Goal of education to teach students how to learn.

Metacognition coined by John Flavell

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Thinking about thinking or learning how to learn.

Categories of metacognition:
Person variable views himself as a learner and thinker. Knowledge of person variable refers to
knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of
ones learning process.
Task variable includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing
demands that it will place upon the individual. Knowing about what exactly needs to be accomplished.
Strategy variables involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating
whether this strategy is effective.
Meta-attention awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on the
topic or task at hand.
Metamemory is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.
Omrods Practice of metacognition:

Knowing limits of ones own learning and memory capacities.

Knowing what learning task one can realistically accomplish within certain amount of time.
Using effective strategies for retrieval
Planning an approach

Strategies to develop metacognition:

Have students monitor their own learning and thinking

Have students learn strategies
Have students make predictions
Have students relate ideas

Expert learners employed metacognitive strategies in learning.

LEARNER CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Cognitive and Metacognitive factors
1.
2.
3.
4.

Nature of the learning process

Goals of the learning process
Construction of knowledge
Strategic thinking

5. Thinking about thinking

6. Context of teaching
Motivational and affective factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
9. Effects of motivation on effort.
Developmental and social factor
10. Developmental influences on learning
11. Social influences in learning
Individual differences factors
12. individual differences in learning
13. learning and diversity
14. standards and assessment
Alexander and murphy summary of 14 principles
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

the knowledge base

strategic processing and control
motivation and affect
development and individual differences
situation or context.

3 types of learner
1. preconserver looks at objects on only 1 dimension
2. transistional inconsistent, change answer when asked further
3. conserver consisted Piagetin his answer.
The principal goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things.
Jean Piaget cognitive theory of development.
Genetic epistemology theoretical framework of piaget
Schema an individuals way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience.
Assimilation process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive
structure or schema.
Accommodation the process of creating a new schema
Equilibration achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.

Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment in terms of

assimilation and accommodation.
Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development
1. sensori-motor stage birth to infancy
object permanence ability of the child to know that an object still exists even without when
out of sight.
2. Pre-operational stage 2 7 years old
Symbolic function ability to represent object and events
Egocentrism tendency of the child to only see his point of view.
Centration refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event
and exclude other aspects.
Reversibility the inability to reverse their thinking.
Animism ability to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
Transductive reasoning type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
3. Concrete operational stage think logically, 8 11 years old.
Decentering refers to the ability od child to perceive the different features of objects and
situations.
Reversibility can now follow certain operations can be done in reverse.
Conservation ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume or
area do not change even there is a change in appearance.
Seriation refers to the ability to order or arrange things in series.\
4. Formal operational stage 12 15 years
Hypothetical reasoning ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to
gather weigh data in order to make final decision.
Analogical reasoning ability to perceive the relationship in one instance.
Deductive reasoning ability to think logical applying a general rule to a particular instance or
situation.
ERICK ERICKSON
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PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity

Psychological root, psycho relating to mind, brain personality etc.

Social external relationships and environment.
Epigenetic principle principle used by erik Erickson, says that we develop through a predetermined
unfolding of our personalities in eight stages.

Psychosocial crisis opposing forces contrary disposition

Virtue a healthy ratio or balance
Malignancy involves too little positive and too much negative
Maladaptation too much positive too little negative
8 psychological stages of development
Stage
1 infancy
2 early
childhood
3 4yrs. Old to 5
4 school age

Maladaptaion
Trust

Psychological crisis
Trust vs. mistrust

malignancy
Mistrust

Virture
Hope

Ruthlessness
Virtuosity

Inhibition
Enertia

Purpose
Competence

5 adolescence

Fanaticism

Initiative vs. guilt

Industry vs.
inferiority
Identity vs. role
confusion
Intimacy vs.
isolation

Repudation

Fidelity

6 young
Promiscuity
Exclusion
adulthood
7 middle
Over extension
adulthood
8 late adulthood Presumption
Disdain
Psychological moratorium suggestions for adolescence, take a little time out.

Love
Care
wisdom

VGOTSKYS SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Scaffolding Vgotskys term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner
accomplish task.
2 factors in cognitive development:
1. Social interaction participation in social activities.
2. Language language opens door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have.
Vgotsky believe in the essential role of activities in learning.
Zone of actual development when a child attempts to perform a skill alone.
Zone of proximal development when a child accomplish a skill with the guidance of another.
Scaffold and fade away technique showing assistance then slowly withdrawing it.

KOHLBERGS STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral concepts: justice, rights, equality and human welfare.

If Piaget designed specific tasks (piagetians task) Kohlberg utilizes dilemma.

Level
Preconventional moral
reasoning based on concept

Stage
1
2

Conventional

3
4
5
6

Post-conventional

Description
Punishment obedience
Mutual benefit (scratch my back,
Ill scratch yours.)
Social approval
Law and order
Social contract
Universal principles

Just community enhance students moral development by offering them the chance to participate in
democratic community.
Community meeting center of approach implementation.
STUDENT DIVERSITY
Individual differences
Factors of diversity
1. Socio-economic status
2. Thinking/learning style
3. Exceptionalities
How student diversity enriches the learning environment
1.
2.
3.
4.

