CHAPTER 3

TRANSMISSION
CHARACTERISTICS OF
OPTICAL FIBERS

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The most important properties that affect system
performance are fiber attenuation and dispersion.

Attenuation
Reduces the amount of optical power transmitted by the fiber.
Controls the distance an optical signal (pulse) can travel as shown
in Fig. 3.1.

Dispersion
Spreads the optical pulse as it travels along the fiber.
(This spreading of the signal pulse) reduces the system
bandwidth or the information-carrying capacity of the fiber.

Attenuation reduces the

amount of optical power
Dispersion reduces the
system bandwidth

Figure 3.1: Fiber transmission properties

Figure 3.2: Pulse spreading and power loss along an optical fiber

3.2 ATTENUATION
Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels
along the fiber

(3.1)
In (dB km-1)

dB L = 10 log 10

Pi
Po

(3.2)

where dB is the signal attenuation per unit length

in decibels and L is the fiber length.

3.2 ATTENUATION
These mechanisms are influenced by the :
material composition
preparation and purification technique
waveguide structure.
They may be categorized within several major areas which
include :
material absorption
material scattering (linear and nonlinear scattering)
curve and micro-bending losses
mode coupling radiation losses
losses due to leaky modes.
There are also losses at connectors and splices.

3.3 MATERIAL ABSORPTION LOSSES

Material absorption is a major cause of signal loss
Related to the material composition and the fabrication process
for the fiber,
=> which results in the dissipation of some of the
transmitted optical power as heat in the waveguide.
The absorption of the light may be :
intrinsic (if an optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no
imperfections or impurities.
extrinsic (caused by impurities within the glass).

3.3.1 INTRINSIC ABSORPTION (caused

by the interaction of components)
In fiber optics, silica (pure glass) fibers are used predominately,
Because of their low intrinsic material absorption at
the wavelengths of operation.
In silica glass, the wavelengths of operation range from 700 nm to
1600 nm.
This wavelength of operation is between two intrinsic
absorption regions.
The first region is the ultraviolet region (below
400 nm wavelength).
The second region is the infrared region (above
2000 nm wavelength).
Fig. 3.3 shows the level of attenuation at the wavelengths of
operation.

3.3.1 INTRINSIC ABSORPTION

Figure 3.3 shows the level of attenuation at the wavelengths of operation

3.3.2 EXTRINSIC ABSORPTION (caused

by impurities within the glass)
In practical optical fibers prepared by conventional melting
techniques :
=> extrinsic absorption - major source of signal attenuation from metal element impurities.
=> Impurities namely chromium and copper - can cause
attenuation in excess of 1 dB/km in near infrared region.

Metal element contamination :

=> may be reduced to acceptable levels (i.e. one part in 1010) by
glass refilling techniques
=> such as vapor phase oxidation which largely
eliminates the effects of these metallic impurities.

Another major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused by :

=> absorption due to water (as the hydroxyl or OH
ion) dissolved in the glass.

3.3.2 EXTRINSIC ABSORPTION

Absorption spectrum for the hydroxyl group in silica.

The absorption occurs

almost harmonically at
1.38 m, 0.95 m and
0.72 m as illustrated in
Figure 3.4

3.4 LINEAR SCATTERING LOSSES

Linear scattering mechanisms cause the :
=> transfer of some or all of the optical power contained
within one propagating mode, into a different mode.
This process tends to :
=> result in attenuation of the transmitted light
=> as the transfer may be to a leaky or radiation mode
=> does not continue to propagate within the fiber
core, but is radiated from the fiber.
Linear scattering may be categorized into two major types:
=> Rayleigh
=> Mie scattering

3.4.1 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING

Rayleigh scattering is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism in
the low absorption window :
=> between the ultraviolet and infrared absorption tail.
It results from inhomogeneities such as :
=> refractive index fluctuations
=> and arise from density and compositional variations

The compositional
variations may be
reduced by improved
fabrication

Figure 3.5: Light is partially scattered in all directions

3.4.1 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING

Occurs when the size of the density fluctuation (fiber defect)
=> < 1/10th of the operating wavelength
=> Loss caused by Rayleigh scattering is proportional
to 1/4 .
The loss (dB/km) can be approximated (with in m).

