Mathematical Foundations

Supplementary notes

Juan Carlos Ponce Campuzano

j.ponce@uq.edu.au

March 24, 2017

1
2
Contents

1 Solving inequalities 7

1.1 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Functions 14

2.1 Historical note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2 The definition of function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.3 How to find the domain and range of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.4 Geogebra applet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Logarithms 19

3.1 Solved problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.3 Historical note: The origin of logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4 Applications of the derivative 27

4.1 Optimisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5 Integration 30

5.1 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5.2 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

6 Vectors: Some basic properties 35

7 Applications of vectors 36

3
 7.1 What is a Force? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

7.1.1 Weight, Normal reaction, and Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

7.1.2 Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

7.2 Motion in a straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7.2.1 Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

7.2.2 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

8 Sequences and series 47

9 Mathematical Induction 48

10 Miscellaneous problems 50

4
Preface

Solving problems can be considered as a practical ability, like swimming, driving

a car or playing the guitar. It is something that you can learn by imitation and
practice. If you wish to learn swimming you have to go into the water, and if you
wish to become a problem solver you have to solve problems.

In order to solve mathematical problems you may need more than just practice and
imitation. Our knowledge about any subject consists of information and of know-
how. If you have had experience of mathematical work at any level, elementary
or advanced, there will be no doubt that, in mathematics, know-how is much more
important than mere possession of information.

Of course, there is not a magic key that opens all the doors and solves all the prob-
lems, but for years people have tried to establish some methods. For example, George
Plya (1887-1985) suggests the following steps when solving a mathematical problem
[3]:

1. First, you have to understand the problem.

2. After understanding, then make a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Look back on your work. How could it be better?

If such technique fails, try to solve first some related problem. Could you imagine a
more accessible related problem? Or, if you can not solve a problem, then there is an
easier problem you can solve: find it! A solution that you have obtained by your own
effort or one that you have read or heard, but have followed with real interest and
insight, may become a pattern for you, a model that you can imitate with advantage
in solving similar problems. Just keep in mind that the ability to solve problems
not merely routine problems but problems requiring some degree of independence,
judgment, originality, creativity is not easy to achieve and takes time to improve;
however, the more you practice, the better you become.

The present notes cannot offer you (and no book will ever be able to offer you) a uni-
versal perfect method for solving problems, but it offers you examples for imitation
and many opportunities for practice.

5
 Important:

This notes are a supplementary material for the course Mathematical Foundations
and are constantly updated. If you find a typo or a factual error, by all means let me
know: j.ponce@uq.edu.au

6
1 Solving inequalities

Solving inequalities algebraically is similar to solving equations, except for one small
but important detail: you flip the inequality sign whenever you multiply or divide
the inequality by a negative. The easiest way to show this is with some examples.
Example 1.1. Consider the problem of solving the inequality 2x + 3 < 1. So we
have
2x + 3 < 1
2x + 3 3 < 13
2x < 2
2x 2
>
2 2
x > 1.
We can also write the solution as: x (1, ). Notice that when we divided by
the negative two, we had to flip the inequality sign. Graphically the solution is
represented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Number line representation of x > 1.

Note that the solution to a "less than, but not equal to" inequality is graphed with
an open dot at the endpoint, indicating that the endpoint is not included within the
solution. z
Example 1.2. Consider now the problem of solving the inequality 3 21 x 5 2x.
So we have
1
3 x 5 2x
2
1
3 5 2x + x
2
3
2 x
2
3
2(2) x (2)
2
4 3x
4
x.
3

7
In this case, when we multiplied by the negative two, we had to flip the inequality
sign. Graphically the solution is represented in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Number line representation of x (4/3, ).

Note that the solution to a "less than or equal to" inequality is graphed with a closed
dot at the endpoint, indicating that the endpoint is included within the solution. z

In the previous examples, the inequalities are called linear inequalities because we
are dealing with linear expressions like "x 2" ("x > 2" is just "x 2 > 0", before
you finished solving it). Moreover, in both examples, we have used two important
properties of the real numbers:

Let a, b and c be real numbers. We have that

1. If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc.

2. If a < b and c < 0, then a/c > b/c.

When we have an inequality with "x2 " as the highest-degree term, it is called a
quadratic inequality. In this case, the method of solution is different and not unique.
Example 1.3. Consider the problem of solving the following inequality:

2x2 + 5x + 12 < 0.
Factoring, we get y = (2x 3) ( x 4). Thus we have

2x2 + 5x + 12 < 0
(2x 3) ( x 4) < 0
We need to analyse two cases due to the next property of the real numbers.

8
 If a, b are real numbers such that ab < 0, then we have two possible cases:

1. a < 0 and b > 0; or 2. a > 0 and b < 0.

Case 1:
2x 3 < 0 and x 4 > 0

2x < 3 x>4

2x 3
>
2 2

3
x>
2

Both inequalities are represented in Figure 3. In this case, we have that x > 4, or
x (4, ).

Figure 3: Number line representation of x (4, ).

Case 2:
2x 3 > 0 and x 4 < 0

2x > 3 x<4

2x 3
<
2 2

3
x<
2

Both inequalities are represented in Figure 4. In this case, we have that x < 32 , or
x (, 23 ).

9
 Figure 4: Number line representation of x (, 32 ).

Finally, combining both cases we conclude that 2x2 + 5x + 12 < 0 provided that
x < 32 or x > 4. In other words,
 
3
x , (4, ).
2

Figure 5: Number line representation of x (, 32 ) (4, ).

The following examples with rational inequalities are more complicated.

