The Journal of Strain Analysis for Engineering

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Measurement of residual stresses in T-plate weldments

R. C Wimpory, P. S May, N. P O'Dowd, G. A Webster, D J Smith and E Kingston
The Journal of Strain Analysis for Engineering Design 2003 38: 349
DOI: 10.1243/03093240360692931
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349

Measurement of residual stresses in T-plate weldments

R C Wimpory1 , P S May1** , N P ODowd1* , G A Webster1 , D J Smith2 and E Kingston2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, UK
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol, UK

Abstract: Tensile welding residual stresses can, in combination with operating stresses, lead to
premature failure of components by fatigue and/or fracture. It is therefore important that welding
residual stresses are accounted for in design and assessment of engineering components and
structures. In this work residual stress distributions, obtained from measurements on a number of
ferritic steel T-plate weldments using the neutron diffraction technique and the deep-hole drilling
method, are presented. It has been found that the residual stress distributions for three different plate
sizes are of similar shape when distances are normalized by plate thickness. It has also been found that
the conservatisms in residual stress proles recommended in current fracture mechanics-based safety
assessment procedures can be signicantof yield strength magnitude in certain cases. Based on the
data presented here a new, less-conservative transverse residual stress upper bound distribution is
proposed for the T-plate weldment geometry. The extent of the plastic zone developed during the
welding process has also been estimated by use of Vickers hardness and neutron diffraction
measurements. It has been found that the measured plastic zone sizes are considerably smaller than
those predicted by existing methods. The implications of the use of the plastic zone size as an indicator
of the residual stress distributions are discussed.
Keywords: residual stresses, T-plate weldments, fatigue, fracture, ferritic steel, neutron diffraction
method, deep-hole drilling method

NOTATION
C
dhkl

dhkl
DHD
E
E110
E211
FE
FWHM
HAZ
HV
ILL
ND

constant used in the denition of weld

plastic zone size
spacing of the atomic plane hkl
initial spacing of the atomic plane hkl
deep-hole drilling
Youngs modulus
Youngs modulus for the (110) plane
Youngs modulus for the (211) plane
nite element
full-width half-maximum
heat-affected zone
Vickers hardness
Institute Laue Lagevin
neutron diffraction

The MS was received on 26 November 2002 and was accepted after

revision for publication on 19 May 2003.
* Corresponding author: Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7
2AZ, UK.
** Present address: Atkins Consultants, London, UK.

PWHT
q
r0
t
w
wa
x, y, z

post-weld heat treatment

weld arc power
weld plastic zone size
weld plate thickness
weld plate width
width of attachment
coordinate directions

Ddhkl

change in spacing of the atomic plane hkl

due to a residual stress eld
change in Bragg peak angle due to a
residual stress eld
strain
Cartesian components of strain
weld process efciency
Bragg peak angle corresponding to the
plane hkl
neutron wavelength
Poissons ratio
Poissons ratio for the (110) plane
Poissons ratio for the (211) plane
Cartesian components of stress
yield stress
principal stresses
weld travel speed

Dyhkl
e
ex , ey , ez
Z
yhkl
l
n
n110
n211
sx , sy , sz
sYP
s1 , s2 , s3
u

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350

R C WIMPORY, P S MAY, N P ODOWD, G A WEBSTER, D J SMITH AND E KINGSTON

INTRODUCTION

Welding residual stresses are considered in safety

assessment procedures, such as British Energy code R6
[1] and BS 7910 [2]. In these procedures, the residual
(secondary) stresses are superimposed on the applied
(primary) stress in conjunction with a plasticity interaction factor, which is dependent on the extent of
plasticity generated in the component. Recommendations are provided in the procedures with regard to the
magnitude and distribution of the residual stress elds
that should be assumed for a range of welded geometries
when measurements are not available. Also, allowances
for post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) are indicated.
Only limited residual stress data are available for welded
T-plate joints [3] and there is therefore a strong need for
further measurements on this weld geometry in order to
provide a range of distributions for use in failure
assessments. Allen et al. [4] carried out what is believed
to be the earliest neutron diffraction investigation on Tplate weldments. However, the complete stress tensor
was calculated only at two positions for each specimen.
Perhaps the most relevant measurements are those of
Holden et al. [5] who measured residual stress distributions in a 25 mm thick ferritic steel T-plate weld of
350 mm length using the neutron diffraction method and
of Cheng and Finnie [6] who used the crack compliance
method to measure the residual stress distribution in a
166 mm thick A533-B steel plate welded to a 51 mm
attachment. In this work, residual stress distributions in

Fig. 1

T-plate weldments made from the steel BS EN 10025

Grade S355 J2G3 [7] have been obtained using the
neutron diffraction (ND) and deep hole drilling (DHD)
methods [8, 9]. The neutron diffraction measurements
were carried out at three institutions, the Institute Laue
Langevin (ILL), Grenoble, France, the NFL neutron
facility of the University of Uppsala, Studsvik, Sweden,
and the ISIS neutron source at the Rutherford Appleton
Laboratory, UK. Measurements have been made on
three specimen sizes in the as-welded and heat-treated
conditions, in order to allow a comprehensive picture of
residual stress distributions in T-plate joints to be
developed.

