Volume3 Issue9 (2) 2014

Volume 3, Issue 9(2), September 2014
International Journal of Multidisciplinary

Educational Research
Published by
Sucharitha Publications
Visakhapatnam 530 017
Andhra Pradesh India
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Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Victor Babu Koppula
Faculty
Department of Philosophy
Andhra University Visakhapatnam -530 003
Andhra Pradesh India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

Prof. S.Mahendra Dev
Prof. Josef HCHTL
Vice Chancellor
Indira Gandhi Institute of Development
Research
Mumbai
Department of Political Economy

University of Vienna, Vienna &
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Austria
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Prof. Alexander Chumakov
Vice Chancellor, Patna University

Former Director
Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary
Studies, New Delhi &
Formerly Vice Chancellor of
Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University
Nagarjuna University, Patna University
Chair of Philosophy Department

Russian Philosophical Society
Moscow, Russia
Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater

Former Vice Chancellor
Singhania University, Rajasthan
Prof.K.Sreerama Murty
Department of Economics
Andhra University - Visakhapatnam
Prof. K.R.Rajani
Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco

Founder and President
Escuela Virtual de Asesora Filosfica
Lima Peru
Prof. Igor Kondrashin

The Member of The Russian Philosophical
Society
The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of
the UNESCO, Moscow, Russia
Dr. Zoran Vujisi
Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Rector
St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute
Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A
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Swami Maheshwarananda
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Prof.S.Prasanna Sree
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Swami Maheshwarananda Ashram Education
& Research Center
Rajasthan, India
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Vizianagaram
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Dr.E. Ashok Kumar
Department of Geography
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Cairo University, Egypt
Department of Education
North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong
Dr.K.Chaitanya
I Ketut Donder
Prof. Roger Wiemers
Postdoctoral Research Fellow

Department of Chemistry
Nanjing University of Science and
Technology
Peoples Republic of China
Professor of Education
Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA
Dr.Merina Islam
Prof. G.Veerraju
Cachar College, Assam
Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma

Indonesia
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam
Dr R Dhanuja
PSG College of Arts & Science
Coimbatore
Prof.G.Subhakar
Department of Education
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam
Dr. Bipasha Sinha
Dr.B.S.N.Murthy
S. S. Jalan Girls College

University of Calcutta
Calcutta
Department of Mechanical Engineering

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N.Suryanarayana (Dhanam)
Department of Journalism & Mass Comm

Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam
Dr.Ch.Prema Kumar
Dr. H.N. Vidya

Government Arts College
Hassan, Karnataka
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam
Dr.Ton Quang Cuong
Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao
Prof. Chanakya Kumar
Coordinator
AP State Resource Center
Visakhapatnam
University of Pune
PUNE
Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education

University of Education, VNU, Hanoi
Editor-in-Chief, IJMER
Typeset and Printed in India
www.ijmer.in
IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research,

concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary
traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate
a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
CONTENTS
Volume 3
S.
No
1.
Issue 9(2)
September 2014
Marine Wood Borer Diversity in Machilipatnam Port

Waters
Vijay Kumar, P.P.N, M. V. Rao and M. Balaji
Page
No
1
2.
Relationship Between Home Environment and

Emotional Maturity of B.Ed., College Students in
Chennai City
Nalamotu Venkateswarlu
16
3.
Post Amalgamation: Picture of Regional Rural Banks in

Andhra Pradesh
N.P.S.V.N.Murthy and M.Sarada Devi
24
4.
A Study Report on the Personnel Management Practices

of the SSI Units in North Coastal Districts of Andhra
Pradesh
Kosaraju Ravi Kumar
and G.Chandra Mouli
40
5.
Energy Security Being a State Security

Nisar Ahmad Meer
56
6.
Discovering Synonym Finder Primarily Based Approach

for Various Domain Opinion Analysis
Pramod D. Sinare, Syed A.H
and Kadam S.H
59
7.
Women and Education in India
88
Bheemsha D Sagar
8.
Women and Politics in India
95
Bheemsha D Sagar
9.
Finding the Optimal Number of Ticketing Counters at

Mumbai Suburban Railway Stations Using Queuing
Theory
R Arvind Srivatsan, R Abhishiekh
and Koilakuntla Maddulety
109
10.
An Evaluation of Public Distribution System in Punjab

A Study of Mansa District
Gurdeep Kaur Ghumaan and
Pawan Kumar Dhiman
134
11.
An Over-View Discussion & Conservation of Wetlands

in Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh, India
S.Mukunda Rao
151
12.
Design, Engineering and Analysis of Utility Scale Solar

PV Power Plant
M. Srinu and S. Khadarvali
166
13.
Time Constrained Self-Destructing Data System

(SeDaS) for Data Privacy
S. Savitha and D. Thilagavathy
193
14.
Analysis on Packet Size Optimization Techniques in

Wireless Sensor Networks
P. Venkatesh and M. Prabu
202
15.
Compressed Air Vehicle (CAV) (A Practical Approach

with Design)
Sai Chakradhar. Kommuri
213
16.
Design of an Optimised Low Power Full Adder Using

Double Gated MOSFET at 45nm Technology
T Nithyoosha and M.Rajeswara Rao
222
17.
An MTCMOS Technique for Optimizing Low Power

Flip-Flop Designs
S.Roja and C.Vijaya Bhaskar
236
18.
Security and Privacy Enhancement Using Jammer in

Downlink Cellular Networks
S.Shafil Mohammad and T.Prasad
251
19.
Secure Data Dissemination Based on Merkle Hash Tree

for Wireless Sensor Networks
Udatha Hariprasad
and K Riyazuddin
266
20.
Enhancement Scheme low Power Pulse Triggered Flip

Flop with Conditional Pulse
S.Sruthi and V.Viswanath
279
21.
Significance of Stator Winding Insulation Systems of

Low-Voltage Induction Machines Aiming on Turn
Insulation Problems : Testing and Monitoring
A. Deeti Sreekanth
293
22.
Degraded Document image Enhancing in Spatial

Domain Using Adaptive Contrasting and Thresholding
P V Ramaraju, G.Nagaraju and V.Rajasekhar
318
23.
Power Capture Safe Test Pattern Determination for AtSpeed Scan Based Testing
P.Praveen Kumar,B.Naresh Babu
and N.Pushpalatha
332
24.
Versatile Bicycle (An Amphibious Vehicle)

Shyam.C,Santhosh.P,Saravana Muthu.K
and S.Lakshmanan
342
25.
Analytical Study of General Failure in Prominent

Components
Balaji V.R,Amitesh Jain, A.Kirthivasan
and D.Ananthapadmanaban
355
26.
A Novel Approach to Assess The Quality of Tone

Mapped Images
P.Manjulamma,B.Sreenivasan and N.Pushpalatha
366
Editorial ..
Provoking fresh thinking is certainly becoming the prime purpose of
International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER). The
new world era we have entered with enormous contradictions is demanding a
unique understanding to face challenges. IJMERs contents are
overwhelmingly contributor, distinctive and are creating the right balance for
its readers with its varied knowledge.
We are happy to inform you that IJMER got the high Impact Factor
2.735, Index Copernicus Value 5.16 and IJMER is listed and indexed in 34
popular indexed organizations in the world. This academic achievement of
IJMER is only authors contribution in the past issues. I hope this journey of
IJMER more benefit to future academic world.
In the present issue, we have taken up details of multidisciplinary
issues discussed in academic circles. There are well written articles covering a
wide range of issues that are thought provoking as well as significant in the
contemporary research world.
My thanks to the Members of the Editorial Board, to the readers, and
in particular I sincerely recognize the efforts of the subscribers of articles. The
journal thus receives its recognition from the rich contribution of assorted
research papers presented by the experienced scholars and the implied
commitment is generating the vision envisaged and that is spreading
knowledge. I am happy to note that the readers are benefited.
My personal thanks to one and all.
(Dr.Victor Babu Koppula)
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.735; IC VALUE:5.16
VOLUME 3, ISSUE 9(2), SEPTEMBER 2014
MARINE WOOD BORER DIVERSITY IN MACHILIPATNAM

PORT WATERS
Vijay Kumar, P.P.N
M. V. Rao
Department of Zoology
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam, India
Wood Biodegradation Centre (Marine)

Institute of Wood Science and
Technology, Visakhapatnam
M. Balaji
Wood Biodegradation Centre (Marine)
Institute of Wood Science and Technology
Visakhapatnam
Introduction
Marine wood boring organisms are an economically important
group of pests mainly occurring in coastal waters and mangal wetlands
causing enormous damage to timber installations and wooden craft as
well as live and dead mangrove vegetation (Rao et al., 2007). Compared
to that on agriculture, forest and land pests, studies on these menace
makers in India are not commensurate with the vast seaboard of 8000
km. it possesses and 4663 km2 of mangals (AR 2012-13). Research on
marine wood biodeterioration has been carried out in the country for
the last six decades, but the dedicated working group has been very tiny
mainly concentrating its efforts on marine fouling formations, wood
borer fauna, timber durability and wood preservation at five major
ports, viz., Visakhapatnam, Chennai, Kochi, Goa and Mumbai. Certain
national institutes and marine universities have also been taking up
similar work elsewhere rather discretely. All these attempts together
resulted in finding out the occurrence of the said group of pests at 32
stations along the west coast and 26 localities along the east coast still
leaving numerous places for exploration. A few recent publications in
the line are that of Pachu et al. (2008), Pati et al. (2013) and Rao et al.
(2008, 2010 and 2013). Given the scenario, a maiden effort was put at

Machilipatnam minor port and the baseline information so generated is

being disseminated through this communication.
Study area
Being strategically located (16o0833N and 81o1158E), almost
at the centre of the Coromandel coast on the eastern edge of the Indian
subcontinent along Bay of Bengal, Machilipatnam port carries quite a
long history as a flourishing center of trade right from 1st Century AD
till 17th Century under several native and colonial rules. Though served
as a gateway of India during its heydays, the port was subsequently
relegated to back stage due to natural calamities and other disasters.
Never the less, the port continued its sea trade in a humble way besides
serving as an important fish landing centre with over 1535 country
craft, 406 motorized boats and 230 mechanized vessels, all made mainly
of wood. During the last couple of years, the port has been under active
consideration by the Government of Andhra Pradesh for expansion and
modernization in the wake of increasing marine traffic.
Test station
The test station is a reinforced cement concrete jetty situated to
the southwest of the port administrative building on the northern
bank, where Krishna Canal joins the main creek of the backwater
network at a distance of about 7.5 km from Bay of Bengal (Fig. 1). The
backwater network supports a vast extent of luxurious mangal
wetlands all around.
Material and methods
Wooden coupons of size 150 x 80 x 20 mm of Semul (Bombax
ceiba L.) in six replications were secured into vertical ladders at an
intervening gap of 100 mm with the aid of a 3 mm nylon rope through 4
mm holes drilled in wood. One such ladder each was planted well
below the lowest low tide mark in the port waters during the beginning
2

of each month and retrieved at the end of the same month regularly for
two years to monitor monthly occurrence of wood borers. At the same
time, eleven such ladders were also installed at the beginning of each
year and one ladder each out of them was removed either at the end of
each of the subsequent eleven months or at a prior date in case severe
destruction of the panels to understand the progress in the intensity of
borer attack. On removal of the ladders from field, each panel was
scrapped free of all fouling accumulations, cleaned with sea water,
brought to the laboratory, all possible number of borers present in it
extracted and preserved in 70% alcohol. Subsequently, each whole
specimen in the case of sphaeromatids and pholadids and the unique
structures namely, pallets too in the instance of teredinids were
examined under a stereo zoom binocular microscope and identified
based on the keys of Krishna Pillai (1961) and Turner (1971).
Important water parameters were also measured or estimated during
each field collection following Parsons et al. (1984). Data pertaining to
water parameters was summarized as means followed by standard
deviation, while date on the community structure of borers was
transformed into ecological indices through PAST software (Hammer et
al., 2011). Beginning in January 2009, the total trial period lasted for
21 months.
Results
Port water characteristics
Machilipatnam port waters were characterized by annual mean
temperature of 29.2 oC 1.82 within a range of 26.0 oC to 32.0 oC; pH
of 7.8 0.19 within a range of 7.2 to 8.1; salinity of 17.30 14.18
with a range of 0.55 to 36.01 ; dissolved oxygen of 3.76 mg.l-1
1.57 within a range of 0.44 mg.l-1 to 6.51 mg.l-1; total suspended solids of
81.63 mg.l-1 71.35 within a range of 6.2 mg.l-1 to 220.0 mg.l-1; nitrates
of 3.03 mol.l-1 3.08 within a range of 0.242 mol.l-1 to 12.584 mol.l-1;
3

nitrites of 2.88 mol.l-1 2.54 within a range of 0.09 mol.l-1 to 10.26

mol.l-1 and silicates of 58.01 mol.l-1 48.26 within a range of 9.408
mol.l-1 to 17.952 mol.l-1 (Table-1).
Marine wood borer composition
Marine wood boring community abounding the port waters was
composed of two sphaeromatids represented by Sphaeroma terebrans
(Bate) and S. annandalei Stebbing; one pholadid, namely, Martesia
striata (Linnaeus) and eighteen teredinids, viz., Lyrodus massa (Lamy),
L. affinis (Deshayes), L. takanoshimensis Roch, L. pedicellatus
(Quatrefages), L. bipartitus (Jeffreys), Teredo parksi (Bartsch), T.
furcifera von Martens, T. bartschi Clapp, T. clappi Bartsch, Bankia
campanellata Moll and Roch, B. carinata (Gray), B. brevis (Deshayes),
B. gouldi (Bartsch), B. gracilis Moll and B. destructa Clench and
Turner. However, this composition differed slightly between short and
long-term panels as well as first and second years (Tables-2 and 3).
Seasonal incidence of marine wood borers
Seasonal incidence of marine wood boring organisms at
Machilipatnam port waters varied from month to month with the
occurrence of lowest number (2) of species represented by B. carinata
and B. brevis in September and October months of first year and
highest number (12) of taxa in February (L. takanoshimensis, L.
pedicellatus, L. bipartitus, T. bartschi, T. clappi, B. carinata, B.
campanellata, B. brevis, B. gouldi, B. destructa, M. striata and S.
terebrans) of the same year (Tables-2 and 3). Similarly, while L. massa,
B. gracilis and B. destructa appeared during only one month each, T.
bartschi and B. brevis recurred during as many as 14 months each
during the test span.