Example 1.4. Consider the inequality
3
< 2.
x+4
In order to determine the values of x, first we need to change the format of the
inequality as follows:
3 3 3 + 2x + 8 2x + 11
< 2 + 2 < 0 < 0 <0
x+4 x+4 x+4 x+4
Now we can proceed to solve the inequality. As we did in Example 1.3, we need to
analyse two cases due to the next property of the real numbers.

a
If a, b are real numbers such that b < 0, then we have two possible cases:
1. a < 0 and b > 0; or 2. a > 0 and b < 0.

10
Case 1:
2x + 11 < 0 and x + 4 > 0

2x < 11 x > 4

2x 11
<
2 2

11
x<
2

In this case the values of x have to satisfy that x > 4 and x < 11 2 . However, as
you can see in the Figure 6, there is not x satisfying this condition. This means that
the intersection  
11
(4, ) ,
2
is empty. Therefore, Case 1 must be rejected.

Figure 6: Number line representation of x > 4 and x < 11

2.

Case 2:
2x + 11 > 0 and x + 4 < 0

2x > 11 x < 4

2x 11
>
2 2

11
x>
2

In this case the values of x have to satisfy that x < 4 and x > 11
2 . Therefore
11
2 < x < 4. This is represented in Figure 7.
11
 Figure 7: Number line representation of x < 4 and x > 11
2.

In other words    
11 11
x (, 4) , = , 4 .
2 2

Finally, considering just Case 2, we have that x+3 4 < 2 provided that 11
2 < x < 4.
That is to said  
11
x , 4 .
2
z

Observation: To solve an inequality is also equivalent to determine which

values of the domain of a function satisfy a particular condition. [4, p. 47]

Consider the function f ( x ) = 3/( x + 4) which domain is

D = (, 4) (4, ) .

To solve the inequality

3
< 2
x+4
means that we have to determine which values of the domain D satisfy that

f ( x ) < 2.

In this case, the function f ( x ) = 3/( x + 4) is less than 2 only in the interval
112 , 4 . In Figure 8, we can appreciate this condition.

12
  
Figure 8: The green segment represents the interval 11
2 , 4 .

1.1 Practice

Exercise 1.1. Solve the following inequalities:

2
a) 3x > 5 Answer a.
x
1
b) 0 Answer b.
x2 4
c) | x 3| < | x + 4| 3 Answer c.
2
d) 15x >1 Answer d.
x
x2 5x
e) 2 0 Answer e.
x 9
y+1 1
f) < Answer f.
2 y

13
2 Functions
2.1 Historical note

In general the term function denotes a connection between variable quantities. If a

quantity x can take on arbitrary values and there is a given rule by means of which it
is possible to associate with these values definite values of a quantity y, then we say
that y is a function of x which is denoted with symbolic notations such as y = f ( x ),
or y = F ( x ), or y = ( x ), and so on. We call the quantity x the independent variable
and y the dependent variable.

The concept of function is considered as one of the most important in mathematics.

It did not arise suddenly. Particular examples of functions may be found in an-
cient times; for example, counting implies a correspondence between a set of given
objects and a sequence of counting numbers; the four elementary arithmetical opera-
tions, which are functions of two variables; and the Babylonian tables of reciprocals,
squares, square roots, cubics, and cubic roots.

Historically, not only mathematicians but also

physicists can be regarded as have foreseen
and come close to a modern formulation of
the concept of function. However, the emer-
gence of functions in mathematics research as
a clearly individualised concept and as an ob-
ject of study in its own right is recent, dating
to the end of the 17th century.

The concept of function arose as the necessary

mathematical tool for the quantitative study of
natural phenomena which began with Galileo
Galilei (1564-1642). Contrary to the verbalis-
tic posture of the medieval scholastic thinking,
Galileo emphasised that mathematics was the Figure 9: Galileo Galilei (1564-1642).
most appropriate language for the study of na-
ture.

Galileo stablished that for studying a given phenomenon, it was necessary to mea-
sure quantities, identify regularities, and obtain relationships representing mathe-
matical descriptions as simply as possible. As an example, he described the motion
of a dropped object by saying that the distance of its fall was proportional to the
square of the duration of its fall.

14
It is noteworthy that the development of the concept of function was based in the
expressive possibilities enabled by the modern algebraic notation created by the
Fraois Vite (1540-1603) and, especially, by the analytic geometry introduced by
Ren Descartes (1596-1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). The study of the move-
ment of falling bodies, of the motion of planets, and more generally, of curvilinear
motion, led to the consideration of direct and inverse proportionality, as well as of
polynomial and trigonometric functions. Mathematics and physics were at this point
closely interconnected.

Figure 10: Fraois Vite (1540-1603).

Figure 11: Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). Figure 12: Ren Descartes (1596-1650).

Nowadays, mathematics is no longer exclusively tied to the physical sciences as in

the past. Its domains of application have been increased, becoming an instrument
for the study of the phenomena and situations of biological sciences, human and so-
cial sciences, business, communications, engineering, and technology. Mathematics
constitutes an essential means of description, explanation, prediction, and control.

15
2.2 The definition of function

So what exactly is a function? The simplest answer is that, in mathematics, a function

is a rule that, given one number, allows you to calculate another.

A function specifies a rule by which an input is converted to a unique

output.

The domain of a function is the set of all possible x values that can be used
as inputs, and the range is the set of all possible f ( x ) values that arise as
outputs.

Its helpful to think of a function as a machine (see Figure 13). If x is in the domain
of the function then when enters the machine, it is accepted as an input and the
machine produces an output according to the rule of the function. Thus we can
think of the domain as the set of all possible inputs x and the range as the set of all
possible outputs f ( x ).

Figure 13: Machine diagram for a function.