= 1 . 7 0 . 85

(3.3)

As the wavelength increases, the loss caused by Rayleigh

scattering decreases.
It is apparent that the fundamental component of :
=> Rayleigh scattering is strongly reduced by operating at
the longest possible wavelength.

3.4.2 MIE SCATTERING

Occurs at inhomogeneities which are comparable in size to
the guided wavelength (or > /10).
These result from the fiber imperfections such as :
=> irregularities in the core-cladding interface
=> core-cladding refractive index differences along the
fiber length
=> diameter fluctuations, strains and bubbles.
The inhomogeneities may be reduced by :
=> removing imperfections due to the glass manufacturing
process.
=> carefully controlled extrusion and coating of the fiber.
=> increasing the fiber guidance by increasing the relative
refractive index difference.

3.5 NONLINEAR SCATTERING LOSSES

Occurs at high optical power levels
=> becomes significant above threshold power levels.
This non-linear scattering causes the optical power from
=> one mode to be transferred in either the forward or
backward direction to the same mode
=> or other modes, at a different frequency.
The most important types of nonlinear scattering within
optical fibers are :
=> Stimulated Brillouin
=> Raman scattering

3.5.1 STIMULATED BRILLOUIN SCATTERING

Occurs when signal power reaches a level :
=> sufficient to generate tiny acoustic vibrations in the
glass (typically ~ 3 mW in single mode fibers).
Acoustic waves :
=> change the density of a material and thus alter its
refractive index.
=> The resulting refractive index fluctuations can scatter
light.
The treshold power, PB

PB = 4.4 x 10-3 d2 2 v dB W

(3.4)

d = fiber core diameter; = operating wavelength (m) ;

dB = fiber attenuation (dB/km) , v = source bandwidth (i.e.
injection laser) in GHz.

Threshold power which must be launched into a single mode

optical fiber before Brillouin scattering occurs.

Scattering: The change of direction of light rays or photons after

striking small particles.

Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)

The easiest fiber nonlinearity to trigger.
When a powerful light wave travels
through a fiber it interacts with
acoustical vibration modes in the glass.
This causes a scattering mechanism to
be formed that reflects much of the light
back to the source.

http://www.fiber-optics.info/articles/fiber-types.htm

3.5.2 STIMULATED RAMAN SCATTERING

SRS similar to SBS except
=> threshold power up to three orders of magnitude
higher than the Brillouin threshold
The threshold optical power for SRS, PR

PR = 5.9 x 10-2d2dB W
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
A fiber nonlinearity similar to SBS but
having a much higher threshold. This
mechanism can also cause power to be
robbed from shorter wavelength signals
and provide gain to longer wavelength
signals.

(3.5)

Figure 3.6 shows the attenuation for low loss single mode fiber

3.6 FIBER BEND LOSS

Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on
their paths.
=> This is due to the energy in the evanescent field at the
bend exceeding the velocity of light in the cladding
=> Hence the guidance mechanism is inhibited, which
causes tight energy to be radiated from the fiber.

3.6 FIBER BEND LOSS

Large bending losses tend to occur at a critical radius of
curvature, Rc which may be estimated from :

3 n 12
4

(n

2
1

n 22

3
2

(3.6)

It may be observed from the expression given that possible bending

losses may be reduced by :
=> designing fibers with large relative refractive index
differences.
=> operating at the highest wavelength possible.

3.7 DISPERSION (another properties that affect

system performance)
Dispersion : The temporal spreading of a light signal in an
optical waveguide caused by light signals traveling at
different speeds through a fiber either due to modal or
chromatic effects.

3.7 DISPERSION (another properties that affect

system performance)
Fiber links are limited in path length by attenuation and pulse
distortion.
=> When attenuation is the major problem, the system is
said to be power limited.
=> For some links, the power is sufficient but the distorted
signal shape precludes correct reconstruction of the
transmitted message. Such systems are said to be
bandwidth limited.
Fiber bandwidth is determined by an effect called dispersion.
Dispersion causes distortion of digital and analog signals.
Dispersion can be divided into :
=> Modal dispersion (a.k.a intermodal dispersion)
=> Chromatic dispersion (a.k.a intramodal dispersion).

3.7.1 INTRAMODAL OR CHROMATIC DISPERSION

This dispersion is due to the :
=> Finite spectral linewidth of the optical source
=> then there may be propagation delay differences
between the spectral components transmitted
Delay differences or velocity variation with may be caused by :
=> dispersive properties of the material (material dispersion)
=> or guidance effects within the fiber structure known
as waveguide dispersion.

3.7.1.1 MATERIAL DISPERSION

A material is said to exhibit material dispersion when the
=> second differential of the refractive index with respect to
wavelength is not zero :

d2n/d2 0

(3.7)

ie refractive index of silica changes with the optical wavelength

For pure silica, the material dispersion :

DM=122(l - ZD/) ps/nm/km

where ZD = zero dispersion wavelength
(ZD = 1276 nm for pure silica or
approximated as 1300 nm)

The rms pulse broadening :

DM

L
d
n1

2
c
d

L DM
d 2 n1

c d2

(ns/km)

= rms spectral width (nm)

(ps/nm/km)

The unit for material dispersion, DM can be read as picosecond

of pulse spreading per nanometer of source spectral width per
km of path length.
DM is negative for wavelengths below ZD and becomes positive
above that.

From the graph variation of

DM with it maybe observed :
Material dispersion tends
to zero at wavelength
around 1.3 m.
Also note that the
attenuation is low at this
wavelength.
If we use a light source at
this ,

Fig. 3.8:

then we can have small

and therefore optimize

system in terms of
attenuation and pulse
spreading.

3.7.1.2 WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION

Significant for SM fibers
DW depends on the V parameter of the fiber
neff for any one mode varies with
=> For a SM whose propagation constant is , the fiber exhibits
waveguide dispersion when :

d2/d2 0

(3.12)

Multimode fibers
the majority of modes propagate far from cutoff
almost free of waveguide dispersion
it is generally negligible compared with material dispersion
(= 0.1 to o.2 ns/km)

3.7.1.3 TOTAL INTRAMODAL OR CHROMATIC

DISPERSION, D
The total chromatic dispersion can be obtained :
=> by adding DM and DW

(/L)dis = (DM + DW)

(3.13)

( /L) = Pulse spread per unit length (ns/km)

= rms spectral width (nm)

 Normally IDMI > IDWI in the

range of wavelengths 800 nm 900 nm.
Therefore, DW can be
neglected except for systems
operating in the region 1200
nm - 1600 nm.
The main effect of DW is to
shift ZD by an amount 30 nm 40 nm so that the total
dispersion is zero near 1.31
m.
It also reduces the total
Fig. 3.8:

dispersion from its material

value DM in the wavelength
range 1.3 m - 1.6 m.

HOW TO REDUCE PULSE SPREADING?

Pulse spreading reduces BW and data capacity of a fiber
communication link.
Therefore, we must reduce dispersion by :
=> operating at zero dispersion wavelength
=> choosing a very coherent light sources (i.e. with small
).
This is achieved by :
=> dispersion shifted fiber
=> modifying the fiber so that DM and DW cancel each
other at the lowest attenuation (i.e. at =1.55m).

