Physics by Resnick, Halliday, Krane

Chapter: 53 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS composed by: Adnan

ali
11. Give a physical argumen ! acc!un "ualiaively #!r he e$isence !#
all!%e& an& #!r'i&&en energy 'an&s in s!li&(
Answer: The electrons of a single, isolated atom occupy atomic orbitals. Each orbital form at a discrete energy
level. When multiple atoms join together to form into a molecule, their atomic orbitals combine to form
molecular orbitals, each of which forms at a discrete energy level. As more atoms are brought together, the
molecular orbitals extend larger and larger, and the energy levels of the molecule will become increasingly
dense. Eventually, the collection of atoms forms a giant molecule, or in other words, a solid. or this giant
molecule, the energy levels are so close that they can be considered to form a continuum.
!and gaps are essentially leftover ranges of energy not covered by any band, a result of the finite widths of
the energy bands. The bands have different widths, with the widths depending upon the degree of overlap
in the atomic orbitals from which they arise. Two adjacent bands may simply not be wide enough to fully
cover the range of energy. or example, the bands associated with core orbitals "such as #s electrons$ are
extremely narrow due to the small overlap between adjacent atoms. As a result, there tend to be large band
gaps between the core bands. %igher bands involve larger and larger orbitals with more overlap, becoming
progressively wider and wider at high energy so that there are no band gaps at high energy.
1). Is he e$isence !# #!r'i&&en energy gap in an insula!r is any har&er !
accep han he e$isence !# #!r'i&&en energies #!r an elecr!n in* say* he
hy&r!gen a!m(
Ans%er+ Electrons will move around nucleus only in those orbits, in which complete
electron waves ft. o !orbidden ener"y "apes will be present in every atom, whether
insulator atom or hydro"en atom.
1,. On he 'an& he!ry picure %ha are he essenial re"uiremens #!r a s!li&
! 'e -a. a meal* -'. an insula!r -c. a semic!n&uc!r(
Ans%er+ #a$ %E&A': valence band and conduction band overlap and ener"y "ap between
the two bands in nearly (ero.
#b$ )*+'A&,R: valance band and conduction band are separated by a lar"e amount
o! ener"y "ap.
#c$ E%)-,*.+-&,R: ener"y "ap between valance band and conduction band is
small.
1/. 0ha can 'an& he!ry ell us a'!u s!li&s ha he classical m!&el cann!(
Ans%er+ /and theory tells us about the nature o! solids, conductors, insulators and
semiconductors0 whereas classical model does not.
11. Disinguish 'e%een he &ri# spee& an& 2ermi spee& !# he c!n&uci!n
elecr!ns in meal(
Ans%er+ .ri!t speed is avera"e speed o! all the electrons o! metal when potential
di1erence is applied #2d 3 4 5 67
89
m:s$, where as )n "eneral, an electron will ;rattle
around; randomly in a conductor at the <ermi velocity. An applied electric feld will "ive
this random motion a small net velocity in one direction. #2! 3 6.= 5 67
=
m:s$
13. 0hy is ha* in a s!li&* he all!%e& 'an&s 'ec!me %i&er as !ne pr!cee&s
#r!m he inner ! he !uer a!mic elecr!ns(
Ans%er+ )n solids when we precede !rom inner orbits electrons the distance o! electron
!rom parent nuclei increases and that o! nei"hborin" atom decreases, hence attraction o!
parent nuclei decreases and that o! nei"hborin" nuclei increases which causes to
allow bands become wider !or outer orbit electrons.
14. D! pure semi c!n&uc!rs !'ey Ohm5s la%(
Ans%er+ *o, i! you plot current a"ainst variations in volta"e !or a semiconductor, you will
fnd that it does not result in a strai"ht8line "raph. o we say that the device is ;non8linear;.