Abundance of marine wood borers

Abundance of marine wood boring organisms belonging to
different groups varied from 833 in first year August to 53032 in first
year January in the case of teredinids and 628 in second year May to
1518 in second year February in the instance of pholadids among
various months of their occurrence on monthly coupons while
sphaeromatids were completely absent on this category of panels
throughout the test span (Table-4). In the same way, borer abundance
ranged from 1508 in first year June to 65467 in first year November in
the case of teredinids, 166 in July first year to 18292 in second year
January in the instance of pholadids and 82 in first year February to
402 in second year May in the case of sphaeromatids among different
months of their occurrence on long-term panels.
Numerical strength of individual species varied from 46 in the
instance of B. carinata in first year February to 27572 in the case of B.
campanellata in first year January and 628 in second year May to 4518
in second year February in the instance of M. striata among various
months of their occurrence on monthly coupons. Similarly, species
count of the borers ranged from 84 in the case of L. pedicellatus in first
year January to 46920 in the instance of B. carinata in first year
October, 82 in first year February to 18292 in first year January in the
case of M. striata and 82 in first year February to 282 in second year
May in the instance of S. annandalei among the months of their
occurrence on long-term panels (Tables-2 to 4).
Discussion
An analysis of water characteristics of Machilipatnam port
waters reveal that they remained in brackishwater or near freshwater
conditions during most part of the year and assumed saline nature
normally from April to July (summer months) mainly because of
Krishna canal water input added with seclusion of the site from sea
5

water source in the bay.
Generally, the ambient also presented
relatively cool nature due to limited annual variation in temperature

besides being slightly alkaline and fairly oxygen rich during most of the
months. Total suspended solids and nutrients were also found to be
within normal limits of variation except occasional high values that
perhaps resulted from wastewater ingredient brought by Krishna canal
waters.
Wood boring community in the region is usually dominated by
Bankia spp. followed by Lyrodus spp. and Teredo spp. that mostly dwell
in mangal biotopes as the test site is abutted all around by mangrove
vegetation. Sphaeromatids invaded the test timber only during longterm exposure owing to their preferential colonization of conditioned
timber.
Numerical abundance of these marine borers was generally high
all through the test period despite limited count of species (5 to 6 on an
average) both in monthly and long-term panels chiefly due to
prevalence of favourable hydrographical regime in the locality (Fig.-2).
Diversity of the borers as revealed by Shannons index (H) was
lowest (0.45) in second year January and highest (1.89) in March the
same year in monthly coupons while the same was lowest (0.36) in first
year September and highest (2.11) in February during the same year in
long-term panels (Fig.-2 and 3). Species richness as indicated by
Marglef index (d) was least (0.10) in first year October and second year
January and highest (0.83) in first year May in monthly material
whereas the same varied from 0.09 in first year September to 1.25 in
first year February in long-term coupons. Evenness of borer species as
represented by Jackard index (J) was a minimum of 0.65 in second year
January and maximum of 0.99 in first year November in monthly
timber pieces in contrast to that ranging from 0.34 in first year July to
0.99 in November the same year in long-term material.
6

Conclusion
Due to varied combination of diversity and evenness factors
supported by numerical abundance, marine wood boring community
prevailing in Machilipatnam port waters showed vigorous activity in
the introduced transient habitat despite generally low species richness
imparting thorough destruction to timber coupons usually within two
months unlike that at many other ports.
References
1. AR 2012-13.
Annual Report 2012-13. Environmental
Information System, Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India, New Delhi. 464 pp.
2. Pachu, A. V., M. V. Rao and M. Balaji, 2008. Marine wood borer
fauna in mangroves of the Krishna estuary, East Coast, India.
In: A. J. Solomon Raju (Ed), Bioresources conservation and
management.
Today and Tommorrows Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi: 41-51.
3. Parsons, T. R., M. Yoshiaki and C. M. Lalli, 1984. A manual of
chemical and biological methods for seawater analysis.
Pergamon Press, Oxford. 173 pp.
4. Pati, S.K., M.V. Rao and M. Balaji, 2013. Marine wood borer
communities of Visakhapatnam harbour, India: Spatiotemporal
patterns and environmental drivers. International Journal of
Research in Marine Sciences, 2(1): 13-25. Available online at
http://www. urpjournals.com .
5. Rao, M. V., M. Balaji and A. V. Pachu, 2008. Marine wood borers
of BhimunipatnamVisakhapatnam coast, Bay of Bengal,
India. J. Timb. Dev. Assoc. India, 54(1 & 2): 59-75.

6. Rao, M. V., M. Balaji, V. Kuppusamy K. Satyanarayana Rao and

L. N. Santhakumaran. 2007. Biodeterioration of timber and its
prevention in Indian coastal waters: Third progress report: 19822005. Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore: 198
pp.
7. Rao, M.V., A.V. Pachu and M. Balaji, 2010. Marine wood borers
of Chippada-Pudimadaka-Rambilli coast, Bay of Bengal, India.
J. Timb. Dev. Assoc. of India, 56 (1-4): 40-44.
8. Rao, M.V., M. Balaji and A.V. Pachu, 2013. Marine wood borers
at Kothakoduru and Bangarammapalem mangroves east coast
of India. In: J. R. Bhatt, Ramakrishna, Sanjappa M., Remadevi
O. K., Nilaratna B. P. and Venkataraman K. (Eds.), Mangroves
of India: Their biology and uses. Zoological Survey of India,
Kolkata: 325-332.

Table-1: Hydrography of Machilipatnam Port Waters
Month
Temperature Salinity D. O
(oC)
(PSU) (mg/l)
pH
TSS
(mg/l)
Nitrite Phosphate Silicate

(mol/l) (mol/l) (mol/l)
Jan-09
8.00
27.90
26.22
5.28
---
0.440
1.125
43.056
Feb-09
8.10
29.50
4.39
4.07
100.00
---
---
---
Mar-09
7.70
29.50
4.93
3.03
28.00
2.002
2.655
20.304
Apr-09
7.90
29.00
35.34
0.56
148.00
0.297
0.315
9.624
May-09
7.90
28.00
35.50
0.44
210.00
0.242
0.090 179.520
Jun-09
7.90
30.00
28.16
6.51
65.60
2.068
2.880 136.600
Jul-09
7.80
27.00
34.98
5.06
208.60
3.718
6.525
34.992
Aug-09
7.90
28.00
1.07
2.92
50.00
3.542
3.645
32.400
Sep-09
7.80
28.00
10.91
4.38
68.00
2.228
6.030
32.640
Oct-09
7.80
30.00
4.39
1.11
60.00
2.464
3.105
22.800
Nov-09
7.70
30.00
0.73
2.92
71.40
7.260
4.995
13.824
Dec-09
7.70
26.00
11.26
4.04
37.92
1.716
1.890
78.430
Jan-10
7.80
26.50
14.85
4.06
24.40
6.864
4.185
85.872
Feb-10
8.00
28.50
32.20
4.72
6.20
0.616
0.810
84.384
Mar-10
7.80
31.50
10.90
3.82
64.72
12.584
Apr-10
8.00
31.00
36.01
4.83
220.00
1.122
2.610
17.424
May-10
7.80
27.00
30.45
5.16
---
2.024
0.810
9.408
Jun-10
7.80
31.00
33.94
4.71
---
1.078
0.855
9.984
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Aug-10
8.10
32.00
1.10
4.94
---
5.874
1.755
60.096
Sep-10
7.20
32.00
0.55
3.26
---
3.960
2.610
62.832
Oct-10
7.70
31.00
5.48
3.15
---
0.528
0.540 109.530
Minimum
7.20
26.00
0.55
0.44
6.20
0.242
0.090
Maximum
8.10
32.00
36.01
6.51
220.00
12.584
Mean
7.83
29.21
17.30
3.76
81.63
3.031
2.885
58.009
Stdev
0.19
1.82
14.18
1.57
71.35
3.08
2.54
48.26
Jul-10
10.260 116.450
9.408
10.260 179.520

Table-2: Seasonality of marine wood boring organisms (No.) on
Oct-09
Sep-09
Aug-09
Jul-09
Jun-09
May-09
Mar-09
Feb-09
Jan-09
Sl. No.
Species
monthly panels in Machilipatnam Port
Pholadids
1
Martesia striata (Linnaeus)
1313 1448 1331
Teredinids
2
Lyrodus massa (Lamy)
240
L. affinis (Deshayes)
0 1928
L. takanoshimensis Roch
0 1440
120
L. pedicellatus (Quatrefages)
845
812
L. bipartitus (Jeffreys),
248
Teredo parksi Bartsch
482
240
813
T. furcifera von Martens
543
484 1210
T. bartschi Clapp
816 6720 3630 4875
10 T. clappi Bartsch
27572
11 B. campanellata Moll and Roch

12 Bankia carinata (Gray)
13 B. brevis (Deshayes)
14 B. gouldi (Bartsch)
15 B. gracilis Moll
17 B. destructa Clench and Turner
1358 2166
360
1630
454
3180
46
227
0 18833
21220
594
1086
121
152
9417
1060
10
Jun-10
May-10
Apr-10
Mar-10
Feb-10
Jan-10
Dec-09
Nov-09
Species
Sl. No.

Pholadids
1
0 4518 2410 2008
628
Teredinids
2
736
0 1625
0 1992
735
735
0 3250
0 2985
735
542
T. furcifera von Martens
0 3673
T. bartschi Clapp
0 2218 2203 2161
869
617 1159
0 1853 2896
0 1235 1159
11 B. campanellata Moll and Roch
12 Bankia carinata (Gray)
6307 3980
0
369 1469
9459 3483
2694 8121
0 1989
0 5537
7567 2238 13473 7380
926
15 B. gracilis Moll
11

Table-3: Seasonality of marine wood boring organisms (No.) on
Nov-09
Oct-09
Sep-09
Jul-09
Jun-09
Feb-09
Jan-09
Sl. No.
Species
long-term panels in Machilipatnam Port
Sphaeromatids
1
Sphaeroma annandalei Stebbing
166
82
180
S. terebrans Bate
250
191
1415 1706
166
Pholadids
3
272
Teredinids
4
166
84
666
362
T. bartschi Clapp
11124
1249
241 3246
927
254
13905
250
482
0 18186
14 B.carinata (Gray)
8343
666
7417
1166
362
170
416
61
17 B. gracilis Moll
83
10 T. furcifera von Martens

1
13 Bankis campanellata Moll and Roch
12
0 15210 46920 25459

2054 15956 21822
Aug-10
Jun-10
May-10
Apr-10
Mar-10
Feb-10
Jan-10
Sl. No.
Species

Sphaeromatids
1
Sphaeroma annandalei Stebbing
S. terebrans Bate
166
107
282
280
120
2560 4418
19.5
191
Pholadids
3
18292
Teredinids
4
936
713
0 3950
1240
4143 2963 4389
3722
4991
1861
10 T. furcifera von Martens
936
8284
987
11 T. bartschi Clapp
1874
1872 12427 1975
13 Bankis campanellata Moll and Roch
3744
8285
0 4096
8684
713
936
0 2340
7443
2808
0 2925
4962
936
17 B. gracilis Moll
14 B.carinata (Gray)
13

Table-4: Recruitment of marine wood boring organisms (No.)

at Machilipatnam Port
Month Monthly coupons
Long-term coupons
Teredinids Pholodids Sphaeromatids Teredinids Pholodids Sphaeromatids

Jan-09
53032
---
41716
272
416
Feb-09
1000
---
5000
1415
82
Mar-09
5433
1313
Apr-09
May-09
13708
1448
Jun-09
6166
1331
1508
1706
371
Jul-09
6500
---
3416
166
---
Aug-09
833
---
---
---
---
Sep-09
---
17264
Oct-09
28250
---
62876
Nov-09
23333
---
65467
Dec-09
16667
---
Jan-10
16167
---
14042
18292
166
Feb-10
23625
4518
33139
2560
Mar-10
10286
2410
9875
4418
Apr-10
6792
2008
13750
5975
May-10
6083
628
27912
1905
402
Jun-10
5417
6417
191
Jul-10
---
---
---
---
---
Aug-10
Sep-10
---
---
---
Panels destroyed beyond salvation
14
387

Fig.-1: Machilipatnam Port
Fig.-2: Diversity of marine wood borers on monthly panels in

Machilipatnam Port waters
Fig.-3: Diversity of marine wood borers on long-term panels in

Machilipatnam Port waters
15

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HOME ENVIRONMENT AND

EMOTIONAL MATURITY OF B.Ed., COLLEGE STUDENTS IN
CHENNAI CITY
Dr. Nalamotu Venkateswarlu
Principal
PDRV College of Education
Harur, Darmapuri District, Tamil Nadu
The purpose of the study was to study the relationship between

Home Environment of students and their Emotional Maturity. Home
Environment has been conceptualized as the quality of human
interactions from the point of view of the child. It includes those
aspects which foster growth and development, such as family trust and
confidence, sharing of ideas, making discussions, parental approval,
affection, and approval of peer activities. A qualitative approach on the
above lines to measure Home Environment was developed by Watson,
1957; William and Wilson, 1961. Childrearing attitudes, mother-child
relationship and parental behavior are important factors involved in
the Home Environment. Walter D Smithson (1974) Emotional Maturity
is a process in which the personality is continuously striving for greater
sense of emotional health, both intra-physically and intra-personally,
Seoul (1951). Emotional Maturity is the ability to bear tension; other
signs are an indifference towards certain kinds of stimuli that affect the
child or adult and he develops moodiness and sentimentally.
Review of Related Literature
Mohite (1990) Home Environment includes language,
stimulation, physical environment, encouraging of social maturity and
disciplinary practices. Goel (2004) found that girls had much higher
educational aspiration than boys. Boys felt more deject with the
16

autocratic atmosphere at home in comparison to girls,

Kusumalata(1997) conducted a study on parental environment upon
the educational development of students and found that the parents
should encourage to their daughters in comparison to their sons. Geeta
S Pastey and Vijayalaxmi A Aminbhavi (2006) studied the impact of
Emotional Maturity on stress and self-confidence of adolescents and
found that the adolescents who were highly emotional in their dealings
need to be studied. R.John LOvis Manoharan and I Christic Doss (2007)
studied Emotional Maturity of P.G students and found that the level of
Emotional Maturity postgraduate students was low due to some
components. Leung Jupan & Sand Margeret (2000) studied self-esteem
and Emotional Maturity in college students and found that the
students high in esteem were found to be nore emotionally mature than
students who were low in self-esteem.
Objectives
The following objectives were formulated for the present study.
i)
To investigate the relationship between Home Environment

and Emotional Maturity of boys and girls.
ii)

and Emotional Maturity of urban and rural students
iii)

and Emotional Maturity of students studying in government
and private colleges.
iv)

and Emotional Maturity of students with high and low
socioeconomic status.
v)

and Emotional Maturity of students who were less than 25
years old and more than 25 years old.
17

Hypotheses
In pursuance of the objectives 1-5 the following Null Hypotheses
were formulated.
i)
There
is
no
significant
relationship
between
Home
Environment and Emotional Maturity of boys and girls.

ii)
There is no significant relationship between Home

Environment and Emotional Maturity of students studying
in urban and rural areas.
iii)
There is no significant relationship between Home

Environment and Emotional Maturity of students studying
in government and private colleges.
iv)
There
is
no
significant
relationship
between
Home
Environment and Emotional Maturity of students with high

and low socioeconomic status.
v)
There
is
no
significant
relationship
between
Home
Environment and Emotional Maturity of students who were

less than 25 years old and more than 25 years old.
Methodology
Normative survey method was used for the present study as it
was concerned with the conditions or relationships that exist, practices
that prevail and views or attitudes that were held.
Sample
The study was conducted on a total sample of 200 students from
B.Ed., colleges of Chennai City in Tamil Nadu. For selecting the
students from each college the random sampling method was used.
Tools
The following tools were used for the collection of required data.
18

Data relating to Home Environment was collected using Family

Climate Scale (FCS) developed by Beena Shaha (1990).
Emotional Maturity Scale developed by Yeshvivsing and Mahesh

Baragava (1999).
Data collection
The Family Climate Scale and Emotional Maturity Scale were
administered on college students to obtain the required data. The
investigator personally visited each college to collect duly filled tools.
Personal data relating to name, age, sex, location, type of college and
socioeconomic status were also collected through a personal data
specially prepared for the purpose.
Statistical Analysis
In order to study the relationship scores of Home Environment
with the scores of students Emotional Maturity, Persons correlation
coefficients were computed and tested for significance as shown in
Table 1.
19

2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR - 2.735; IC VALUE:5.16
ISSN :
TABLE-1 Correlation Coefficient between Home Environment and Attitude Scores of

Students with relation to Gender, Location, Type of College, Socioeconomic status and Age
(N=200)
Variables
Boys
Girls
Urban
Rural
Government
College
Private
Colleges
High SocioEconomic status
Low SocioEconomic status
Less than 25
years of Age
more than 25
years of age
Scores
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Home Environment
Emotional Maturity
Mean
172.5200
320.7800
169.4000
313.5800
200.8696
312.8986
175.1000
321.5400
191.0000
299.8235
173.0625
318.4375
199.7903
311.4859
171.9800
314.3400
204.6744
311.4419
214.7895
316.6847
Correlation
Coefficient
SD
13.3160
27.3923
16.3931
28.3607
24.2559
23.0869
12.0835
31.5835
20.4512
18.0043
15.7887
30.5593
23.2253
26.7126
15.9329
32.5987
26.1495
25.6258
23.8993
38.5242
20
t' value
p' value
Significant
0.4876
3.8692
<0.01
0.4950
3.9468
<0.01
0.1468
1.2145
>0.05
NS
0.3353
2.4654
<0.05
0.1049
0.4081
>0.05
NS
0.2947
2.0910
<0.05
0.2185
1.7340
>0.05
NS
0.3881
2.9179
<0.01
0.3579
2.4541
>0.05
NS
0.5306
2.5811
<0.05

Major Findings
There is a positive and significant relationship between Home

Environment and Emotional Maturity among boys and girls.
This indicates that the Home Environment scores are closely
related with Emotional Maturity scores. Therefore, the Null
hypothesis is rejected.
There is no positive and significant relationship between Home

Environment and Emotional Maturity of urban students where
as there is positive and significant relationship between Home
Environment and Emotional Maturity of rural students.

Environment and Emotional Maturity of students studying in
government colleges. In case of students studying in private
colleges, it is found that there is a positive and significant
relationship.

Environment and Emotional Maturity of students belonging to
high socioeconomic status. The students belonging to low
socioeconomic status had positive and significant relationship
between Home Environment and Emotional Maturity.

Environment and Emotional Maturity of students less than 25
years old but there is positive and significant relationship in
case of students more than 25 years old.
Discussion and Conclusion

From the results obtained in the present study is found that
there is a positive and significant relationship between Home
Environment and Emotional Maturity of college students. Bernard
(1983), Myers Norman k (1992), R.K.Nalanda and R.K.Chawla (2000)
21

and Mohsin, S.M.(1960) have shown a positive and significant

relationship in their respective studies. The results of all these studies
had supported the findings of this study. In addition, similar studies
carried out by Rekha Agnihotri (1987). Nelson J.R. (2000) and Sing Y.
(1962) have revealed similar conclusion. Hence, there is a negative and
significant correlation between Home Environment and Emotional
Maturity of college students.
There is a positive and significant relationship between Home
Environment and Emotional Maturity with respect to boys and girls,
rural students, students studying in private colleges, those belonging to
low socioeconomic status and students more than 25 years old. There is
no positive and significant relationship between Home Environment
and Emotional Maturity among the urban, government college, those
belonging to high socioeconomic status and those less than 25 years old.
References
1. Benard,H.W. (1965). Psychology of learning and teaching, New
York: McGraw Hill Book Co.
2. John Louis Rand Doss Manoharan I. Christie (2007). Experiments
in Education Vol.XXXV, No.8. Emotional Maturity of Post
Graduate Students in Pondicherry region.
3. Landau Erika (1998). The Self- the global factor of Emotional
Maturity. Journal article by Erika Landau; Roeper Review, Vol.20,
1998.
4. Pastey Geeta S. and Aminbhavi Vijayalaxmi A.(2006). Impact of
Emotional Maturity on Stress and Self-Confidence of Adolescents,
Karnatak University, Dharwad. Journal of the Indian Academy of
Applied Psychology, Vol.32, No.1, 66-70.
5. Goel, S.P., (2004). Effect of Gender, Home and Environment on
Educational Aspirations. Journal of Community Guidance and
Research, 21 (1): 77-81.
22

6. Kusumalata,A. (1997). A comparative study of the effect of parental

environment upon the education development of students on the
basis of sex. Indian psychological Review 148(4): 193-196.
7. Jupian Leung,J. Margaret Sand C. (1981). Self-Esteem and
Emotional Maturity in College Students. Journal of College
Student Personnel.
8. Mayer, J.D., (1992). Emotional Intelligence meets traditional
standards for intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267-298.
9. Mohite, P. (1990). National Psychological Corporation U/230
Kachari Ghat, Agra, U/230, Bhargaw Bhavan, U.P, India.
10. Mohsin, S.M. (1960). A measure of Emotional Maturity
Psychological studies 5(2), 78-83.
11. Nelson, J.R., & Roberts, M.L. (2000). Ongoing reciprocal teacher
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
student interactions involving disruptive behaviors in general

education classrooms. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral of
Emotional and behavioral Disorders, 8(1), 27-37.
Nalanda R.K. and Chawla. (2001). Does emotional intelligence meet
traditional standards for intelligence? Some new data and
conclusions. Emotion, 1196-231.
Seoul, L.J.(1951). Emotional Maturity. The development and
dynamic of personality. London: J.B.Lippincott.
Singh, Y. (1965). A comparative study of emotional stability of
mentally superior and average children, unpublished masters
Thesis, Agra University.
Walter. D.Smitson (1974). The Psychology of adjustment current
concepts and application, New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.
Watson, & Williams. (2002, July). Ready or not? Results of an
orientation week survey of education students. Paper presented at
the 6th Pacific Rim Conference of First Year in Education,
Christchurch, New Zealand.
23

POST AMALGAMATION: PICTURE OF REGIONAL RURAL

BANKS IN ANDHRA PRADESH
N.P.S.V.N.Murthy
Research Scholar
Dept. of Commerce and Mgt. Studies
Dr. M.Sarada Devi

Professor
Dept. of Commerce and Mgt. Studies
Introduction:
The amalgamation of Regional Rural Banks has been completed.
This paper builds up a case against it. Amalgamation would be a death
blow to the credit starved rural poor, small and marginal farmers,
agricultural and landless labourers and artisans. The process of
amalgamation commenced in September 2005 and it is expected to be
completed by March 2008. As a result of the amalgamation, the number
of RRBs was reduced from 196 to 133 as on 31st March, 2006 to 96 as on
30th April 2007 and to 82 RRBs as on September 2009. Now 82 RRBs
are working in the country. The RRBs have plays an important role in
agricultural financing. Regional Rural Banks were established under
the provisions of an ordinance promulgated on the 26th September
1975and the RRB Act, 1976 with an objective to ensure sufficient
institutional credit for agriculture and other rural sectors. The RRBs
moblise financial resources from rural/semi-urban areas and grant
loans and advances mostly to small and marginal farmers, agricultural
labourers and rural artisans. The area of operation of RRBs is limited
to the areas as notified by Government of India covering one or more
districts in the state. Government of India initiated the process of
structural consolidation of RRBs by amalgamating RRBs sponsored by
the same bank within a state as per the recommendations of the Vyas
Committee (2004). The Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh have
had a long standing of nearly four decades. The RBI and NABARD
24

undertook a bailout programme through the sponsor bankers. Added to

this, they were subject to amalgamation that means 196 banks were
reduced to 82 in India and in Andhra Pradesh itself 16 RRBs were
reduced to five banks.
AMALGAMATION
The Internal Working Group on RRBs has recommended the route of
merger/amalgamation mainly to: 1. Improve the operational viability of
RRBs; and 2. Taking advantages of the economies of scale (by reducing
transaction cost).
The Group views that the merged entities would have a large
area of operation and the merger process would help in strengthening
some of the weak RRBs. A two-phase restricting was suggested by the
group.
i) Merger between RRBs of the same sponsor bank in the same state;
and
ii) Merger of RRBs sponsored by different banks in the same state.
Review of Literature
NABARD (1986) published A study on RRBs viability, which was
conducted by Agriculture Finance Corporation in 1986 on behalf of
NABARD. The study revealed that viability of RRBs was essentially
dependent upon the fund management strategy, margin between
resources mobility and their deployment and on the control exercised
on current and future costs with advances. The proportion of the
establishment costs to total cost and expansion of branches were the
critical factors, which affected their viability. The study further
concluded that RRBs incurred losses due to defects in their systems as
such, there was need to rectify these and make them viable. The main
suggestions of the study included improvement in the infrastructure
25

facilities and opening of branches by commercial banks in such areas

where RRBs were already in function.
The Kelkar Committee (1986) made comprehensive recommendations
covering both the organizational and operational aspects. Several of
these were incorporated as amendments to the RRB Act, 1976 such as:
a) Enhancement of authorized capital of RRBs from Rs. One crore
to Rs. Five crore and paid-up share capital from Rs. 25 lakhs Rs.
One crore.
b) Provision for amalgamation of RRBs in consultation with all the
concerned parties.
c) Empowering the sponsor banks to monitor the progress of RRBs
and also to arrange for their inspection, internal audit etc.
Chandrakanth K. Sonara (1998) assessed the performance of five
gramin banks in Gujarat for a decade from 1985 to 1994. The results
indicated that out of the five RRBs only one had made a negligible
profit of 0.55 lakhs in the year 1985. He had suggested for
restructuring of RRBs in order to provide economies of scale and by
deploying their financial assets in such a manner, so as to provide them
substantial additional income without diverting the focus from
agriculture and rural development aimed at the weaker sections.
Advisory Committee on flow of credit to agriculture and related
activities, 2004 (Dr. Vyas Committee) recommended for the RRBs in
the North Eastern States be merged into a Zonal Bank or standalone
basis. A two-step amalgamation of RRBs for the rest of the country.
Under first step, all RRBs of a sponsor bank in a state be amalgamated
into a single unit. Under second phase, to form a state level rural bank
by amalgamating all RRBs in that state.
The Internal Working Group on RRBs, 2005 (Sardesai Committee)
viewed that to improve the operational viability of RRBs and take
advantage of the economies of scale, the route of merger/amalgamation
26

of RRBs may be considered taking into account the views of the various
stakeholders. The Group has put forth two options: merger between
RRBs of the same sponsor bank in the same state and merger of RRBs
sponsored by different banks in the same state.
Thingalaya N.K. (2006) in his book Karnataka: Fifty years of
Development, reveals that Grameena Banks in Karnataka compared
to those operating in other states proved to be viable rural credit
agencies accessible to the weaker sections of the society. He stressed
the need for adopting modern practices by the Grameena Banks and
has suggested for evolving RRBs as the retail outlets of financial
supermarkets, selling the fast moving products such as insurance and
mutual funds at competitive prices and have a strong door-delivery
wing for the special customers i.e., SHGs and also merger of Grameena
Banks as a move towards revitalisation.
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
1. To study amalgamated picture of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh.
2. To analyze the key performance indicators of RRBs in Andhra
Pradesh.
3. To offer suggestions helpful in improving functions on the basis
of conclusion.
PROBLEMS OF STUDY
1. First and important problem of the research work is analysis of
financial data.
2. Information from the RRBs in Andhra Pradesh was difficult to
be obtained as it a government organization and members were
not interested to provide information.
3. Frequent number of visit was made to RRBs to collecting data.
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
The research
study
is significant
to
evaluate financial
performance of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh. The results/findings of the

present study are useful to the policy planners in their efforts to
improve the working of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh.
27

SCOPE OF STUDY
1. The study is based on the performance of RRBs in Andhra
Pradesh. Therefore, study covers state of Andhra Pradesh to the
fulfillment of objectives of the study.
2. The study covers of the secondary data on financial performance
of the RRBs in Andhra Pradesh year 2011-12 was taken as the
reference period.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The amalgamated picture of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh has been
analysed with the help of key performance indicators. Analytical
Techniques Employed key performance indicators analysis was
undertaken with a view to studying financial performance of the
Regional Rural Banks.
The present study is empirical in character based on the
analytical method. The study is mainly based on secondary data which
is collected from annual reports of NABARD and concerned Regional
Rural Bank of Andhra Pradesh. Other related information collected
from journals and websites.
Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh

The Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh has actively
contributed to the growth of the rural sector. The development of the
rural business and economy has been dependent largely on the
investment and financial aids provided by the Regional Rural Banks in
Andhra Pradesh. Earlier in Andhra Pradesh there were total 16 RRBs
covering 23 districts in the state. After amalgamation of RRBs in
Andhra Pradesh during 2006, all RRBs have been amalgamated into
five RRBs will be covering 23 districts, comprising of 1505 branches
with a staff strength of 6459 employees. The picture of Regional Rural
Banks in Andhra Pradesh presented in Table 1.
28

ISSN :
Table 1: Picture of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh during Pre and Post Merger: Detailed
Introduction of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh
Sl. No.
Pre merger RRBs in

AP
No of
district
covered
Sponsoring
banks
Sl. No.
Post merger RRBs

in AP
Est. Date
(post
merger)
No of
district
covered
Sponsoring
banks
1.
Nagarjuna
Grameena Bank
02
SBI
1.
31.03.2006
08
SBI
01
SBI
Andhra Pradesh
Grameena Vikas
Bank
2.
Kakathiya
Grameena Bank
01
SBI
01
SBI
03
SBI
01
Syndicate
Bank
01.06.2006
05
Syndicate Bank
01.03.2006
03
3.
Manjira Grameena
Bank
4.
Sangameswara
Grameena Bank
5.
Sri Visakha
Grameena Bank
7.
Sri Anantha
Grameena Bank
Pinakini Grameena
Bank
9.
Rayalaseema
Grameena Bank
Chaithanya
Grameena Bank
Syndicate
Bank
Andhra Bank
01
Syndicate
Bank
3.
SBH
02
01
8.
Andhra Pragathi
Grameena Bank
02
02
6.
2.
01
Andhra
Bank
Chaithanya
Godavari Grameena
Bank
4.
Godavari Grameena
05
Andhra
Bank
01
Deccan Grameena
Bank
SBH
01
10.
24.03.2006
SBH
29
Indian Bank

ISSN :
Bank
01
01.07.2006
5.
SBH
11.
12.
Sri Saraswathi
Grameena Bank
Sri Satavahana
Grameena Bank
01
SBH
Indian Bank
Saptagiri Grameena
Bank
Indian Bank
13.
Sri Rama Grameena

Bank
14.
Golconda Grameena
Bank
15.
Kanaka Durga
Grameena Bank
16.
Sri Venkateswara
Grameena Bank
Source: Reports of NABARD and concerned RRBs in Andhra
30
02

1. ANDHRA PRADESH GRAMEENA VIKAS BANK

Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank (APGVB) has been
established on 31.03.2006 with the amalgamation of erstwhile
Nagarjuna Grameena Bank, Kakathiya Grameena Bank, Manjira
Grameena Bank, Sangameswara Grameena Bank and Sri Visakha
Grameena Bank in terms of provisions of Regional Rural Banks. The
authorized share capital of the Bank is Rs. 500.00 Lakh. This Bank is
sponsored by State Bank of India (SBI). The share holders of the Bank
are Government of India (50 percent), State Bank of India (35 percent)
and Government of Andhra Pradesh (15 percent). The Bank is
operating 8 districts of Andhra Pradesh State with Head Office at
Warangal. Total branch network of the bank as on 31st March 2012
reached 574 includes 435 rural, 101 semi-urban and 35 urban branches.
2. ANDHRA PRAGATHI GRAMEENA BANK
Andhra Pragathi Grameena Bank (APGB) has been established
on 01.06.2006, after amalgamation of erstwhile three Regional Rural
Banks, which are Rayalaseema Grameena Bank, Sree Anantha
Grameena Bank and Pinakini Grameena Bank. This bank is sponsored
by Syndicate Bank. The authorized share capital Bank is Rs. 300.00
lakh. The shareholders of the Bank are Government of India (50
percent), Syndicate Bank (35 percent) and Government of Andhra
Pradesh (15 percent). The Bank is operating five districts of Andhra
Pradesh state with its Head Office at YSR (CUDDAPPHA) district.
Total branch network of the bank as on 31.03.2012 reached 421
includes 281 branches, semi-urban branches 95 and remaining
branches of urban is 45.
3. CHAITHANYA GODAVARI GRAMEENA BANK
Government of India has announced the amalgamation of
Chaithanya Grameena Bank and Godavari Grameena Bank sponsored
by Andhra Bank into a single Regional Rural Bank. The Chaithanya
31

Godavari Grameena Bank (CGGB) has emerged as a new entity from

01.03.2006.
The Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank is operating
three districts, which are located in the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh
and Head Office at Guntur district. The authorized share capital Bank
is Rs. 200.00 lakh. The shareholders of the Bank are Government of
India (50 percent), Andhra Bank (35 percent) and Government of
Andhra Pradesh (15 percent). As on March 31st, 2012 the total number
of branches of Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank is 116. According
to the total branches covered rural branches 73, semi-urban branches
31 and remaining branches of urban is 12.
4. DECCAN GRAMEENA BANK
Deccan Grameena Bank (DGB) established by amalgamating
four RRBs sponsored by State Bank of Hyderabad (SBH), which Sri
Saraswathi Grameena Bank, Sri Satavahana Grameena Bank and
Golconda Grameena Bank effected from 24.03.2006. The operating
area is four districts; these all districts are located in Telangana Region
of Andhra Pradesh. Head Office of Deccan Grameena Bank in
Hyderabad. The authorized share capital Bank is Rs. 400.00 lakh. The
shareholders of the Bank are Government of India (50 percent), State
Bank of Hyderabad (35 percent) and Government of Andhra Pradesh
(15 percent). As on March 31st, 2012 the total number of branches of
Deccan Grameena Bank is 230. According to the total branches covered
rural branches 168, semi-urban branches 42 and remaining branches of
urban is 20.
5. SAPTAGIRI GRAMEENA BANK
Saptagiri Grameena Bank (SGB) has been formed with the
merger of Sri Venkateswara Grameena Bank Chittor, Chittor district
and Kanakadurga Grameena Bank Gudivada, Krishna district from
01.07.2006. This bank is sponsored by Indian Bank. Saptagiri
Grameena Bank covered Chittor and Krishna districts, which located
32

the Krishna coastal area Kosthandhra region and Chittor district in

Rayalaseema region. SGBs Head Office at Chittor, Chittor district. The
authorized share capital Bank is Rs. 200.00 lakh. The shareholders of
the Bank are Government of India (50 percent), Indian Bank (35
percent) and Government of Andhra Pradesh (15 percent). As on
March 31st, 2012 the total number of branches of Saptagiri Grameena
Bank is 151. According to the total branches covered rural branches
103, semi-urban branches 36 and remaining branches of urban is 12.
Key Performance Indicators of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh
Table 2 presents the key performance indicators of RRBs in
Andhra Pradesh of year 2011-12.
Table 2: Key Performance Indicators of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh
APGVB
APGB
CGGB
DGB
SGB
Sponsored Bank
SBI
Syndicate
Bank
Andhra
Bank
SBH
Indian
Bank
District Covered
Rural Branches
435
281
73
168
103
Semi Urban
Branches
101
95
31
42
36
Urban Branches
38
45
12
20
12
Total Branches
574
421
116
230
151
2354
2010
437
1021
637
Share Capital
500.00
300.00
200.00
400.00
200.00
Share Capital
Deposit
8908.50
3934.26
544.22
1407.23
1577.05
Reserves
53911.73
94784.62
8662.18
23478.56
15041.24
Total Owned
63320.23
99018.88
9406.40
25285.79
16818.29
Items/
Indicators
No. of Staff
33

Funds
Borrowings
217033.95
227882.24
51684.64
70940.71
95712.99
Deposits
514666.64
451274.60
94941.16
292066.47
185229.45
Loans
553271.19
549025.14
114872.95
236236.65
221356.31
107.50
121.66
120.99
80.88
119.50
81.91
80.76
70.19
76.32
87.06
12010.30
15043.64
1031.98
3624.10
3812.13
5.08
1.24
1.58
4.86
0.84
Productivity Per
Branch
1860.52
2376.01
1808.74
2174.09
2692.62
Productivity Per
Staff
453.67
497.66
480.12
517.44
638.28
CD Ratio
Recovery
Percentage
Net Profit after
Tax
Net NPA Percent
Source: Reports of NABARD and concerned RRBs in Andhra Pradesh

FINDINGS:
The post amalgamated key performance indicators of RRBs in
Andhra Pradesh are presented Table 2. Followings are major
observation and findings:
1. The Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank is largest district
covered bank in Andhra Pradesh among all RRBs. The smallest
district covered bank is Saptagiri Grameena Bank.
2.
The Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank is largest bank in

branch network in Andhra Pradesh. The smallest branch
network bank is Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank.
3. When the position of funds of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh is

considered, Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank is able to
maintain its top position in the year 2012. Last and fifth
34

position held by Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank in

Andhra Pradesh.
4. The Andhra Pragathi Grameena Bank provided maximum
borrowings in borrowings in comparison of other RRBs.
5. Based on the total deposits, Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas
Bank holds first position and last position is occupied by
Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank.
6. The main purpose of RRBs is to extend financial help to the
needy people mainly agriculture. But it is found that
Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank has been in the last
position in lending.
7. It was observed that low Credit Deposit ratio is held by Deccan
Grameena Bank, which is the least position among all the other
RRBs in Andhra Pradesh.
8. The Andhra Pradesh, the recovery performance of all the RRBs
is above 70 percent which is a good sign. The recovery
performance of Saptagiri Grameena Bank is highest and the
Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank performed low in
recoveries.
9. From this study it was clearly understood that Andhra Pragathi
Grameena Bank holds first position in net profit performance.
Least position is held by Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank
in Andhra Pradesh.
10. When Non-performing Assets (NPAs) were concerned, Andhra
Pragathi Grameena Vikas Bank holds maximum gross NPA
percentage. It is clearly evident that Andhra Pragathi Grameena
Vikas Bank has very low performance in terms of gross NPA
percentage among the all other RRBs.
35