The most common method for visualising a function is its graph; which consists of
all points ( x, y) in the coordinate plane such that y = f ( x ) and x is in the domain of
f . The graph of a function gives us a useful picture of the behaviour of a function.
Since the y-coordinate of any point ( x, y) on the graph is y = f ( x ), we can read the
value of f ( x ) from the graph as being the height of the graph above the point x (see
Figure 14). The graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on the x-axis
and its range on the y-axis as in Figure 15.
2.3 How to find the domain and range of functions

For the domain of the function we need to ask:

What is the set of all the valid inputs x?

Meanwhile, for the range of a the function we need to ask:

16
 Figure 14: Graph of f . Figure 15: Domain and Range.

What is the set of all the valid outputs f ( x )?

2.4 Geogebra applet

In this applet you can see a representation of the domain and range of some real
functions. In order to access the GeoGebra worksheet click on the next link:

Representation of functions

The green horizontal line represents the domain and the salmon vertical line repre-
sents the range. The function is represented with the dotted curve.

Type your function and see how the domain and range change. For example: Some
particular cases: x2 for x2 , exp(x) for e x , abs(x) for | x |, 1/(x2+1) for x21+1 , ln(x) for

ln x and sqrt(x) for x.

17
Selecting the asymptotes will show you particular cases where the function you
typed is whether defined or not, for particular values of x.

18
3 Logarithms

The logarithm of a number is the exponent (or power) to which another

fixed value, the base, must be raised to produce that number. Thus we have
that

logb x = y is equivalent to x = by .

Example 3.1. Consider the following results:

a) Since 24 = 16, we have log2 16 = 4.

b) One finds that log10 1000 = 3 because 103 = 1000.
c) Since 160.5 = 4, it follows that log16 4 = 0.5.

Definition 3.1. Let b > 0 and b 6= 1. If x is a positive real number, we write

logb x

to designate the logarithm of x to the base b (or the logarithm to the base
b of x), which is the (unique) real number y that satisfies

x = by .

The most common bases for logarithms are 10 and e (the irrational mathematical
constant 2.71828). The notations for logarithms to these bases are:

log10 x = log x and loge x = ln x

These are called common logarithm (or just logarithm) and natural logarithm, re-
spectively. Logarithms with respect to any base b can be determined using either of
these two logarithms by the formula:
log x ln x
logb x = =
log b ln b

19
Example 3.2. The following results are obtained using the preceding formula:

log 9 ln 9 ln 27
a) log2 9 = = 3.1699 . . . c) log 27 = 1.4313 . . .
log 2 ln 2 ln 10
log 12 ln 12
b) log7 12 = = 1.2769 . . .
log 7 ln 7

Basic logarithmic identities

Formula Example

loga 1 = 0 because a0 = 1 , where a > 0 log9 1 = 0 (or 90 = 1)

loga a = 1 because a1 = a log7 7 = 1 (or 71 = 7)

aloga x = x 11log11 x = x

loga ( a x ) = x log3 (3x ) = x

The next table contains some useful rules which allow us to manipulate expressions
involving logarithms:

Formula Example

Product loga ( xy) = loga x + loga y log2 (3 5) = log2 3 + log2 5

   
x 5
Quotient loga = loga x loga y log3 = log3 5 log3 7
y 7

loga ( x p ) = p loga x log7 311 = 11 log7 3

Power

20
3.1 Solved problems

Problem 3.1. Find the value of x if 7x+3 = 75x3 .

Solution: Take the logarithm to base 7 of both sides. Thus

log7 7x+3 = log7 75x3

( x + 3) log7 7 = (5x 3) log7 7

x + 3 = 5x 3
6
x =
4
3
x = .
2
Problem 3.2. Solve for x:
   
10x 1
log 2 = log .
3 10

Solution: First, notice that 2 = log 100. Then

   
10x 1
log log 100 = log
3 10
!
10x  
3 1
log = log
100 10
10x 1
=
300 10
100x = 300
x = 3.
Problem 3.3. Find the value of x, if 2x 32x = 102x1 .

Solution: Here we can apply logarithm to base 2, 3 or 10. It does not matter which
base you use, all the answers will be equivalent. Lets use common logarithm to
solve this equation.
log 2x 32x = log 102x1

log (2x ) + 32x = (2x 1) log 10

x log 2 + 2x log 3 = 2x 1.
Now, solving for x we obtain
1 1
x= =
log 2 + 2 log 3 2 2 log 2 2 log 3
21
Check the details! Do you get the same answer?

In this case, we can find an equivalent answer using the formula:

ln x
logb =
ln b
ln 100 ln 10
Considering that 2 = log 100 = and 1 = log 10 = , we have
ln 10 ln 10
1
x =
2 log 2 2 log 3
ln 10
= ln 10
ln 100 ln 2 ln 3
2
ln 10 ln 10 ln 10
1
ln 10
= ln 10
1
(ln 100 ln 2 2 ln 3)
ln 10
ln 10
=
ln 100 ln 2 2 ln 3
ln 10
=
ln 100


2 2 ln 3
ln 10
=
ln 50 2 ln 3

3.2 Practice

Exercise 3.1. Find de value of x for the following:

2 x
a) 2x = 1. Answer a.
b) 4x 52x+1 = 113x1 . Answer b.
c) log2 ( x + 1) + log2 ( x ) = 1. Answer c.
d) log3 (6x2 44x + 14) log3 (2x 14) = 3. Answer d.

22
3.3 Historical note: The origin of logarithms

Let us say it is the year 1900 and we are asked to compute the expression
s
2
3 493.8 (23.67)
x= .
5.104
Of course, this is not an easy task and, probably, would take a long time. However,
we can compute this expression using logarithms, which will be easier and faster. In
particular, for this task, we need a table of four-place common logarithms, as the one
shown in Figure 16 (which can still be found in books of algebra or calculus or in the
internet).

Figure 16: Four-Place Logarithms.