MATERIAL AND SPECIMEN

SPECIFICATIONS

T-plate weldments of 25, 50 and 100 mm thickness were

manufactured from the steel BS EN 10025 Grade S355
J2G3. This is a low-carbon ferritic steel and represents a
group of materials commonly used in the offshore and
power generation industries.
Uniaxial tensile tests were carried out on 25 and
50 mm plate material to verify the material properties
prescribed by B3 EN 10025. The specimens were
machined from the plate material with the centre-line
of the sample parallel to the rolling direction of the
plate. It is seen in Fig. 1 that the material shows an

Uniaxial stressstrain curves obtained from 25 and 50 mm plate material, BS EN 10025 S355 J3G3
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MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN T-PLATE WELDMENTS

Table 1

Specic tensile properties for BS EN

10025 S355 J2G3

Source
25 mm plate
50 mm plate
BS EN 10025

sYP (MPa)

su (MPa)

E (GPa)

358
348
345/335

510
515
490630

212
212

upper yield strength of approximately 400 MPa with an

associated Luders plateau (up to approximately 2 per
cent strain). Measured material properties are provided
in Table 1. The quoted values from BS EN 10025 [7] are
also included for comparison. The values for the yield
stress, sYP, 345/335 MPa from BS EN 10025, are the
minimum values specied for 25 and 50 mm plate
respectively, and the two values for the ultimate tensile
stress su indicate the range within which the ultimate
stress is required to lie in the standard.

WELD DETAILS

Manual metal arc (MMA) welding was performed at

TWI to manufacture the T-plate weld samples of base
plate thickness w 25, 50 and 100 mm from the steel
(see Fig. 2). In all cases the thickness of the attachment,
wa w. Full details of the welding procedure are
provided in reference [10], but a short summary of the
most relevant aspects is given here.
The welding was carried out with a welding consumable (electrode) Oerlikon Tenacito 38R, which is in
common use in the offshore industry. The yield stress
and ultimate tensile strength of the weld material are 492

Fig. 2

351

and 590 MPa respectively [10]. The 25 mm T-llet weld,

shown in Fig. 2b, was manufactured from 300 mm
length plate with eight weld passes (four on each side of
the weld). Partial penetration T-plate welds were made
from the 50 and 100 mm plate thickness (see Figs 2a and
c). These were manufactured with 18 and 90 weld passes
respectively. A summary of the weld parameters for the
different sample geometries is presented in Table 2;
Fig. 3 shows the welding sequence. An alternating
depositioning sequence was used for all the samples to
minimize distortion during the welding process. The 25
and 50 mm plates were restrained by being clamped
during welding to rigid strongbacks. The use of strongbacks was not deemed necessary for the 100 mm weld
because of its intrinsic rigidity. To inhibit cracking,
heating blankets were used to ensure that the temperature of the plates never dropped below 250 8C during
the welding process.
The majority of the T-plate welds were subsequently
cut into approximately 12.5 mm thick slices to provide
specimens for the non-destructive neutron diffraction
measurements. A further 100 mm thick slice of the
100 mm T-plate weld was prepared for the semidestructive deep-hole drilling method.

RESIDUAL STRESS MEASUREMENT

METHODS

Residual stress measurements have been carried out

using the neutron diffraction method and the deep-hole
drilling method. These methods are described briey
below.

Cross-sections of T-plate weld samples used in this investigation (all dimensions in mm)
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R C WIMPORY, P S MAY, N P ODOWD, G A WEBSTER, D J SMITH AND E KINGSTON

Table 2

4.1

Weld parameters for different sample geometries

Plate thickness (mm)

Weld type

Restraint

Passes

Current (A)

Voltage (V)

Heat input (kJ/mm)

Weld area/(wwa )

25
50
100

T-llet
T-butt
T-butt

Yes
Yes
No

8
18
90

250
170240
170240

24
2123
2123

2.02.5
2.02.5
1.82.2

0.18
0.11
0.13

The neutron diffraction (ND) technique

Diffraction methods for measuring residual stress can be

used to determine nondestructively the stress state inside
a sample, by measuring changes in lattice spacing from
the `unstressed state. Neutrons have a penetration
depth of several cm in most metals, allowing the stress
state deep inside a sample to be determined [11]. When
illuminated by radiation of wavelength similar to the
interplanar spacing, crystalline materials diffract this
radiation as distinctive Bragg peaks. The angle, y, at
which any given peak occurs can be calculated using

Fig. 3

Braggs law of diffraction:

2dhkl sin yhkl l

1a

where l is the wavelength of the radiation, dhkl is the

spacing of the lattice plane responsible for the Bragg
peak for a given hkl plane and yhkl is the corresponding Bragg angle. The peak is observed at an angle of
2yhkl from the incident beam. In practice the angle, 2yhkl ,
is obtained through the use of `peak tting routines,
which generally also supply the associated uncertainty in
the value of 2yhkl related to the goodness of t. Thus if

Geometry (not to scale) and welding sequence for (a) 25 mm, (b) 50 mm and (c) 100 mm T-plate
specimens. (From reference [10])
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MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN T-PLATE WELDMENTS

the neutron wavelength l is known and the diffraction

angle yhkl is measured, the lattice spacing dhkl may be
0
obtained from equation (1a). Strain Ddhkl =dhkl
, where
0 is the unstressed lattice spacing) can subsequently be
dhkl
calculated from the differentiated form of the Bragg
equation:


e

Ddhkl
0
dhkl

Dyhkl cot yhkl

1b

and the stress elds obtained directly from the linear

elastic properties of the material and the measured
strains in the relevant directions.
Neutrons can be generated in a nuclear ssion reactor
or at a spallation source. Generally at reactor sources, a
monochromatic beam of neutrons is obtained whereas
at spallation sources a polychromatic beam is employed.
Therefore at a reactor source a single lattice plane is
used to obtain the strain in a material, while for a
spallation source, strain is normally determined from
many planes using the Rietveld renement method [11].
In general, measurements in six directions at a point
are required to dene completely the stress state.
However, when the principal stress directions are
known, three orientations sufce and when the principal
directions coincide with the coordinate measurement
directions x, y and z, the principal stresses s1 , s2 and s3
in terms of the strains ex , ey , ez become
E
1 nex ney ez
1 n1 2n
E
1 ney nex ez
s2 sy
1 n1 2n
E
1 nez nex ey
s3 sz
1 n1 2n

s1 sx

2
where E is the elastic modulus and n is Poissons ratio.
Note that equations (2) can be used to obtain sx , sy
and sz , regardless of whether these are the principal
stresses.
The values of E and n used in equations (2) generally
depend on the type of source used. In this work the bulk
properties E 212 MPa and n 0:3 have been used for
the data from the spallation source, as strains are
averaged over a number of lattice planes. For the
monochromatic measurements, the values used were
those for the (211) plane (which is the recommended
plane for ferritic steels [11]), E211 224 MPa, n211
0:28. These values have been obtained by taking the
average of the Voigt and Reuss solutions for the linear
elastic constants [12]. [One measurement was made
using the (110) plane rather than the (211) plane but
E110 E211 and n110 n211 so the same values are used
for all the measurements.]

353

4.1.1 Experimental procedure for ND measurements

Neutron diffraction measurements were carried out on
the 25 mm T-plate weld using two monochromatic
neutron sources and one polychromatic source. The
monochromatic sources were the Institut Laue Langevin
(ILL), Grenoble, France, and the NFL neutron facility
of the University of Uppsala, Studsvik, Sweden, whereas
the polychromatic source used was that at the ISIS
neutron facility at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory,
UK. Neutron diffraction measurements were also made
on the 50 and 100 mm T-plate welds using the
monochromatic neutron source at the ILL.
In all neutron experiments 12.5 mm weld slices were
used in order to reduce the neutron path length (which
controls the amount of neutron beam time required) in
the experiments. Note that slicing the specimens in this
way may relax in-plane as well as out-of-plane stresses.
However, provided in-plane shear stresses are not
signicant, the specimen is unrestrained and no reverse
yielding occurs during cutting; any in-plane stress
redistribution is expected to be small [13].
Figure 4 shows a schematic of a typical T-plate sample
with the measuring line of main interest indicated. The
majority of the measurements were carried out on the
centre-line of the sample, i.e. z t=2 where t 12:5 mm.
In order to identify the region of interest, the neutron
beam was masked to provide a small sampling volume at
each experimental point. Typically a 26262 mm3
sampling volume was used and measurements were
made at about 12 locations across a specimen width.
Strains were measured in three directions, i.e. the
transverse x, normal y and longitudinal z directions
(see Fig. 4), which allows the three components of stress
in these directions to be determined via equations (2).
The orientation of the sample in the instrument for the
longitudinal and transverse measurements was as shown
in Fig. 4. The stresses in the normal direction were
measured with the sample rotated by 908 about the
longitudinal axis in Fig. 4. Further details of the
measurements are given in Table 3.
Reference measurements were made in the parent
material at an extremity of the sample to obtain the lattice
spacing for the unstressed material. The strain at a point is
then measured relative to this `strain-free lattice spacing.
Note that this approach does not take into account local
changes in strain-free lattice spacing due to intergranular/
interphase strains at the micro level [13, 14].

4.2

The deep-hole drilling (DHD) method

The deep-hole drilling method was developed as an

extension of the standard hole drilling technique to
allow the full through-thickness stress eld of a specimen to be obtained [8, 9]. This procedure can be divided
into four steps: (a) a smooth reference hole is drilled into

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R C WIMPORY, P S MAY, N P ODOWD, G A WEBSTER, D J SMITH AND E KINGSTON

Fig. 4
Table 3

T-plate weld with measurement directions indicated, where the origin of the axes is at the weld toe

Experimental parameters for measurement on T-plate welds. The sampling volumes are dened as input width 6 input
height 6 output width

Plate width (mm)

Site

Plane hkl

Sampling volume (mm3 )

2y [equation (1)] (deg)

Wavelength A

E (GPa)

25
25
25
25
25
50
100

ISIS
ILL
Studsvik
ILL
ILL
ILL
ILL

Rietveld
211
211
211
110
211
211

26261:4
26261:2
26262
26161
2:56161
26261:2
16161:2

90
109.4
93.5
109.4
119.95
109.4
109.4

Polychromatic
1.91
1.71
1.91
3.50
1.91
1.91

212
224
224
224
224
224
224

0.3
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28

the sample, (b) the diameter of the reference hole is

measured at different depths and angles, (c) a column of
material containing the reference hole (the `core) is
extracted [usually by electric discharge machining
(EDM)] and (d) the diameter of the reference hole is
measured again at the same locations to obtain the
change in diameter as a function of angle and depth.
This change in diameter of the reference hole is then
related to the in-plane residual stress in the sample. It is
assumed that the stress relieved by the introduction of
the initial reference hole is negligible and the nal
cylinder containing the reference hole is completely
stress free after it is removed. The out-of-plane
(through-thickness) stresses in the sample can also be
calculated if the axial distortion of the core is recorded.

A reference hole was drilled through the bushes and

specimen by a single pass with a gundrill of 3.175 mm
diameter and the diameter of the reference hole was
measured using an air probe at 0.2 mm steps along its
whole length. The diameter measurement was then
repeated at 108 intervals. Having trepanned the core the
hole diameter was re-measured along its whole length,
again at 0.2 mm steps and at 108 intervals. No measurements of the axial distortion of the core were made. The
measured change in diameter of the hole provides longitudinal and transverse stress distributions, which are
reported in the next section. For DHD measurements, a
typical error in the measured residual stress for a material
with a Youngs modulus of 212 GPa is + 33 MPa.

5
4.2.1

Experimental procedure for DHD measurements

The geometry of the specimen and measurement

location is illustrated in Fig. 5. For the measurement
carried out here the reference hole was introduced into
the sample by gun drilling, which allows for accurate
drilling of straight deep holes. Bushes were attached to
the sample to allow for any bell mouthing associated
with the gun drilling and to provide an accurate
reference point for the measurement of the hole.

RESIDUAL STRESS PROFILES (AS-WELDED)

Here the measured residual stress distributions of the

w 25, 50 and 100 mm T-plate welds in the as-welded
condition are presented.

5.1

Neutron measurements

The multiple measurements taken on the 25 mm weld

enabled an average of ve sets of data to be calculated.

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MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN T-PLATE WELDMENTS

355

Fig. 5 Location of deep-hole drilling measurements

The average distributions from the ve sets of measurement are presented in Fig. 6. The individual data sets are
shown in Fig. 7. A modied Bayesian average of the
data was used [15, 16], which reduces the inuence of
outlying data points within a data set and therefore
provides a more realistic estimate of the true distribution. An estimate of the uncertainty of each data set
(residual stress distribution) can be obtained by comparing the data set with this average distribution to provide
an estimate of the overall uncertainty in the data. In
Table 4 the standard deviations of each individual data
set about the average are presented. The standard
deviations obtained from the neutron Bragg peak tting
routines are also provided for each data set (this is the
average for all points in each data set). It appears that
the uncertainty obtained from the peak tting routines is

Fig. 6

greater than that from the modied Bayesian analysis.

The overall uncertainty in the measurements indicated
in Fig. 6 is approximately 20 MPa, which is slightly less
than the average of the uncertainties of the peak tting
routines in Table 4.
From Fig. 6 the peak transverse stress in the 25 mm Tplate weld is estimated to be approximately
120 + 20 MPa at the weld toe &34 per cent of the
material yield stress). It appears that the stress eld is
almost hydrostatic tension s x &sy &sz close to the toe
of the weld. The transverse stress distribution sx shown
in Fig. 6 simultaneously satises the force and bending
moment equilibrium balance to within + 5 MPa (assuming that the transverse stress is independent of z).
Measurements on 12.5 mm thick slices of 50 and
100 mm T-plate welds were carried out at ILL using the

Bayesian averages of measured stress distributions in the 25 mm T-plate weld

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R C WIMPORY, P S MAY, N P ODOWD, G A WEBSTER, D J SMITH AND E KINGSTON

Fig. 7

Individual data sets of 25 mm T-plate weld residual stresses in (a) the transverse direction, (b) the
longitudinal direction and (c) the normal direction

Table 4

Experimental uncertainties in ND measurements on the 25 mm specimen

Laboratory

Crystal plane hkl

Standard deviation of
data set about average
(MPa)

ISIS
ILL
Studsvik
ILL
ILL

Rietveld
211
211
211
110

+14
+20
+16
+18
+26

experimental parameters quoted in Table 3. Analyses

have indicated that a 33 MPa shift in transverse stress
was required to simultaneously satisfy the force and
bending moment equilibrium conditions for the 50 mm
weld (indicating a possible inaccuracy in the reference
`strain-free lattice spacing estimation) and 5 MPa for
the 100 mm weld. Figures 8a and b show the three stress
components for the 50 and 100 mm specimens respec-

Standard deviation obtained

from peak tting routines
(MPa)
+25
+22
+23
+22
+25

tively. The transverse distributions have been shifted to

satisfy equilibrium in each case. A peak stress of
230+25 MPa &64 per cent of the material yield stress)
was measured at 4 mm from the weld toe in the 50 mm
weld and 270 + 40 MPa &75 per cent of the material
yield stress) at the weld toe for the 100 mm weld. In
Fig. 9 the stresses are replotted with distances normalized by the plate width, w. It may be noted that for all

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MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN T-PLATE WELDMENTS

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

Residual stress distributions: (a) 50 mm and (b) 100 mm specimens

Comparison of measured transverse stress distributions in all welds

specimens, the transverse stress distributions are similar

and become compressive at approximately the same
normalized distance, y=w 0:2, from the weld toe. The
similarity in the transverse residual stresses may be due
to the geometrical similarity of the welds (though the
smallest weld is a llet weld, while the other two are
partially penetrating welds) and to the cross-sectional
area of the weld metal being in approximately the same
proportion for all three weld sizes (see Table 2). All three
stress components in the 50 mm specimen show a drop
near the weld toe, which is not observed in the 25 and
100 mm specimens. This may be due to small differences
between the weld geometries local to the toe.

5.2

357

Deep-hole drilling measurements

Deep-hole drilling measurements were carried out on the

100 mm T-plate specimen. Two sets of measurements

were performed, the rst set being incomplete due to

difculties with the experimental apparatus. The residual
stress distributions in the transverse and longitudinal
directions obtained from these measurements are shown
in Figs 10 and 11 respectively. Equilibrium calculations,
based on the assumption that the transverse stress is
uniform in the longitudinal z direction, have shown
that the transverse stress distribution obtained from the
second deep-hole drilling measurement requires a
38 MPa offset to satisfy force and bending moment
equilibrium and this shifted curve is also included in
Fig. 10a. (The magnitude of the shift is close to the
+ 33 MPa experimental uncertainty for these measurements.) No equilibrium calculation can be performed on
the rst data set, as the data are incomplete. It may be
noted that the two hole drilling measurements agree very
well when the second data set is shifted.
In Fig. 10b the deep-hole drilling measurements are
compared with those obtained from neutron diffraction.
Excellent agreement between the two methods is clear,
with a peak stress of approximately 240 MPa (67 per
cent of the material yield stress) at a distance of 3 mm
from the weld toe. The close agreement between the ND
and DHD measurements seen in Fig. 10b provides
condence in the accuracy of both measurement
techniques. It also suggests that the in-plane residual
stress eld has not been appreciably affected by the
slicing of the sample for the ND measurements (note
that the DHD measurements were on a 100 mm long
plate). A similar result has been observed in ND
measurements on butt-welded plates of different thickness [13]; i.e. in-plane stresses were unaffected by slicing
a complete cross-section parallel to the transverse
direction (perpendicular to the welding direction).
Figure 11, however, shows that the out-of-plane stress
(longitudinal direction) eld is strongly affected by
slicing the specimen. The ND results exhibit approximately zero stress except near to the weld toe. Also it

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R C WIMPORY, P S MAY, N P ODOWD, G A WEBSTER, D J SMITH AND E KINGSTON

Fig. 10

Transverse stresses in the 100 mm T-plate (a) obtained by DHD, (b) ND measurement on a 12.5 mm
slice and DHD measurement

can be seen that the transverse and longitudinal residual

stress proles obtained using DHD exhibit a similar
form and magnitude (compare Figs 10 and 11), a trend
also observed for the ND measurements on the 25 mm
specimen (see Fig. 6).

6.1

RESIDUAL STRESS PROFILES AFTER POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT

properties in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the weld.

To assess the reduction in residual stress due to PWHT,
measurements have been made on a 12.5 mm thick slice
of the 25 mm T-plate weld in the PWHT condition. The
PWHT essentially involved holding the specimen at a
temperature of 600 8C for 1 hour, as recommended in
BS 5500 [17]. Note that the PWHT period depends on
the specimen size; larger or thicker specimens would be
heated over longer periods of time.

Post-weld heat treatment

The integrity of a welded joint can often be enhanced

through the application of post-weld heat treatment
(PWHT), as it may reduce the magnitude of the residual
stresses in the component and improve the material

Fig. 11

Longitudinal stresses in the 100 mm T-plate obtained

by ND on a 12.5 mm slice and by DHD

6.2

Neutron diffraction results

The neutron diffraction measurements were made at

ISIS on the PWHT specimen using similar experimental
parameters to those given in Table 3 for the as-received
T-plate welds. Due to time restrictions, measurements
were only possible in the transverse and longitudinal
directions. To estimate the residual stresses in the
samples, plane stress conditions were assumed (i.e.
longitudinal stress, sz 0 in accordance, approximately, with the ndings in Figs 6 and 8 away from
the weld toe). Figure 12 shows a comparison of the
residual stresses from the neutron measurements in the
transverse direction of the as-welded and PWHT
samples. It can be seen that the stresses after PWHT
have reduced across the entire cross-section to zero, to
within an experimental accuracy of + 20 MPa. BS 7910
[2] recommends that the residual stress distribution after
PWHT be assumed to be constant and equal to 20 per
cent of the lesser of the parent or weld material yield
stress in the transverse direction. This implies that these
stresses should be taken to be equal to about 70 MPa for
this steel. This value is somewhat higher than the result
shown in Fig. 12.

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MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN T-PLATE WELDMENTS

7.1

Fig. 12

Transverse residual stress in 25 mm as-welded and

after PWHT

ESTIMATION OF THE PLASTIC ZONE SIZE

During the welding procedure, plastic strains are

introduced into a sample. It has been suggested by
Leggatt [18] that the extent of the plastic zone r0
determines the position from the weld toe at which the
residual stress rst becomes compressive and estimates
of plastic zone size are therefore useful in predicting
residual stress distributions for welded joints. In this
section, the plastic zone sizes in the welded specimens
are determined using Vickers hardness measurements
[19] and the full-width half-maximum (FWHM) of the
measured neutron diffraction peaks [20]. The values
obtained are compared with estimates obtained in
references [1] and [2].

Fig. 13

359

Hardness investigation on the welded samples

It is well known that there is an approximate relationship between yield strength (or ow stress) and Vickers
hardness (see, for example, reference [21]). By comparing the hardness (HV) and yield strength sYP of a wide
range of carbon steels (see, for example, reference [22]),
it was found that the ratio sYP =HV was in the range
2.4 + 0.4 sYP in MPa and HV in kgf/mm2 ). Vickers
hardness tests on the as-received plate indicate that the
appropriate sYP =HV ratio for the steel under examination in this work is 2.0.
To assess the variation in material ow stress around
the weld toe as a result of the welding procedure,
Vickers hardness tests have been carried out. Microstructural examination of the 25 and 50 mm specimens
indicates that the size of the heat-affected zone (HAZ),
where microstructural changes are most signicant, is
approximately 5 mm. Outside this region it has been
assumed that changes in ow stress are associated with
plastic deformation only and therefore any increase in
hardness may be interpreted as due to plastic deformation.
Vickers hardness measurements were taken on the
surface of the T-plate specimens along line YY in Fig. 4.
The measured hardness values were scaled by 2.0 to give
the apparent material yield strength and will be
compared with the results from the ND estimates of
plastic zone sizes, described in the next section.

7.2

FWHM investigation on the welded samples

In a neutron diffraction measurement, the full-width

half-maximum (FWHM) of the Bragg peak can be
related to the number of dislocations in a material [20]

Comparison of FWHM (6 1120) measurements with a typical tensile stressstrain curve of the material
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R C WIMPORY, P S MAY, N P ODOWD, G A WEBSTER, D J SMITH AND E KINGSTON

and hence the plastic strain. Therefore any change in the

FWHM from the reference distribution (on an
unstressed sample) may be linked to an increase in
plastic deformation and thus the plastic zone may be
determined as the region where the FWHM is above
that for the undeformed material.
Figure 13 shows scaled FWHM results for specially
prepared pre-strained coupon samples measured at ILL.
Further details of these measurements are available in
reference [23]. The scaling factor 1120 was chosen so
that the resultant stressstrain curve from the FWHM
analysis closely approximated the measured uniaxial
tensile response of the material. The good agreement
seen in Fig. 13 between the scaled FWHM data and the
material stressstrain curve supports its use as a
predictor of plastic strain.
Figure 14 shows plots of scaled FWHM proles for
the three specimens measured at ILL compared with the
results obtained from the Vickers hardness tests. At each

Fig. 14

position the average FWHM of the normal, longitudinal

and transverse directions was used. The close agreement
between the results from the two independent methods is
noted and, given the uncertainties inherent in both
techniques in precisely locating the onset of plastic
deformations in Fig. 14, the plastic zone size may be
estimated as 9+2 mm for the 25 mm weld, 23+5 mm
for the 50 mm weld and 15+3 mm for the 100 mm weld.
The differences may be associated with the increased
number of weld passes between the 50 and 25 mm welds
(Fig. 3) and the lower heat input used for the 100 mm
weld (see Table 2). Note that these values are not
consistent with the size of the tensile transverse residual
stress region for the specimens, which are &5, 10 and
20 mm for the 25, 50 and 100 mm specimens respectively
(see Figs 6 and 8). Thus it seems the suggestion in
reference [18] that the size of the tensile region
corresponds with the plastic zone size is not valid here.
However, both the 25 and 50 mm plates were globally

Comparison of variation in ow stress (yield point) estimated from FWHM and Vickers hardness
measurements: (a) 25 mm weld, (b) 50 mm weld and (c) 100 mm weld
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MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN T-PLATE WELDMENTS

restrained during welding and so may not satisfy the

assumption in reference [18] that the restraint is very
localized to the weld. Futhermore, it should be pointed
out that the assumption that the extent of the zone of
residual tension at the weld toe is equal to the plastic
zone size will lead to conservative predictions of residual
stress (see section 9).

COMPARISON OF MEASURED RESIDUAL

STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS WITH LITERATURE

In this section a comparison is made between the

measured residual stress distributions and relevant
distributions found in the literature, for a range of
steels with ow stress of 356421 MPa. Allen et al. [4]
carried out ND investigations on 25 mm thick T-plate
weldments of a BS 4360 steel. The complete strain tensor
was measured at two points on two similar welds.
Holden et al. [5] also used the ND method to obtain
residual stress distributions in a 25 mm thick ferritic steel
T-plate weld while Cheng and Finnie [6] used the crack
compliance method to measure the residual stress
distribution in a 166 mm thick A533-B steel plate welded
to a 51 mm attachment. Finite element (FE) predictions
of the transverse residual stress eld in a Lloyds LT60
steel 26 mm T-plate weld have been obtained by Mok
and Pick [24].
Figure 15 illustrates the residual stress distributions
measured in the 25, 50 and 100 mm T-plate welds and
the distributions obtained from the literature as
described above. Here stresses have been normalized
by sYP and distances by w. It is seen that the measured
residual stress distribution for the 25 mm weld is

Fig. 15

361

considerably lower in peak stress magnitude than the

distributions obtained from the literature, but that the
shape of the distribution is similar. As discussed
previously, it is believed that slicing the weldment
does not signicantly alter the in-plane stresses and the
observed differences are believed to be due to differences in specimen size and welding conditions, i.e. the
use of strongbacks, different heat inputs and interpass
heating. The transverse residual stress distributions
measured on the 50 and 100 mm T-plate joints show
better agreement with those in the literaturein
particular the close agreement between the 166 mm
sample [6] and the 100 mm T-plate sample is noted. The
stresses from the Allen et al. [4] specimens (calculated
from the strain data provided in reference [4]) are
somewhat lower than the other measurements near the
weld toe. However, it should be pointed out that for
these investigations a relatively large sampling volume
46464 mm3 was used (compared to a weld width of
25 mm), which will tend to reduce the peak stress
magnitude.
As discussed previously, if it is assumed that the
transverse stress is uniform in the longitudinal z
direction, then an equilibrium condition can be imposed
on the distributions in Fig. 15a. (Note that the FE
prediction of Mok and Pick satises equilibrium.)
Figure 15b shows a comparison of the transverse
residual stress proles with the same proles after
equilibrium shift (where necessary). For the Allen et
al. data an equilibrium shift is not possible as the stress
proles are incomplete. Shifts in the proles were found
to be no more than +0:11sYP to achieve force balance
equilibrium. It is seen that the shifted curves now agree
more closely (differences are now on the order of
+0:25sYP ).

Transverse residual stress distributions measured in 25, 50 and 100 mm T-plate welds compared to
data from the literature: (a) as-measured and (b) after satisfying force balance equilibrium
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R C WIMPORY, P S MAY, N P ODOWD, G A WEBSTER, D J SMITH AND E KINGSTON

COMPARISON WITH RECOMMENDED

STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN R6 AND BS 7910

British Energy R6 [1] and BS 7910 [2] provide

compendia containing representative residual stress
distributions for a variety of weld geometries. To assess
the conservatism of the recommended residual stress
distributions, they are compared to the measured
distributions in this section.

R6). However, equation (5) is not used in BS 7910. If

equation (4) results in a plastic zone greater than the
base plate width, the stress is taken to be equal to the
yield strength across the whole specimen thickness. This
distribution is referred to here as BS 7910(1).
The second transverse residual stress distribution is a
polynomial equation representing an upper bound t to
experimental data and is given by
sres sYP 0:97 2:3267y=w 24:125y=w2
42:485y=w3 21:087y=w4

9.1

R6 distribution for T-plate geometries [1]

In the R6 procedure, the recommended throughthickness transverse residual stress distribution in Tplate welded joints consists of an upper bound bilinear
function. The peak stress is at the weld toe and equal to
the parent material yield stress and reduces linearly to
zero at a distance r0 from the weld toe. The distance r0
represents the size of the yielded zone as recommended
by Leggatt [18] and can be estimated from

C Zq 1=2
r0
3
sYP u
where sYP is the parent material yield stress (or 0.2 per
cent proof strength of the parent material), Z is a process
efciency parameter, q is the arc power (in J/s) and u is
the weld travel speed (in mm/s). C is a constant that
depends on the coefcient of thermal expansion,
Youngs modulus, density and specic heat of a
material. Typical values of C and Z are included in the
R6 document for a range of materials. For ferritic steels
the values provided are C 153 N mm=J and Z 0:8,
resulting in a simplied version of equation (3):


r0

122q 1=2
sYP u

If equation (3) or (4) results in a plastic zone greater

than the base plate width r0 > w, r0 must be recalculated using
r0

9.2

1:033C
Zq
sYP uw 0:5wa

This distribution is referred to here as BS 7910(2).

R6 stipulates a validity range for the use of their
residual stress distributions for T-plate welds as w 25
100 mm, sYP 375420 MPa and q=v 1:4 kJ= mm (a
rather limited range). However, validity ranges for Tplate welds do not appear to be provided in BS 7910.

9.3

Comparison of measured plastic zone sizes with BS

7910 and R6

Table 5 provides the calculated plastic zone sizes using

equations (4). and (5) from R6 and BS 7910. The values
here are identical for w > 25 mm and are both given by
equation (4). For W 25 mm, in R6 equation (5) is
used to dene the plastic zone size while following BS
7910 gives r0 w. The measured plastic zone sizes are
also included in Table 5 (see section 9.2) for comparison.
It may be seen that equations (4) and (5) overestimate
the plastic zone sizes in all the specimens (conservative
assumption). This may be explained by the use of
estimates for C and Z in equation (3), which may not be
appropriate for this particular steel.
Figure 16 shows the measured transverse residual
stress distributions in the 25, 50 and 100 mm T-plates
respectively compared to the distributions recommended
by R6 and BS 7910. The recommended distributions
provide a rather poor estimation of the residual stresses
in the 25 mm weld (Fig. 16a), both in terms of
magnitude and shape, though they are conservative
(conservatisms can be as high as yield stress in
magnitude at some locations). For the 50 mm weld
(Fig. 16b), the R6 and BS 7910(1) distributions provide
a better estimate of the residual stress eld than BS

BS 7910 distributions for T-plate geometries [2]

BS 7910 provides two transverse residual stress distributions for T-plate joints. The rst follows the approach in
R6, with the distribution dependent on the size of the
plastic zone. When the plastic zone, calculated via
equation (3) or (4) is less than the base plate thickness
the residual stress is taken to be that of the parent
material yield stress level at the weld toe, reducing
linearly to zero over the size of the yielded zone (as in

Table 5

Calculated and measured plastic zone sizes in T-plate

welds

Base plate
thickness w (mm)

R6 (mm)

BS 7910 (mm)

Measured (mm)

25
50
100

23.5
29.2
27.2

25
29.2
27.2

12 + 2
20 + 5
15 + 3

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MEASUREMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN T-PLATE WELDMENTS