Pure semi conductors obey ohm>s law at low potential, but at hi"her potential current
increases at hi"her rate due to break o! covalent bonds and it does not obey ohm>s law
16. A r!!m emperaure he given applie& elecric 7el& %ill generae a &ri#
spee& #!r he c!n&uci!ns elecr!ns !# silic!n ha is a'!u /8 imes as grea
as ha #!r he c!n&uci!ns elecr!ns !# c!pper. 0hy isn5 silic!n a 'eer
c!n&uc!r !# elecriciy han c!pper(
Ans%er+ )n copper conduction o! !ree electrons are 67
66
times "reater than in silicon, so
short !all in conduction electrons in silicon cannot be compensated by hi"her dri!t
speed o! electron in silicon. &here!ore silicon cannot be a better conductor than copper.
19. C!nsi&er %! saemens -a. a l!% emperaure silic!n cease ! 'e a
semic!n&uc!r an& 'ec!me a raher g!!& insula!r. -'. A high en!ugh
emperaure silic!n ceases ! 'ec!me a semic!n&uc!r an& 'ec!me a raher
g!!& c!n&uc!r. Discuss he e$en ! %hich each saemen is eiher rue !r n!(
Ans%er+ At low temperature no electron en"a"ed in covalent bond has enou"h ener"y to
break out o! bond and become !ree so no electron8hole pair is available !or current
?ow. &here!ore at very low temperature silicon or semiconductors behave as insulator. At
very hi"h temperature, electrons breaks out o! covalent bond, so a lar"e number o!
electrons8 hole pair are available !or current ?ow, so current ?ows as in a case o! conductor.
)8. D!es he elecrical c!n&uciviy !# an inrinsic -un &!pe&. semic!n&uc!r
&epen& !n he emperaure( On he energy gap5 E5 'e%een he #ull an& empy
'an&s(
Ans%er+ @es electrical conductivity depends upon temperature o! semi conductors.
Areater the temperature more is the number o! electron8hole pair available !or ?ow o!
current so less will be conductivity.
)1. :!% &! y!u acc!un #!r he #ac ha he resisiviy !# meals increase %ih
emperaure 'u ha !# semic!n&uc!rs &ecreases.
Ans%er+ )n conductor rate o! collision o! electrons with atoms:positive ions increases with
increase in temperature, so resistivity increases.
)). The energy gaps #!r he semic!n&uc!r silic!ne an& germanium are 1.11 e;
an& 8.34 e; respecively. 0hich su'sance %!ul& y!u e$pec %!ul& have
he higher &ensiy !# charge carriers a r!!m emperaure( A a's!lue <er!
!# emperaure(
Ans%er+ Aermanium would have hi"her char"e density at room temperature #B9 C D7 -
o
$, because its electron needs only 7.=Ee2 ener"y to break out o! covalent bon, where
as in i it needs 6.64e2 ener"y. At 7 K char"e density !or both i and Ae in nearly (ero.
),. Discuss his senence =he &isinci!n 'e%een a meal an& a
semic!n&uc!r is sharp an& clear cu* 'u ha a semic!n&uc!r an& an
insula!r is n!(
Ans%er+ &he resistivity o! metal increases with increase in temperature, where as
resistivity o! semi conductor decreases with increase in temperature. At very low
temperature, both semi conductor and insulators acts as an insulator.
)/. The :all5s e>ec is much greaer in semic!n&uc!rs han in meals. 0hy(.
0ha pracical use can 'e ma&e !# his resul(
Ans%er+ &he Hall volta"e is proportional to the current ?owin" throu"h any thin sheet,
and the ma"netic feld8 stren"th, and is inversely proportional to the number density o!
mobile char"es in the thin sheet, and the thickness o! the thin sheet. &hus, in order to
construct a sensitive Hall probe #i.e., one which produces a lar"e Hall volta"e in the
presence o! a small ma"netic feld$, we need to take a thin sheet o! some material which
possesses relatively !ew mobile char"es per unit volume #e.g., a semiconductor$, and then
run a lar"e current throu"h it.