23
We also need to use the laws of logarithms:
log( ab) = log a + log b,
log( a/b) = log a log b,
log( an ) = n log a.
where a and b denote any positive numbers and n any real number; here log stands
for the common logarithm (that is, logarithm base 10), although any other base for
which tables are available could be used.

We begin by writing the above expression in a form more suitable for logarithmic
computation by replacing the radical with a fractional exponent:
2 1/3
!
493.8 (23.67)
x= .
5.104
Taking the logarithm of both sides, we have
1
log x = (log(493.8) + 2 log(23.67) log(5.104)) .
3
We now find each logarithm, using the Proportional Parts section of the table (Fig-
ure 16) to add the value given there to that given in the main table. Thus, to find
log(493.8) we locate the row that starts with 49, move across to the column headed
by 3 (where we find 6928), and then look under the column 8 in the Proportional Parts
to find the entry 7. We add this entry to 6928 and get 6935. Since 493.8 is between
100 and 1,000, the characteristic is 2; we thus have log 493.8 =2.6935. We do the same
for the other numbers. The complete computation is shown in the following table:

N log N
23.67 1.3742
2
2.7484

493.8 +2.6935
5.4419

5.104 0.7079
4.7340
3

37.84 1.5780

24
For the last step we used a table of antilogarithms-logarithms in reverse (Figure
17). We look up the number .5780 (the mantissa) and find the entry 3784; since the
characteristic of 1.5780 is 1, we know that the number must be between 10 and 100.
Thus x = 37.84, rounded to two places.

Figure 17: Four-Place Antilogarithms.

Sounds complicated? Yes, if you have been spoiled by the calculator or the personal
computer. But with some experience, the above calculation can be completed in a
couple of minutes; on a calculator it should take no more than a few seconds. Try it
with WolframAlpha.

25
Before the advent of computers and hand-
held calculators, logarithms (or their mechani-
cal equivalent, the slide rule) were practically
the only way to perform calculations, as the one
shown above. Logarithms were devised as a
method for rapid and accurate computations re-
lated to different problems in astronomy, naviga-
tion, engineering, and other areas. No wonder
the scientific community embraced them with
such enthusiasm. The Scottish mathematician
John Nappier (1550-1617), who worked for about
20 years on the theory, is generally acknowl-
edge as the founder of logarithms. Although he
first used the word artificial number, he finally Figure 18: John Napier (1550-1617).
adopted the term logarithm which in Greek lit-
erally means ratio number.

In 1614, Nappier published his book entitled Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio
(Description of the Wonderful Rule of Logarithms), which contained fifty seven pages
of explanatory matter and ninety pages of tables related to logarithms using the base
b = 0.9999999 = 1 107 .

The English mathematician Henry Briggs (1561-1631) visited Napier in 1615, and
proposed a re-scaling of Napiers logarithms to form what is now known as the
common or base-10 logarithms. Napier readily agreed to Briggs suggestions, but by
then he was already advanced in years and lacked the energy to compute a new set
of tables. Briggs undertook this task publishing his results in 1624 under the title
Arithmetica Logarithmica, a work containing the logarithms of thirty thousand natural
numbers to fourteen decimal places (1-20,000 and 90,001 to 100,000) [2, pp. 256-258].

From 1960s onwards, electronic calculators and computer rendered logarithms obso-
lete for purposes of calculation. However, the concept remained vital to mathematics,
because logarithms had found fundamental roles in many parts of mathematics, in-
cluding calculus and complex analysis. Also many physical and biological processes
involve logarithmic behaviour. For example, logarithms are frequently used to pose
and solve problems related to interest rate, population growth, radioactive decay,
mortgage loan, and the list goes on.

26
4 Applications of the derivative

4.1 Optimisation

Problem 4.1. A company produces juice containers which have the shape of a box with squares
on the base and the top, and a capacity of 2 litres.

Figure 19: Box with a constant capacity of 2 litres.

a) Find a formula for the surface area, A, of the container in terms of the apothem a of the
base. The apothem is the segment from the centre of the square to the midpoint of one
of its sides.
b) Draw a rough sketch of A versus a.
c) Find the apothem of the container which will minimise the cost of the material required to
make the box.
d) Find the corresponding height and side of the square.

Solution: If a represents the apothem and h the height of the box, then we have the
following:
Surface area: A = 4 (2a) h + 2(2a)2
Volume of box: 2 = (2a)2 h
2 1
From the Volume of box, we obtain: h = = .
4a2 2a2
Thus, substituting the value of h in the equation of the Surface area, we obtain:
 
1 2 4
A = 4(2a) 2
+ 2 ( 2a ) = + 8a2 .
2a a
27
This is the Surface area in terms of the apothem a. Notice that the function A( a)
is defined for all a 6= 0, which means that a > 0 or a < 0. However, we are just
interested in the positive values of a, see Figure 20. To play with the dynamic repre-
sentation of the box click Here.

4
Figure 20: Graph of A( a) = a + 8a2 on the interval (0, 2).

Now let us find the minimum of the function A( a). In this case we have that:
4
A0 ( a) = 16a
a2
If A0 ( a) = 0, then
4
16a = 0
a2
4
16a =
a2
3
16a = 4
4 1 1
a3 = = = 2
16
r 4 2
3 1 1
a = = 0.6299 . . .
22 3
22

Remark: Notice that we are using the laws of exponents:

am = am/n , an am = an+m an /am = anm and ( an )m = anm .
n

28
The second derivative of A( a) is:
8
A00 ( a) = 16 +
a3
1
Substituting the value a = 3
in A00 ( a), we obtain
22
 
00 1 8 8
A = 16 + 3
= 16 + = 16 + 32 = 48
3
22

1
 1
3 22
22
which is a positive value. Hence, the function of the surface area has a minimum
1
when a = 3
.
22
If S denotes the side of the square, then
 
1 3
S = 2a = 2 3
= 2 1.2599 . . .
2 2

Finally, the height of the box is:

1 1
3
h= 2 = 2 = 2 1.2599 . . .
2a

1
2
3 2
2

To check this values, let us calculate the volume of the box which is
Volume of box = S2 h
we get
 2  
3 3
Volume of box = 2 2 = 22/3 21/3 = 22/3+1/3 = 2

Exercise 4.1. Find two nonnegative numbers whose sum is 9 and so that the product
of one number and the square of the other number is a maximum.