Students self-awareness is enhanced by diversity

Student diversity contributes to cognitive development
Student diversity prepares for their role as responsible members of society
Student diversity can promote harmony.

Some tips on students diversity

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.

Integrate learning experiences and activities.
Aside for highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences.
Communicate high expectations to students from all sub groups.
Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning style.
Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that are
relevant to students from diverse background.
7. Adapt the students diverse background and learning style by allowing them personal choice and
decision making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.

9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverts backgrounds.

LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Learning styles the sum of the patterns of how individuals develop habitual ways of responding to
experience. Preferred way an individual processes information.
Sensory preferences individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input and
maintain a dominance in one of the following.
Visual learners teachers action and facial expression to understand.
Visual iconic visual imagery such as film, graphic displays or pictures
Visual symbolic abstract symbolism.
Auditory learners through verbal lectures
Listeners remember things said to them
Talkers prefer to talk.
Tactile kinesthetic benefit on hands-on approach
Global analytic Continuum
Analytic linear, step by step process. (left brain)
Global tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle. (Right Brain)
Left brain
Successive hemispheric style
1. Verbal
2. Respond to word meaning
3. Sequential
4. Processes information linearly
5. Respond to logic
6. Plans ahead
7. Recalls peoples names
8. Speaks with few gestures
9. Punctual
10. Prefers formal study design
11. Prefers bright lights while studying

Multiple Intelligences
1. Visual/Spatial Intelligence (picture smart)

Right brain
Simultaneous hemispheric style
1. Visual
2. Respond to tone of voice
3. Random
4. Processes information in varied order
5. Respond to emotion
6. Impulsive
7. Recalls peoples faces
8. Gestures when speaking
9. Less punctual
10. Prefers sound/music background while
studying
11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Verbal/linguistic
Mathematical/logical
Bodily kinesthetic (body smart)
Musical
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Naturalist
Existential

Teaching strategies guided by thinking/learning style and multiple intelligence

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Use questions of all types

Provide a general overview of material to be learned
Allow sufficient time for information
Set up purposes before any listening.
Warm up before discussion
Use a variety of review
Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving
Use descriptive feedback.

Disability a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a persons ability

Handicap disadvantages that occurs as a result of disability or impairment.
Categories of exceptionalities
Specific cognitive or academic difficulties
Learning disabilities involves disabilities specific processes like perception, language, memory or
metacognition.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention, recurrent
hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
Speech and Communication disorders difficulty in language
Emotional/conduct depression and aggression
Autism condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction.
Mental retardation refer to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior.
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments
Physical health impairments physical or medical conditions
1. Limited energy and strength

2. Reduced mental alertness

3. Little muscle control
Severe and multiple disabilities refers to the presence of two or more different types of diability at
times at a profound level.
Visual impairments
Hearing impairments
Giftedness high level of cognitive development.
People first language putting the lesson first, not the disability.

Avoiding generic labels with mental retardation, mentally retarded

Emphasizing abilities, not limitations uses a wheelchair, confined to a wheelchair
Avoiding euphemisms physically challenged
Avoiding implying illness or suffering had polio, polio victim.

BEHAVIORISM: PAVLOV, THORNDIKE, WATSON, SKINNER

Theory of behaviorism focusses on the study of observable and measurable development
Ivan Pavlov classical conditioning or stimulus conditioning
Findings of Pavlov
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Stimulus generalization
Spontaneous recovery
Discrimination
Higher order conditioning

Edward Thorndike connectionism theory, SR framework of behavioral psychology

1. Law of effect stated that a connection a stimulus and response is strengthened when
consequence is positive (reward) when negative, (punishment)
2. Law of exercise practice makes perfect
3. Law of readiness the more readiness the learner to respond to the stimulus.
Principles derived
1.
2.
3.
4.

Learning requires both practice and rewards.

A series of SR connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence
Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations
Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned

John Watson first American psychologist to work with pavlovs ideas.

Experiment on Albert applied classical conditioning

Burrhus Frederick Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior.
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Operant conditioning voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment.

Reinforcement key element in skinners SR theory.
Reinforce is anything that strengthens the desired response.
Positive reinforce any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response.
Negative reinforce any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it
is withdrawn or removed.
Punishment consequence intended to result in reduced responses.
Shaping of behavior
Behavioral chaining series of steps are needed to be learned.
Reinforcement schedules interval schedule and ratio schedule
Fixed interval schedule fixed amount of time
Variable interval schedule - reinforcement varies
Fixed ratio schedule fixed number of correct responses
Variable ration number of correct repetitions of correct responses

Implications of Operant conditioning

1.
2.
3.
4.

Practice should take form of questions

Require that learner makes a response for every frame.
Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions
Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal
praise, prizes and good grades.

Principles derived from skinners operant conditioning

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so the responses can be reinforced
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli.