R32.1# STRATA#E8:
In this strategy a cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighboring cell if all of
its own channels are already occupied. he %$1 supervises such borrowing
strategy.
).1.) 781A$.C CHA11E5 ASS.#1$E1T:
In a dynamic channel assignment strategy voice channels are not allowed to
different cells permanently. Instead each time a call re8uest is made, the serving
base station re8uests a channel from the %$1. he switch then allocates a channel
to re8uested cell following an algorithm that ta!es into account the bloc!ing within
the cell, the fre8uency of the use of the candidate channel, the reuse distance of the
channel and the other cost functions.
+ccordingly the %$1 only allocates a given fre8uency if that fre8uency is not
presently in use in the cell or any other cell which falls within the minimum
restricted distance of the fre8uency reuse to avoid co5channels interference.
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:ynamic channel assignment reduces the bloc!ing, which increases the truc!ing
capacity of the system, since all the available channels in the mar!et are accessible
to all the cells. :ynamic channel assignment re8uires %$1 to collect real5time5data
on the channel occupancy, traffic distribution and radio signal strength indications
of all the channels on a continuous basis.
).& .1TER6ERE1CE A17 S8STE$ CAPAC.T8:
1
Interference is the ma7or limiting factor in the performance of the cellular radio
systems. $ources of the interference include the following cases
1. Include another mobile in the same cell
0. + call in progress in the neighboring cell
). &ther base stations operating in the same fre8uency band
9. +ny noncellular system which inadvertently lea!s energy into cellular
fre8uency band
Interference on the voice channels causes crosstal!, where the subscriber hears
interference in the bac!ground due to an undesired transmission. &n control
channels, interference leads to missed and bloc!ed calls due to errors in the digital
signaling. Interference is more severe in urban areas due to the greater <; noise
floor and the large number of base stations and the mobiles. Interference has been
recogni/ed as a ma7or bottlenec! in increasing capacity.
).&.1 T8PES 36 THE .1TER6ERE1CE:
he two ma7or types of system5generated cellular interference are as follows
1. 1o5channel interference
0. +d7acent channel interference
Interfering signals are often generated within the cellular systemC they are difficult
to control in practice. *ven more difficult to control is interference due to out of
band users, which arises without warning due to the front5end overload of the
subscriber e8uipment. In practice the transmitters from the competing cellular
carriers are often a significant source of out of band interference, since competitors
often locate their base stations in close proximity to one another in order to provide
comparable coverage to the customers.
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).&.& C3-CHA11E5 .1TER6ERE1CE:
;re8uency reuse implies that a given coverage area there are several cells that use
the same set of fre8uencies. hese cells are called co5channel cells and the
interference between the signals from these cells is called co5channel interference.
Note: unlike the thermal noise which can be oercome by increasin! the si!nal"to"
noise ratio
1o5channel interference cannot be combated by simply increasing the carrier
power of transmitter. his is because an increase in carrier transmitter power
increases the interference to neighboring co5channel cells. o reduce co5channel
interference co5channel cells must be physically separated by a minimum distance
to provide sufficient isolation due to propagation.
Fhen the si/e of the cell is approximately the same and the base station transmit
the same power the co5channel interference ratio is independent of the transmitted
power and becomes a function of radius of cell and the distance between the
centers of the nearest co5channel cells. "y increasing the ratio of :A< the spatial
separation between co5channel cells relative to the coverage distance of the cell is
increased. hus the interference is reduced from the improved isolation of the <;
energy from the co5channel cell. he parameter H called the co5channel reuse ratio
is related to the cluster si/e. ;or a hexagonal geometry.
+ small value of H provides larger capacity since the cluster si/e N is small,
whereas a larger value of H improves the transmission 8uality due to the smaller
level of co5channel interference. + trade5off must be made between these two
ob7ectives in actual cellular design.
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@et Io be the number of the co5channel interfering cells. hen the signal5to5
interference ratio from a mobile receiver which monitors a forward channel can be
expressed as
Fhere $ is the desired signal power from the desired base station and I is the
interference power caused by the ith interfering co5channel cell base station. if the
signal levels of the co5channel cells are !nown then the $AI ratio for the forward
lin! can be found using above e8uation
2ropagation measurements in a mobile radio channel show that the average
received signal strength at any point decays as a power law of distance of
separation between a transmitter and the receiver. he average received power at a
distance d is give as
Fhere 20 is the power received at a close in reference point in the far field region
of the antenna at a small distance from transmitting antenna and n is the path loss
exponent.
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Fhen the transmitted power of each base station is e8ual and the path loss
exponent is the same throughout the coverage area $AI for a mobile can be as.
Figure 3.'.': Illustration of the first tier of co5channel cells for a cluster si/e of NI,
).&.) A7AACE1T CHA11E5 .1TER6ERE1CE:
Interference resulting from the signals which are ad7acent in fre8uency to the
desired signal is called ad7acent channel interference. +d7acent channel interference
results from the imperfect receiver filters which allow nearby fre8uencies to lea!
into the pass band. he problem can be particularly serious if an ad7acent channel
user is very close to a subscriberGs receiver. Fhile the receiver attempts to receive a
base station on the desired channel. his is referred as near5far5effect, where a
nearby transmitter captures the receiver of the subscriber. +lternatively the near far
effect occurs when a mobile close to a base station transmits on a channel close to
one being used by a wea! mobile.
+d7acent channel interference can be minimi/ed through careful filtering and
channel assignments. $ince each cell is given only a fraction of the available
channels, a cell need not be assigned channels which are all ad7acent in fre8uency.
"y !eeping the fre8uency separation between each channel in a given cell as large
as possible, the ad7acent channel interference may be reduced separately. hus
instead of assigning channels which form a contiguous band of fre8uencies within a
particular cell, many channels allocation schemes are able to separate ad7acent
channels in a cell by as many N channel bandwidths, where N is the cluster si/e.
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If the fre8uency reuse factor is large the separation between the ad7acent channels
as the base station may not be sufficient to !eep the ad7acent channel interference
level within tolerable limits. ;or example if a close in mobile is 00 times as close to
the base station as another mobile and has the energy spill out of its pass band the
$AI is wea! mobile given by
;or the path loss exponent nI9 this is e8ual to 5-0db. If the intermediate fre8uency
filter of the base station receiver has a slope of 00d"Aoctave, then an ad7acent
channel interferer must be displayed by at least six times the pass band from the
centre of the receiver fre8uency to achieve -0db attenuation.
his implies that more than six channels are needed to bring the ad7acent channel
interference to acceptable level. he below figure explains the channel allocation for
+ and " side carriers
Figure 3.'.3: 1hannel allocation for + E " side carriers
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).) $inimi9ation of Ad:acent Cannel .nterference:
1
It is very important to reduce +1I because if we do not reduce +1I, we will have to
place guard band between ad7acent channels. his will reduce the already limited
wireless bandwidth that is available. here are two ways using which we can
reduce +1I6
J ;iltering
J "etter 1hannel +ssignment $trategy
).).1 6ilterin":
Fe can reduce +1I by using better and careful filtering techni8ues with minimum
lea!age and sharp transition.
).).& Cannel Assi"nment Strate"y:

KKK
1hannels in a cell need not be ad7acent. ;or channels within a cell, !eep fre8uency
separation as large as possible. $e8uentially assign cells the successive fre8uency
channels so that ad7acent channel is not in the same cell.
+lso, secondary level of interference can be reduced by not assigning ad7acent
channels to neighboring cells.
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4-CHAPTER 4
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4.1 Po'er Control:
1
Fe can also control the power in cellular system to minimi/e interference and
improved reverse $I<.
2ower levels that are transmitted by every subscriber unit are under constant
control by the "ase $tation. "ase $tation constantly !eeps a chec! on the received
power on the reverse channel. %obile $tation should transmit minimum power to
maintain 8uality lin! on reverse channel. his has benefits of longer "attery @ife at
the %obile $tation <educed reverse $I<.
In 1:%+ systems, it is extremely important to control the power, as the
neighboring cells are using the same channel
4.1.1 3pen loop po'er control:

In open loop power control, mobile station constantly performs estimation of the
path loss on the forward channel and according to that ad7usts its output power.
It is not very accurate as in fre8uency division duplexing, uplin! and downlin!
fre8uencies are different and fast fading is uncorrelated between uplin! and
downlin!.
4.1.& 6ast closed-loop po'er control:

;ast closed5loop power control is a better techni8ue than open loop power control.
In this "ase $tation performs fre8uent estimations of the received $I< and compares
to a target $I< or a threshold and according to the results it commands the mobile
station to lower or increase its power.
he command5react cycle for changing the power is 1-00 times per second for each
mobile station 3faster than any fading mechanism4.