Answer: Here
Exercise 4.2. A container in the shape of a right cylinder with no top has surface area
3 m2 . What height h and base radius r will maximise the volume of the cylinder?

To play with a dynamic representation of the cylinder click: Here

Answer: Here

29
5 Integration

5.1 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: If f is continuous on [ a, b], then

Z b
f ( x )dx = F (b) F ( a)
a

where F is an antiderivative of f on [ a, b], that is, F 0 ( x ) = f ( x ) for all

x [ a, b].

Problem 5.1. Determine the following integrals, if possible. If not, state why.
Z 1
a) x3 dx
1
Z 3 3
b) dx
2 x2
Z 1 x1
c) dx
2 x2 1
6e2x 9e3x
Z
d) dx
e2x e3x + 7
Solution:
Part a): The function f ( x ) = x3
is well-defined and continuous over
the interval [1, 1]. Hence, we can
apply the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus (FTC) with
x4
F(x) =
4
as an antiderivative of f ( x ). Thus,
we have
4 1
Z 1 
x
x3 dx = 
1 4 1
4
(1) (1)4
=
4 4
1 1 Z 1
= = 0. Figure 21: Visual representation of the integral x3 dx.
4 4 1

30
Part b): The function f ( x ) = 3/( x 2) is not defined for x = 2. Notice also that
2 [2, 3]. This means that the function f ( x ) is not continuous on the interval
[2, 3]. Therefore, we can not apply the FTC.

This function behaves similar to the function 1/x. Hence, we can not calculate the
definite integral:
Z 3
3
dx
2 x 2

3
Figure 22: Graph of f ( x ) = .
x2

Remark: It is possible to use the FTC to calculate the definite integral over
an interval where f ( x ) is continuous and well-defined. For example, using
the antiderivative
F ( x ) = 3 ln | x 2| ,
we have that
Z 7 3
dx = 3 ln |(7) 2| 3 ln |(5) 2|
5 x2
= 3 ln |5| 3 ln |3| = 3 ln 5 3 ln 3
 
5
= 3 ln 1.532
3

31
Part c): The function
x1
f (x) =
x2 1
is not defined for x = 1 or x = 1. Notice also that 1, 1 [2, 1]. Because f ( x ) is
not continuous on the interval [2, 1], we can not apply the FTC.

As in the previous problem, this function behaves similar to the function 1/x, because
x1 x1 1
= =
x2 1 ( x 1)( x + 1) x+1
Z 1 x1
Hence, we can not calculate the definite integral: dx
2 x2 1

x1
Figure 23: Graph of f ( x ) = .
x2 1

Part d): We need to use the method of substitution. If u = e2x e3x + 7, then
du
= 2e2x 3e3x = du = (2e2x 3e3x )dx.
dx
Multiplying by 3 we have
3du = (6e2x 9e3x )dx.
Thus,
6e2x 9e3x 3du 1
Z Z Z
du = 3 ln |u| + C = 3 ln e2x e3x + 7 + C
 
dx = =3
e2x e3x + 7 u u

32
Problem 5.2. Calculate the following indefinite integral
Z
3
2x3 2x x4 2x2 dx

Solution: Let u = x4 2x2 . Then

du du
= 4x3 4x = = (2x3 2x )dx
dx 2
Thus
This is du/2
Z Z }|
{ z
3 4 2 3 4 2 3 3



2x 2x x 2x dx = {z2x }) 2x 2x dx
(|x
This is u
du
Z
= u3
2
1
Z
= u3 du
2
1 u4 1
= + C = u4 + C
2 4 8
1 4
= ( x 2x2 )4 + C.
8
Problem 5.3. Calculate the following indefinite integral
e2x
Z
dx
e2x 4

Solution: Let u = e2x 4. Then

du du
= 2e2x = = e2x dx
dx 2
Thus
e2x e2x dx
Z Z
dx =
e2x 4 e2x 4
du
du
Z Z
2
= =
u 2u
1 1
Z
= du
2 u
1
= ln |u| + C
2
1
= ln |e2x 4| + C.
2

33
5.2 Practice

Exercise 5.1. Determine the following integrals, if possible. If not, state why.
Z 1  
4
a) 3
+ 2x4 2x2 1 dx Ans. a) Here
5 x
/2 sin (2x )
Z
b) dx Ans. b) Here
/2 cos (2x )
2
2xex
Z
c) dx Ans. c) Here
e x2
7x + 8
Z
d) dx Ans. d) Here
x2 + x 2
Z
e) sin5 x dx Ans. e) Here

34
6 Vectors: Some basic properties

Matrix addition of vectors:

   
v1 w1
If v = and w= ,
v2 w2

then  
v 1 + w1
v+w =
v 2 + w2
Scalar multiplication:
 
v1
If v = and t R,
v2

then  
t v1
tv =
t v2
Norm of a vector:
 
v1
q
If v = then Norm of v = ||v|| = v21 + v22 .
v2

Let v, w be vectors and t R. Verify the following results:

0 ||v||, ||v + w|| ||v|| + ||w||, ||t v|| = t ||v||

Component form of vectors:

 
a
If v = then v = ai + bj,
b

where    
1 0
i= and j=
0 1
Converting vectors from geometric to component form:

v = ||v|| cos i + ||v|| sin j

35
7 Applications of vectors

7.1 What is a Force?

A force is any interaction which tends to change the motion of an object.