363

7910(2), although the former distributions are nonconservative in the region y=w > 0:8. Finally, for the
100 mm weld (Fig. 16c), the R6 and BS 7910(1)
distributions provide a good conservative estimate for
y=w 4 0:8 with the BS 7910(2) distribution being again
somewhat overconservative.
It should be pointed out that the recommended
residual stress distributions in R6 and BS 7910 are
based on limited experimental data and indeed the heat
input, q=n, for the T-plate welds in this study is in the
range 1.8 kJ/mm 4 q=n 4 2:5 kJ= mm (see Table 2),
which is greater than the value of 1.4 kJ/mm quoted in
R6, although no such stipulation is given in BS 7910.
Furthermore, equation (6) is based on a range of
through-thickness transverse residual stress data for a
number of joints, including pipe-on-plate joints, tubular
joints and only one T-plate joint [3]. The additional
measurements presented here imply that the conservatism, in R6 and BS 7910, can be reduced for T-plate
welds.
Using a modied Bayesian approach [15, 16], the
averages of the available data before and after
equilibrium balancing are provided in Fig. 17a. Note
that the Allen et al. [4] data were not included in the
averaging procedure, as they did not follow the trends of
the other data. The magnitudes of the error bars shown
in Fig. 17a are given by +2 standard deviations about
the mean. As shown in Fig. 17a the average experimental data can be represented by a bilinear plot
starting from a stress of 0:75sYP at y=w 0, decreasing
to 0:3sYP at y=w 0:275 and increasing to 0:25sYP at
y=w 1:0 (this line captures the average distributions
both before and after equilibrium balancing and satises
force and moment balance to within +0:05sYP ). Also as
shown in Fig. 17a the upper limit of the data can be
represented by this mean curve displaced by 0:25sYP .
Comparisons of all the available T-plate residual
stress data with the parametric BS 7901(2) equation and
the new upper bound t of Fig. 17a are provided in
Fig. 17b. The R6 and BS 7910(1) distributions are not
included in this gure as they do not collapse to a single
curve when normalized in this manner (see Fig.16). It
may be seen that the BS 7910(2) distribution is
conservative in all cases but that a more accurate
estimate is provided by the upper bound line.

10 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Fig. 16

Transverse residual stress distributions measured in

(a) 25 mm, (b) 50 mm and (c) 100 mm T-plate welds
compared with recommendations in R6 [1] and BS
7910 [2]

Residual stress measurements have been carried out

using the neutron diffraction and deep-hole drilling
methods on ferritic steel weldments, representative of
components used in the offshore and nuclear industries.
Neutron diffraction measurements have been made at a
number of facilities throughout Europe. The measured
distributions have been compared with data on similar

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R C WIMPORY, P S MAY, N P ODOWD, G A WEBSTER, D J SMITH AND E KINGSTON

Fig. 17

Transverse residual stress distributions: (a) bilinear estimations of averages and upper bounds of data
and (b) transverse residual stress distributions after satisfying force balance equilibrium compared to
upper bounds

geometries in the literature and with the recommended

distributions in the R6 [1] and BS 7910 [2] procedures.
The residual stress distribution below the toe of a Tplate weld has a maximum tensile value close to the weld
toe. In the 25 mm T-plate weld the value is estimated to
be approximately 120 MPa at the weld toe (34 per cent
of the material yield stress), approximately 230 MPa (64
per cent of the material yield stress) at 4 mm from the
weld toe in the 50 mm weld and approximately 270 MPa
(75 per cent of the material yield stress) in the 100 mm
weld at the weld toe.
The transverse through-thickness residual stress proles of T-plate geometry welds show good agreement in
shape when stresses are normalized with respect to yield
strength and distances with respect to the plate width.
The average experimental data can be represented by a
bilinear plot starting from a normalized stress of 0.75 at
y=w 0, decreasing to 0:3 at y=w 0:275 and increasing to 0:25 at y=w 1:0.
The distributions given in R6 and BS 7910 provide
conservative predications of the residual stress in the Tplates. A more accurate conservative estimate is
obtained by adopting the upper bound bilinear plot of
Fig. 17. The similarity of form observed in all transverse
residual stress data for T-plate weldments is reected in
the BS 7910(2) distribution [equation (6)] and the value
of sx syp at y=w 0 provides a reasonable upper
bound. However, equation (6) overestimates the residual
stress quite considerably over most of the cross-section.
The assumption inherent in the R6 and BS 7910(1)
distributions that the residual stress distribution may be
based on the plastic zone size does not seem to apply to
the T-plate geometries examined here. Indeed, neither
the equation used to estimate the plastic zone size nor

the assumption that stress becomes compressive close to

the boundary of the plastic zone appear to be valid.
However, it should be pointed out that the estimates of
the plastic zone size presented here rely to a certain
extent on subjective observations (see Fig. 14).
Measurements on a PWHT specimen indicate that the
transverse residual stress relaxes to approximately zero
to within experimental error. BS 7910 recommends that
the residual stress distribution after PWHT be assumed
to be constant and equal to 20 per cent of the lesser of
the parent or weld material yield stress in the transverse
direction. This is again conservative, based on the results
presented here.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr M. Daymond at ISIS (UK), Dr T. Pirling at ILL and Dr R. L.
Peng at Studsvik (Sweden) for assistance with the
neutron diffraction measurements. Financial support
for the work was provided by the IMC, HSE, EPSRC
and DERA. Helpful input of the industrial sponsors, in
particular Dr R.A. Ainsworth, Dr A Stacey and Dr S.
Birley, is gratefully acknowledged.

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