4.& Traffic 5oad and Cell Si9e:
)
he more traffic generated, the more base stations will be needed to service the
customers. he number of base stations for a simple cellular networ! is e8ual to the
number of cells. he traffic engineer can achieve the goal of satisfying the
increasing population of customers by increasing the number of cells in the area
concerned, so this will also increases the number of base stations. his method is
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called cell splitting 3and combined with sectori/ation4 is the only way of providing
services to a burgeoning population. his simply wor!s by dividing the cells
already present into smaller si/es hence increasing the traffic capacity. <eduction of
the cell radius enables the cell to accommodate extra traffic. he cost of e8uipment
can also be cut down by reducing the number of base stations through setting up
three neighboring cells, with the cells serving three 100L sectors with different
channel groups.
4.&.1 Cell splittin":
1
1ell splitting consists of decreasing the radii of existing cells and adding new ones.
1ell splitting has been one of the principal means by which cellular telephone
operators increased the capacity of their networ!s, and it will also be a standard
tactic for broadband wireless operators, although it will be supplemented by N@&$
technologies that were not available to cellular operators during the period of
greatest growth in cellular networ!s. 1ell splitting should properly be considered a
species of cell mapping or planning and refers to a process by which the networ!
operator predetermines the minimum number of cells re8uired to provide the
desired coverage and capacity as the networ! attracts more subscribers. &ne does
not 7ust split a cell into two neat halvesC one has to construct entirely new coverage
patterns for each of the resulting base stations.
It is a fairly involved process because of the very indefiniteness of cells themselves,
a fact that may not be immediately apparent to the individual without extensive
!nowledge of <; propagation.
Fhen a diagram is made of a cellular networ!>and I use the term broadly here,
not 7ust with respect to mobile telephone networ!s>the cells are often represented
as a sort of honeycomb pattern, a hexagonal arrangement of spaces where
everything is clearly defined and fits neatly together, though occasionally a
chec!erboard pattern is substituted. "oth patterns are abstractions, and misleading
ones at that. + cell radius is always an arbitrary value. + radio signal does not
abruptly cease to propagate at so many yards from the transmitterC indeed it
continues to the very edge of the cosmos, though growing steadily wea!er over
distance. Fhat this means is that not only do ad7acent cells overlap, but that every
cell in the networ! overlaps with every other cell. 2icture the propagation of signals
as ripples or wavelets spreading over the surface of a pond. *ach pattern of ripples
travels everywhere, and each reflection begets new ripples. his being the case,
cells should be considered as concentrations of <; energy rather than as well5
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defined geographical areas. Nevertheless, subscriber units within a point5to5
multipoint networ! architecture must treat the cells as if they were well5defined
entitiesC that is, subscriber units located at the arbitrary boundary separating cells
must communicate with only one base station even though they are receiving
signals from several, albeit at reduced levels. In other words, they must loc! onto
the base station with which they are registered and re7ect interference from all
others, and for that to happen transmit power levels must be strictly controlled
throughout the networ!. his, as it happens, has important implications for cell
splitting. "ecause the average radii of all the cells in the networ! decrease with cell
splitting, so perforce does the transmit distance from the subscriber terminal to the
base station, and vice versa. +nd because of the shorter distances involved,
transmitting power must be reduced at both the base station and the subscriber
terminals to avoid interference throughout the networ!.
"ecause in a fixed broadband networ! 3excepting the mesh variety, which really
does not have cells as such4 subscriber units are normally assigned to a specific cell
3an assignment that is ultimately based on the strength of the signal in either
direction4, re5determining the optimal transmit power levels becomes extremely
important during cell splitting.
1ell splitting may also necessitate the reassignment of channels within each cell in
the networ! since the new cells will be establishing new channel relationships with
surrounding cells. +ltogether, it is not a process to be underta!en lightly and
without a thorough reexamination of the entire networ!. +s indicated earlier, it is
advisable to plot out the location and capacity of every base station hat the networ!
will ever need at the time the networ! is being launched, though that may not
always be possible, and the time may come when the networ! operator is forced to
consider unanticipated microcells to meet demand. +t that point, the networ!
operator is faced with the tas! of essentially reengineering and re5architecting the
entire networ!. &bviously, there are limits to what can be done here. ;or practical
reasons one is not going to relocate existing base stations. "ut power levels and
channel assignments will all have to be redone, and the same software tools used in
the initial planning process will have to be used all over again.