Other methods are by using dispersion flattered fiber, dispersion

shifted fiber and depressed cladding fiber. All these methods modify
the refractive index profile of the fiber:
A) Dispersion shifted fiber
The waveguide dispersion is exploited to interact with the material
dispersion to shift the zero dispersion wavelength to a value which will
have the lowest attenuation. That is, the zero dispersion wavelength is
shifted from 1.276 m to 1.55 m. This is made possible due to the fact
that DW depends on fiber parameters and can be modified to interact
with DM.
B) Dispersion flattened fiber
The fiber is modified to achieve low dispersion window over the low
loss wavelength region between 1.3 m and 1.6 m.
C) Depressed cladding fiber
The fiber is made so that the core is surrounded by a thin inner cladding
whose index is low and an outer cladding whose index is slightly higher.

Figure 3.9:

3.7.2 INTERMODAL OR MODAL DISPERSION

Different modes propagating through the fiber will have

different net velocities and will arrive at different time at the
output This causes the waveform to spread.
This is called multimode or modal dispersion.
Multimode dispersion does not depend on .
Therefore even if the source has = 0, then DM and DW will
be zero, but it will still suffer multimode dispersion.

Using the ray theory model, the fastest and slowest modes
propagating in step index fiber may be represented by the
axial ray and the extreme meridional ray which is incident at
the core-cladding interface at the critical angle, c respectively
shown in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10:

Axial ray travel time:

t min

L
=
c / n1

(3.14)

The extreme ray travel time is :

n2
L / cos
n1
=
=
c / n1
c / n1
L/

t max
cos

t max

L / 2
L1

Ln
=
cn

2
1
2

(3.15)

Distance = 2L1
= L / cos
sin c = n2 / n1 = cos

Therefore the delay difference per unit length is :

Eqn. (3.15) - (3.14)

(tmax-tmin)/L = Ts/L
= n12/cn2 - n1/c
= n1 (n1 n2) / cn2
= (n1 / c)

because [(n1 n2)/ n2 = ]

= (NA)2 / 2cn1

because [NA = n1(2)1/2]

This expression gives the pulse spread per unit length that can be
used to estimate maximum pulse broadening due to intermodal
dispersion in MMF.
Therefore, in MMF all three dispersion mechanism exist
simultaneously that is material dispersion, waveguide dispersion,
and multimode dispersion.

 Hence the pulse broadening due to intermodal

dispersion :

s =

Ln 1
2 3c

L ( NA )

4 3 n1 c

ns

There exists bandwidth-length product trade-off

Suggests that weakly guiding for low dispersion
transmission

3.7.2.1 BANDWIDTH CALCULATIONS

Bit rate, BT can be estimated from the total dispersion.
Two approach :
Non-overlapping case :
Overlapping pulses :
= dictates the input pulse duration

BT = 1/2 bits/s
BT = 0.2/ bits/s

= rms output with Gaussian shape pulse

The table below shows the types of fiber and the kinds
dispersion present in each of them respectively:
Fiber Type
Multimode

Fiber Step Index

Graded Index

Single Mode Fiber

Dispersion Present
DM, DW, Modal
DM, DW, Modal
DM,DW

The formulas for modal dispersion for the

various type of fibers

Fiber
SI- MMF(sec)

Delay difference
Non Overlapping

rms pulse broadening

Overlapping
(Gaussian)

GRIN-MMF(sec)

n1
g =
L
8c

n1 L
g =
20c 3

Max bit rate(bit/sec)

1
BT =
2

0.2
BT =

L( NA) 2
s
L( NA) 2 Ln1
=
s =
s =
=
2cn1
c
4 3cn1 2 3
2

3.8 OVERALL FIBER DISPERSION

Comprise both intramodal and intermodal
Total rms broadening T :

T = (C2 + n2 )1/2

where:
C is the intramodal or chromatic broadening and
n is the intermodal broadening (s for MM-SI and g for
MM-GRIN
The intramodal term c consist of pulse broadening due to
both material and waveguide dispersion.
However, since waveguide dispersion is generally negligible
compared with material dispersion in multimode fibers, then

c = m .