Thus, a force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity, that is,
to accelerate. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector
quantity. As a reminder:

Force = mass acceleration.

The stander unit of measurement for forces is the newton, denoted by N.

7.1.1 Weight, Normal reaction, and Friction

Forces are given many names, such as push, pull, thrust, lift, weight, friction, and
tension. Traditionally, forces have been grouped into several categories and given
names relating to their source, how they are transmitted, or their effects.

Weight: is a force due to gravity, and it is denoted by W. The magnitud of

the vector weight, associated with an object of mass m kilograms (kg) is

||W|| = m g
where g = 9.8 m/s2 is the acceleration due to gravity.

Normal reaction: is a force that pushes at right-angle to a surface and it

is denoted by N. The word normal means perpendicular to a surface. The
normal reaction force can be less than the objects weight if the object is on
an inclined plane.

Friction: is a force in the direction parallel to a surface. It is the force that

counteracts an object sliding along a surface. This force is denoted by F.

Consider an object resting on an inclined plane that makes an angle with the hori-
zontal as shown in Figure 24. This means that the forces acting on that object are in
balance. The force of gravity acting on the object is divided into two components: a

36
force acting perpendicular to the plane, denoted by Wy , and a force acting parallel
to the plane, denoted by W x .

Figure 24: An object rests on an inclined plane that makes an angle with the horizontal.

The perpendicular force of weight, Wy , is typically equal in magnitude and opposite

in direction to the normal reaction, N. The force acting parallel to the plane, W x ,
causes the object to accelerate down the plane. The force of friction, F, opposes the
motion of the object, so it acts upward along the plane (see Figure 24).

If the magnitude of the weight vector W is w, then the magnitudes of the weight
components are

kW x k = w sin and Wy = w cos

Instead of memorising the above equations, it is helpful to be able to determine

them from reason. To do this, consider the right triangle formed by the three weight
vectors (see Figure 24). Notice that the angle of the inclined plane is the same as
the angle formed between the vectors W and Wy .

Then you can use trigonometry to determine the magnitude of the weight compo-
nents:

kW x k Wy
sin = and cos =
w w
37
Problem 7.1. A 3 kg brick is sitting on a inclined plane at /6 radians to the horizontal. The
only forces acting on it are weight, normal reaction from the plane and friction. Determine the
magnitude of each force.

Solution:

First, we have that

kWk = w = m g
where m = 3 kg and g = 9.8 m/s2 . Thus
w = 3 9.8 N = 29.4 N

Thus  1
kFk = w sin = (29.4 N) = 14.7 N
6 2
and
 3
kNk = w cos = (29.4 N) = 14.7 3 N
6 2

Exercise 7.1. A 12 kg brick is sitting on a inclined plane at /3 radians to the horizontal. The
only forces acting on it are weight, normal reaction from the plane and friction. Determine the
magnitude of each force. Click here to check your answer

7.1.2 Tension

Now let us consider a system where a mass hangs from a wooden beam via a single
rope.

Tension: is a force along the length of a medium, especially a force carried

by a flexible medium, such as a rope, string or cable. This force is denoted
by T. The word tension comes from a Latin word meaning to stretch.

If neither the mass nor the rope are moving, the entire system is at rest. Because of
this, we know that, for the mass to be held in equilibrium, the tension force must
equal the force of gravity on the mass, tension = force of gravity (see Figure 25).
Thus
kTk = kWk

38
 Figure 25: Representation of the vectors tension and weight: kTk = kWk.

Example 7.1. Assuming that the mass is 10 kg, then the magnitude of the tension force is:

kTk = 10 kg 9.8 m/s2 = 98 N.

Gravity isnt the only force that can affect the tension in a rope. If, for instance, a
suspended object is being pulled upwards by a force on the rope or cable, this force
(mass acceleration) is added to the tension caused by the weight of the object. In
other words

kTk = kWk + kF k (7.1)

where F is the force applied to pull the mass upwards.

Lets say that, in our example of the 10 kg mass suspended by a rope, instead of being
fixed to a wooden beam, the rope is actually being used to pull the mass upwards at
an acceleration of 1.5 m/s2 . In this case, the magnitude of the force applied to pull
the mass upwards is
kF k = (10 kg)(1.5m/s2 ) = 15 N
Therefore, considering equation (7.1), we have

kTk = 98 N + 15 N = 113 N

39
7.2 Motion in a straight line

7.2.1 Displacement

The displacement of an object moving in a straight line is defined as the

vector from some initial point to a final point.

If D represents the displacement of an object, then the distance covered by

the object is the magnitude of D. That is, distance covered = ||D||.

If D1 , D2 , . . . , Dn are displacements, the resulting displacement Dr , is the

sum
D1 + D2 + + D n

Figure 26: Representation of displacement vectors.

Consider the following example: A person, from a point A, starts to walk 3.5 meters
East, then 2.3 meters South. After that, 3.5 meters West. And finally 2.3 meters North. This
displacement is shown in Figure 26. Calculate his resulting displacement.

Even though the person has walked a total distance of 11.6 metres, that is, the sum
k D1 k + k D2 k + k D3 k + k D4 k ,
his resulting displacement is 0 (as a vector). In other words, there is no displacement
for his motion. Thus we have that
D R = D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 = 0i + 0j = 0
where D R is the resulting displacement and
D1 = 3.5 i + 0 j, D2 = 0 i 2.3 j, D3 = 3.5 i + 0 j and D4 = 0 i + 2.3 j

40
Displacement, being a vector quantity, must give attention to direction. In the above
situation the 3.5 meters East cancels with the 3.5 meters West; and the 2.3 meters
South cancels with the 2.3 meters North.