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Figure (.'.1: Illustration of 1ell $plitting
;or the new cell to be smaller in si/e, the transmit power of these cells must be
reduced. he transmit power of the new cells with radius half that of the original
cells can be found by examining the received power 2r at new and old cell
boundaries and setting them e8ual to each other. his is necessary to ensure that
the fre8uency reuse plan for the new microcells behave exactly as for the original
cells. ;or figure above6

Fhere 2t1 and 2t0 are the transmit powers of the larger and smaller cell base
stations respectively and MnG is the path loss exponent.
4.&.& Sectorin":
1
$ector /ing is using an array of highly directional antennas to direct intense radio
fre8uency 3<;4 energy into a designated area of the cell and little energy elsewhere.
he sector defined by the antenna array appears li!e a pie slice when depicted on a
diagram. $ectori/ation itself is a species of spatial diversity, of which adaptive
beam steering is another. In both cases the operator is able to define sub channels in
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,Presentation Report-
three5dimensional space rather than by fre8uency division or the use of se8uential
time slots. ;igure below shows how a directional antenna defines a sector by
sweeping a narrow arc. he figure shows a directivity polar plot for such an
antenna. $ectori/ing is somewhat a!in to cell splitting and indeed may be viewed
as a sort of poor manGs cell splitting inasmuch as it allows the operator to reuse
spectrum aggressively without installing a new base station and defining a new
cell. It is a standard tactic in the ma7ority of broadband wireless networ!s.
$ect oral antenna arrays vary according to the number of sectors they form, with
three to eight sectors being the usual range and four and six being the most
common numbers. &bviously, the more sectors, the narrower the beam width of
each antenna in the array. $ome arrays are configurable to cover the whole range
from three to eight, that is, the number of sectors that can be made to vary by
ad7ustments in the antenna itself. $ince each antenna in a sectoral array will be
provided with a separate radio, sectori/ation definitely entails higher costs for the
networ! operator. $ectors are a!in to cells in that they ordinarily permit a channel
to be reused one sector away but not in intervening sectors. his means that when
four sectors are present, the reuse factor is two, and for six the factor is three, and so
on. +s indicated earlier, advanced modulation techni8ues loosen such reuse
constraints to some extent. In very large cells, as you have seen, the narrow beams
formed by sectoral antennas spread out over distance, so actual fre8uency reuse
capabilities will be reduced at the outer periphery. Naturally the bigger the cell, the
greater the spreading and the more the sectors will overlap.
$ectoral antennas can be used in both the lower microwave and millimeter
microwave regions, though the physical form of the antenna will differ with
fre8uency, with horns and waveguides being employed at the highest fre8uencies
and arrays of spaced omnidirectional pole antennas at the lower fre8uencies.
$ectoral antennas of whatever type are considerably more expensive than the
&mnis used in F@+N applications, but, given the vastly increased spectral
efficiency that they confer upon the networ!, the cost is trifling. Indeed, using such
devices has almost no downside, though they do concentrate the radiated energy,
somewhat increasing the potential for interference outside the cell. he cure for that
is to polari/e the antennas in the hori/ontal plane so that only hori/ontally
disposed magnetic fields are propagated. he whole array is then tilted downward
so that beyond a certain distance the radiation will simply be absorbed into the
ground. he following section explains polari/ation itself.
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Figure (.'.': 3a4 100 degree sectoring, 3b4 (0 degree sectoring

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%.0 References:
16 Fireless 1ommunications by heodore <appaport
06http6AAwww.scribd.comAsearchNcxI00,890(9))80---00(-81O)+,fgc(et0hm!Ec
ofI;&<I:O)+10EieID;58EcIallEftIE8IopenPloopPpowerPcontrolQ1101
)6 http6AAen.wi!ipedia.orgAwi!iA1ellularRtrafficQrafficRloadRandRcellRsi/e
96http6AAwww.cisco.comAenAD$AdocsAiosAsolutionsRdocsAmobileRipAmobilRip.ht
ml
-6http6AAnislab.bu.eduAsc-9(Asc991$pring000)AmobileI2AFhatO00andO00.ow.h
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(6https6AAcommerce.metapress.comAcontentAl980,-,0-1(0w9,0Aresource5
securedANtargetIfulltext.pdfEsidIlfcp/c9-7ppht0usvlatn8--EshIwww.springerlin
!.com
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