)1. D!es a sla' !# N?ype maerial carry a ne negaive charge(
Ans%er+ .opin" o! pentavalent #fve valence electrons$ atoms to tetravalent #!our valance
electrons$ atoms produces * type semiconductors. /oth pentavalent and tetra valent
atoms are neutral. #Atoms always are neutral unless they loose electrons: once they
loose electrons, they are no more atoms and they are called ions$ )n dopin" we add only
atoms and since they are neutral they are neutral a!ter dopin" also.
&he total number o! positive char"es and ne"ative char"es in the * type
semiconductor remains the same even a!ter dopin". Hence the *8type semiconductors are
neutral till they loose some positive or ne"ative char"es.
)3. Supp!se ha a semic!n&uc!r c!nain e"ual num'er !# &!n!r an& accep!r
impuriies. D! hey cancel each !her in elecrical e>ec( I# s!* %ha is he
mechanism( I# n!* %hy n!(
Ans%er+ .onor and acceptor atoms will produce eFual number o! !ree electrons and
holes. /oth these electrons and holes will contribute in the ?ow o! current so a lar"e
current will be produced.
)4. 0hy &!es an N?ype semic!n&uc!r have s! many elecr!ns han h!les(
0hy &!es a @?ype semic!n&uc!r have s! many m!re h!les han elecr!ns(
E$plain in y!ur !%n %!r&s(
Ans%er+ )n *8type electrons and holes are produced due to breakin" o! covalent bonds.
&hese electrons and holes are eFual and small in number. A lar"e number o! !ree
electrons are produced due to addition o! pentavalent impurity. o, total numbers o! !ree
electrons are many times "reater than total number o! holes. )n P8type semiconductor a
small and eFual number o! !ree electrons and holes are produced due to breakin" o!
covalent bonds e5istin" between semiconductors atoms. However a lar"e number o! holes
are produced due to addition o! a trivalent impurity. o, total numbers o! holes e5ceed
electrons many times in P8type semiconductor.
)6. 0ha elemen !her han ph!sph!rus are g!!& can&i&ae ! use a &!n!r
impuriies in silic!n( 0ha elemens !her han aluminum are g!!&
can&i&aes ! use as accep!r impuriies( C!nsul he peri!&ic a'le.
Ans%er+ Donors are phosphorus #P$ or arsenic #As$ antimony #b$ and bismuth #/i$
Acceptors are boron #/$ or aluminium #Al$ indium #)n$ and "allium #Aa$.
,8. In preparing N?ype an& @?ype semic!n&uc!r 'y &!ping* %hy i is
e$remely imp!ran ! av!i& c!naminai!n !# he sample %ih even very small
c!ncenrai!n !# un%ane& impuriies(
Ans%er+ -ontamination reduces the work !unction #G<$, electron aHnity #EA$ and
ioni(ation ener"y by about 6 e2. Electrical instability, hi!t o! volta"e threshold o! the
transistor device, Hi"h resistivity contact
,1. 0!ul& y!u e$pec &!ping ! change he resisiviy !# silic!n 'y very much(
Ans%er+ A hi"her dopin" leads to a hi"her 2oc and lower resistivity, but hi"her levels o!
dopin" result in dama"e to the crystal. The resistivity of a doped &i crystal can be significantly
lower than that of intrinsic &i.
,,. 0hy silic!n !#en pre#erre& ! germanium #!r maAing semic!n&uc!r
&evices(
6. At room temperature, &ilicon crystal has fewer free electrons than 'ermanium crystal. This implies that
silicon will have much smaller Collector cut off current than 'ermanium.
B. The variation of Collector cut off current with temperature is less in &ilicon compared to 'ermanium.
D. The structure of 'ermanium crystals will be destroyed at higher temperature above () *
)
. %owever,
&ilicon crystals are not easily damaged by excess heat and can wor+ up to #(, *
)
-. .ea+ /nverse 0oltage ratings of &ilicon diodes are greater than 'ermanium diodes.
,. &i is less expensive due to the greater abundance of element. The major raw material for &i wafer
fabrication is sand and there is lots of sand available in nature.
,/. Germanium an& silic!n are similar semic!n&ucing maerials %h!se
principal &isinci!n is ha he gap %i&h BEg5 is 8.34e; #!r he #!rmer an&
1.1e; #!r he laer. I# y!u %ish ! c!nsruc a @?N Cunci!n in %hich he 'acA
curren is ! 'e Aep as mall as p!ssi'le* %hich maerial %!ul& y!u ch!!se an&
%hy(
Ans%er+ /ecause ener"y "ap in silicon is lar"e so less number o! minority carrier>s i.e.
holes in *8type and electrons in P8type will be produced. As reverse carriers is due to these
minority carriers so small back current will be produced in silicon than in "ermanium.
,6. 0hy can5 y!u measure he c!nac p!enial &i>erence generae& a a @?N
Cunci!n 'y simply c!nnecing a v!lmeer acr!ss i(
Ans%er+ A standard voltmeter is made by placin" a hi"h resistance in series to a
"alvanometer I the setup is placed in parallel to the terminals between which
potential di1erence is to be measured
u know that "alvanometer works #shows needle de?ection$ only when some current
?ows throu"h it. As due to the depletion layer:potential barrier, no char"es can ?ow across
the p8n Junction, not char"es can "o throu"h the voltmeter #cause the circuit won;t be
closed$
hence, no current to "alvanometer, I so, no de?ection, *, REA.)*AK
/8. 0ha &!es i mean ! say ha @?N Cunci!n is 'iase& in he #!r%ar&
&ireci!n(
Ans%er+ )n !orward bias, the p8type is connected with the positive terminal and the n8type
is connected with the ne"ative terminal. Gith a battery connected this way, the holes
in the P8type re"ion and the electrons in the *8type re"ion are pushed toward the Junction.
&his reduces the width o! the depletion (one. &he positive potential applied to the P8type
material repels the holes, while the ne"ative potential applied to the *8type material
repels the electrons. As electrons and holes are pushed toward the Junction, the
distance between them decreases. &his lowers the barrier in potential. Gith
increasin" !orward8bias volta"e, the depletion (one eventually becomes thin enou"h
that the (one;s electric feld cannot counteract char"e carrier motion across the pCn
Junction, as a conseFuence reducin" electrical resistance. &he electrons that cross the
pCn Junction into the P8type material #or holes that cross into the *8type material$ will
di1use in the near8neutral re"ion. &here!ore, the amount o! minority di1usion in the near8
neutral (ones determines the amount o! current that may ?ow throu"h the diode.
//. D!es he &i!&e reci7er %h!se characerisics are sh!%n in 7g .1) !'ey
Ohm5s la%( 0ha is y!ur crieri!n #!r &eci&ing(
Ans%er+ *o as !orward bias across the Junction increases, where as the back current
chan"es little and there is a net increase in current, with the increase in volta"e. Hence it
does not obey ohm>s law.
/1. 0e have seen ha a simple inrinsic -un &!pe&. semic!n&uc!r cann! 'e
use& as a ligh emiing &i!&e. 0hy n!( 0!ul& a heavily &!pe& N?ype !r @?ype
semic!n&uc!r %!rA(
Ans%er+ As silicon is opaFue to li"ht so an intrinsic semiconductor does not emit li"ht.
Ghereas '.E.. which is a Junction diode made !rom "allium arsenide phosphide crystal
emit li"ht when it is !orward biased, electron8hole pair recombination take place which
results in the release o! li"ht !rom semi transparent material.
*ote: !or !eedback and Fueries contact on
7DD4EDL7ELB Adnan Ali
Department of physics.
Alpine College Khanpur
pakistan