Problem 7.2. A surveyor walks 174 metres due North. Then he turns clockwise through an
angle of 5/6 radians and walks 234 metres. Finally he turns and walks 210 metres due West.
Find his resulting displacement, relative to his starting point and the total distance covered

Solution: Figure 27 shows a geometrical representation of the displacement vectors

and its resulting displacement. Notice that 5/6 is equal to 150o .

Figure 27: Geometrical representation of the displacement vectors (red) and its resulting displacement (blue).

First, the total distance covered by the surveyor is 618 metres because
total distance = kD1 k + kD2 k + kD3 k = 174 + 234 + 210 = 618

Now we need to find D R , so we have to calculate

D1 + D2 + D3 .

For doing this, we need to find the component form of each vector Di .

41
Component form of D1 :

D1 = kD1 k cos 1 i + kD1 k sin 1 j.

where 1 = 90o is the angle measured anti-clockwise from

the positive x-axis (Figure 28). Hence

D1 = 174 cos 90o i + 174 sin 90o j

= 174 0 i + 174 1 j
= 0 i + 174 j.
Figure 28: Geometrical repre-
sentation of D1 .

Component form of D2 :

D2 = kD2 k cos 2 i + kD2 k sin 2 j.

where 2 = 300o is the angle measured anti-clockwise

from the positive x-axis (see Figure 29). Hence

D2 = 234 cos 300o i + 234 sin 300o j.

Notice that, in the coordinate plane, cos 300o and sin 300o
is equivalent to cos 60o and sin 60o in the fourth quadrant.
Therefore

D2 = 234 cos 60o i + 234 sin 60o j Figure 29: Geometrical repre-
! sentation of D2 .
1 3
= 234 i + 234 j
2 2

= 117 i 117 3 j.

Component form of D3 :

D3 = kD3 k cos 3 i + kD3 k sin 3 j.

where 3 = 180o is the angle measured anti-

clockwise from the positive x-axis (Figure
30). Hence

D3 = 210 cos 180o i + 210 sin 180o j

= 210 (1) i + 210 0 j
Figure 30: Geometrical representation of D3 .
= 210 i + 0 j.

42
Now that we know the component form of each Di , we can calculate Dr .

D R = D1 + D2 + D3

= (0 i + 174 j) + (117 i 117 3 j) + (210 i + 0 j)

= (0 + 117 210) i + (174 117 3 + 0) j

= 93 i + (174 117 3) j

But 174 117 3 28.65. Hence we can
write
D R = 93 i 28.65 j

Thus D R must be in the third quadrant (see

Figure 31) and therefore we can calculate
its direction using the following formula

r = 180o +

where
| 28.65|
 
= arctan 17.12o
| 93|
Hence r = 197.12.
Figure 31: Geometrical representation of the posi-
For more details concerning the formulae tion of D R .
used for this example see [4, p. 150].

Exercise 7.2. A surveyor walks 112 metres due South. Then he turns anti-clockwise through
an angle of /2 radians and walks 200 metres. Finally he turns clockwise through an angle
of 2/3 radians and walks 95 metres. Find his resulting displacement, relative to his starting
point and the total distance covered.

43
7.2.2 Momentum

If an object is moving, then it has momentum or we can say that its mass is in
motion. The momentum of an object depends on two variables:

how much stuff is moving (its mass) and

how fast the stuff is moving (its velocity).

Momentum is a vector quantity, possessing a direction as well as a magni-

tude. It is defined as the product of the mass and velocity of an object. In
physics, momentum is usually denoted by p. Thus

p = mv

where m is the mass and v is the velocity of an object. The standard unit
for the magnitude of momentum is newton seconds, denoted Ns=kgm/s.
The direction of the momentum vector p is the same as the direction of the
velocity vector v.

Principle of the conservation of momentum:

If objects collide, the total momentum before collision is equal to the to-
tal momentum after collision (provided that no external forces act on the
system). [4, p. 166]

Consider two objects with different masses m1 and m2 . If the velocities of the two
objects are u1 and u2 before the collision, and afterwards they are v1 and v2 , then the
above principle establishes that

| 1 u1 {z
m + m2 u}2 = |m1 v1 {z
+ m2 v}2
Total momentum-Before Total momentum-After

Problem 7.3. A car with a mass of 911 kg is moving East with speed of 60 km/h. A truck is
moving North. The car and truck collide, and after the collision the combined wreck heads in
a North-Easterly direction with speed 55 km/h. Using conservation of momentum, determine
the mass and the initial speed of the truck.

44
Figure 32: The red and blue arrows represent the momentum of car and truck before collision. The green
arrow represents the momentum of both car and truck after collision.

Solution: Figure 32 shows a representation of the momentum of the objects before

and after the collision.

First, we need to convert the units of speed to metres per second. That is
60 km/h = 16.67 m/s and 55 km/h = 15.28 m/s

Now, before the collision we have the following data:

Mass (kg) Speed (m/s) Direction Velocity
Car 911 16.67 0o u1
o
Truck m2 s2 90 u2

Then the component form of u1 and u2 is

u1 = 16.67 i + 0 j and u2 = 0 i + s2 j

On the other hand, after the collision they both move with the same direction and
speed. So we have the following data:
Mass (kg) Speed (m/s) Direction Velocity
Car+Truck 911 + m2 15.28 45o v

Then the component form of v is

15.28 15.28
v = (15.28) cos(45o ) i + (15.28) sin(45o ) j = i + j
2 2
45
Now, the principle of conservation of momentum establishes that

| u1{z
911 + m2 u}2 = (911 + m2 ) v
| {z }
Total momentum-Before Total momentum-After

Substituting and simplifying we get

 
15.28 15.28
911(16.67 i + 0 j) + m2 (0 i + s2 j) = (911 + m2 ) i + j
2 2
15.28(911 + m2 ) 15.28(911 + m2 )
15 186.37 i + (m2 s2 ) j = i+ j
2 2
Thus we obtain the equations
15.28(911 + m2 )
15 186.37 = (7.2)
2
15.28(911 + m2 )
m2 s2 = (7.3)
2
From the first equation (7.2) we obtain m2 = 494.548 and using this value for solving
equation (7.3), we obtain that s2 = 30.7076.

Therefore, the mass of the truck is 494.548 kg and its initial velocity is 30.7076 metres
per second, or 110.55 km/h.

46
8 Sequences and series

Problem 8.1. Consider the arithmetic sequence

4, 10, 16, 22, . . .

a) Find an expression for the general term an , and

b) the sum of the first 20 terms.

Solution: First, recall that

an = a + (n 1)d, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

where d is the common difference and a is the first term in the sequence. The sum
of the first n terms of the sequence is given by the formula
n
Sn = [2a + (n 1)d] .
2
For part a), since a = 4 and d = 6, then

an = 4 + (n 1)6 = 6n 2, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

On the other hand, for part b), we know that n = 20, so

20
S20 = [2(4) + (20 1)(6)]
2
= 10(8 + 114) = 1220.

Remark: Notice that in the general term an = 4 + (n 1)6, we need to

specify the values of n, which in this case are 1, 2, 3, etc. The reason is that
we can have other expressions defining the same sequence with different
values for n, for example

an = 6n + 4, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

and
an = 6n 8, n = 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
Both expressions define the same sequence: 4, 10, 16, 22,. . . Why do you
think this happens?

47
9 Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction is of no use for deriving formulas. But it is a good way to

prove the validity of a formula that you might think is true.

Problem 9.1. Use mathematical induction to show

n
n(3n 1)
(3i 2) = 2
for n 1.
i =1

Solution:

Step one: We need to check that the identity is true for the smallest value of n, which
in this case is 1. So we have that

1
(1)(3(1) 1)
(3i 2) =
2
i =1
2
3(1) 2 =
2
1 = 1 X

Step two: We assume that the identity is true for n = k. So we change n for k, and we
have

k
k(3k 1)
(3i 2) = 2
i =1

This step commonly known as the Hypothesis of Induction (H. I.).

Step three: We need to prove that the identity is true for n = k + 1. That is, we need
to prove that

k +1
(k + 1)(3(k + 1) 1)
(3i 2) = 2
i =1

is true.

48
In this case we start with the left hand side, so we have the following
k +1 k
(3i 2) = (3i 2) + 3(k + 1) 2
i =1 i =1
k(3k 1)
= + 3( k + 1) 2 Using the H. I.
2
3k2 k
= + 3k + 3 2
2
3k2 k
= + 3k + 1
2
3k2 k 6k + 2
= +
2 2
2
3k + 5k + 2
=
2
(k + 1)(3k + 2) (k + 1)(3(k + 1) 1)
= = X
2 2

49
10 Miscellaneous problems

Exercise 10.1. Find the domain and range of

2
f (x) =
x4
Exercise 10.2. Find the range of
f (x) = 7x 4

3
Exercise 10.3. Find the value of , if cos = 2 and 0 2.
Exercise 10.4. Solve the inequality
4x + 2 3

2x 3 2
Exercise 10.5. Solve the equation

1 + 2 log2 ( x ) = log2 (7x + 9)

x+3 x+1
Exercise 10.6. If f ( x ) = and g( x ) = then
x+2 x1

a) Find f ( g( x )).
b) What is the domain of f ( g( x ))?
Exercise 10.7. Suppose a gas is pumped into a spherical balloon at a constant rate of 50 cubic
centimetres per second. Assume that the gas pressure remains constant and that the balloon
always has a spherical shape. How fast is the radius of the balloon increasing when the radius
is 5 centimetres?
Exercise 10.8. A river flows due East at a speed of 1.3 metres per second. A girl in a rowing
boat, who can row at 0.4 metres per second in still water, starts from a point on the South
bank and steers due North. The boat is also blown by a wind with speed 0.6 metres per second
from a direction of N20o E (see Figure 33).

a) Find the resultant velocity of the boat and its magnitude.

b) If the river has a constant width of 10 metres, how long does it take the girl to cross the
river, and how far upstream or downstream has she then travelled?

50
 Figure 33: The red arrows represent the velocities of the boat (b), wind (w) and flow (r).

Exercise 10.9. Read the following answered problems. Can you determine whether they are
correct? What do you think?

Problem 1.

  43  3
81 81 4
=
16 16
813/4
=
163/4

3/4
92
=
(42 )3/4
27
=
8

Problem 2.

x 1 x 1 y 2 y 1 y 2 y 3 = x 1 x 1 y 2 y 1 y 1
= x 1 y 2
51
Problem 3. Solve for x: log10 10x 1



3 2 = log 10 10
   
10x 1
log10 log10 100 = log10
3 10
!
10x  
3 1
log10 = log10
100 10
   
1000 1
log10 = log10
3x 10
1000 1
=
3x 10
3x = 10000
10000
x =
3
Exercise 10.10. Show that the following identity is true:

1 22/3

i2 =
1/3
h
1 1/3
2

52
53
References

[1] Hirst, K. E. (2006). Calculus of one variable. Springer-Verlag London Limited.

[2] Kline, M. (1972) Mathematical Thought From Ancient to Modern Times, Oxford Uni-
versity Press. 26
[3] Polya, G. (1973). How to solve it? 2nd. ed. Princeton University Press. New Jersey
(First published 1945). 5
[4] University of Queensland. (2015). MATH1050: Mathematical foundations (Course
notes) University of Queensland 12, 43, 44

54