11. When productivity is concerned per branch and per staff,

Saptagiri Grameena Bank holds maximum performance.
12. The productivity is concerned per branch Chaithanya Godavari
Grameena Bank holds low performance and Andhra Pradesh
Grameena Vikas Bank holds low performance when productivity
with per staff.
13. The Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank is largest regional
rural bank of Andhra Pradesh in district coverage and branch
network but the productivity of Andhra Pradesh Grameena
Vikas Bank is low in comparison of all other RRBs.
SUGGESTIONS:
1. Saptagiri Grameena Bank is limited restricted to small area in
two districts. There is a huge necessity to expand its business
activities.
2. There is a need for Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank to
increase number of branches and capture more business
opportunities and focus on rural, semi urban and urban areas.
3. There is need for Chaithanya Godavari Grameena Bank to work
hard and see that there should be an increase in number of
accounts and deposits or loans among all other RRBs.
4. Proper insight and analysis should be carried out by Chaithanya
Godavari Grameena Bank to fulfill the main objective of its
existing and concentrate on priority sector lending.
5. Deccan Grameena Banks credit deposit ratio is very low and it
is clearly evident that bank is not able to utilize deposits
effectively. Hence, the bank should increase its CD ratio by
offering more credit to economy and increase performance.
36

6. Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank was poor in per staff

productivity the bank should train their employees by
conducting various training programmes to increase their
performance.
7. The management of each RRB has to maintain the current
recovery performance and increase simultaneously by the
decreasing NPAs.
8. Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank holds highest gross
NPA, it should come out with various strategies to overcome
NPAs and try to maintain gross NPA as low as possible.
9. Government should encourage and support banks to take
appropriate steps in rural areas development and Efforts should
be made to ensure that the non-interest cost of credit to small
borrowers is kept as low as possible.
10. Policy should be made by government for opening more
branches in weaker and remote areas of state. Since it is found
that no of branches are low in some areas.
11. Government should take firm action against the defaulters and
should not make popular announcements like waiving of loans.
12. The RRBs have to be very careful and reduce the operating
expenses, because it has been found from our study that these
expenses have increased the total expenditure of the banks.
13. The RRBs have to give due preference to the micro-credit
scheme and encourage in the formation of self help groups.
14. Cooperative societies may be allowed to sponsor or co-sponsor
with commercial banks in the establishment of the RRB.
15. A uniform pattern of interest rate structure should be devised
for the rural financial agencies.
37

16. The RRB must strengthen effective credit administration by

way of credit appraisal, monitoring the progress of loans and
their efficient recovery.
17. The credit policy of the RRB should be based on the group
approach of financing rural activities.
18. The RRB may relax their procedure for lending and make them
easier for village borrowers.
CONCLUSION
Government of India promoted Regional Rural Banks (RRBs)
through the RRBs Act of 1976 to bridge the gap in the flow of credit to
the rural poor. The RRBs were established with a view to developing
the rural economy by providing, for the purpose of development of
agriculture, trade, commerce, industry and other productive activities
in the rural areas, credit and other facilities, particularly to small and
marginal farmers, agricultural labourers, artisans and small
entrepreneurs, and for matters connected therewith and incidental
thereto. Regional Rural Banks in Andhra Pradesh are an integral part
of the rural credit structure of the state. As we analyze the data it
shows that RRBs in Andhra Pradesh are working for the 360 degree
development of rural area of state. In short we can stay that it
providing rural Andhra Pradesh all round assistance and proved to be
an institution where Growth with Social Justice exists.
References
1. A review of RRBs in Andhra Pradesh, BIRD, Lucknow. Various
Issues.
2. Annual Reports of APGVB, APGB, CGGB, DGB and SGB.
3. Financial Statements of RRBs. NABARD.
4. Report on Trend and Progress of Banking in India. Various issues.
38

5. The Report of Internal Working Group on RRBs, June, 2005.

6. The Report of the committee on Financial Inclusion, January 2008.
7. N.K. Thingalaya, Karnataka: Fifty Years of Development, Publisher:
Justice K.S. Hedge
Institute of Management. Source: Hindu
Business Line, Nov. 19, 2006.
8. Chandrakanth. K. Sonara, Regional Rural Banks in India, Anmol
Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1998.
39

A STUDY REPORT ON THE PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES OF THE SSI UNITS IN NJORTH COASTAL
DISTRICTS OF ANDHRA PRADESH
LT.CDR.Kosaraju Ravi Kumar

Ph.D Scholar
Mewar University
Chittorghar, Rajasthan &
HOD and Vice-Principal
Dr.VS.KrishnaGovt.Degree& PG
(A) College
Visakhapatnam
Dr.G.ChandraMouli
Research Guide
Mewar University
Chittorghar
Rajasthan and
Reader in Commerce
Dr.VSK.Govt Degree and PG
(A) College, Visakhapatnam
He SSIs occupy an important place in both the developing

countries and the developed nations .In spite of the many advantages of
large scale industrial units, such as the economies of production,
managerial, financial, marketing, and personnel the SSI has urged
forward due to its features found in the finished items in the form of
low production costs and higher quality. The small scale units will
utilize the skilled labor of high accuracy, location factors and the costs
of transfer, designable technical excellence, innovation of specialized
products and a close personal relationship with the customers. From
the human resource angle, employing very few employees, inability to
attract, hold and retain the smart and bright professionals, following
the old and the obsolete methods of recruitment, following the mostly
inappropriatehuman resource policies of performance appraisal,
training and transfers improper manpower planning are some of the
major deceases to be ameliorated. Many of the SSIs fail in managing
the resistance for change from their strength.
Soon after our independence, SSIs have been given special
andprominent berths as they are instrumental in generating extra
40

employment in rural and urban areas through a meager capital

investment. It has powerful strong linkages. Hence research and study
on this are thought to be significant. All the activities of SSIs need to be
closely watched and monitored to initiate immediately needed remedial
measures, since the problems arespecific to the region and to the
organization. There are several research studies on SSIs but basically
most of them dealt with the general problems and the industrial
sickness.Studies on SSIs overall managerial Practices are very much
limited. In the state of Andhra Pradesh, studies of this nature and type
are even less and the North Coastal Districts of Andhra Pradesh are
not an exception to this.
SSI units are less conscious &less cautious towards the wellestablished principles &the doctrines of functional management, but
the knowledge of these principles& the doctrines of functional
management is very muchessential to run the organization smoothly
and profitably over a long period of time by focusing on the functional
management practices of SSI are. Since poor financial HR, managerial
practicesare the major causes for the industrial sickness; this study
would help as a guide to adopt suitable functional management
practices by the SSIs.
1.2 Significance of the Study
Organizations are formed to achieve the predetermined
objectives and goals of an enterprise, like increasingin sales volume,
market share, and return on investment. Process of managerial
activities ensures the quickand timely achievement of the laid down
organizational goals. The basic task of management is to generate
surplus out of their operations over the cost of their production. Profit
is an essential element for the growth and survival of any business.
The Industrial unit can undertake more expansion and diversification
41

programs when the profits are ploughed back to a great extent. And
thus profits and growth are interlinked and interwoven..
The managers, through their effective functional management
practices, utilize the scarce resources of the organization efficiently in
such a manner to cause positive effects to the society in terms of better
standard of living and social development.
Excellent management practices make sure the proper discharge
of social responsibilities of an enterprise by satisfying the interests of
all the stake holders, and society at large. They thus help to create
effective andpositive relations with the internal as well as the external
environment and create good business ecology in terms of the
differences of Culture, Science and Technology and Peace.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1) To determine the understandings and the viewsof the persons
responsible for formulating and implementing policies in respect of
functional especially the personnel management in the sample SSIs.
2) To access the human resources practices followed by the select
sample SSI Units in connection with a. Preparation of Job
description and specificationsb. Pay fixation c. Man power
planningd. Section and Recruitment procedures ande. Promotion
policies of the staff.
1.4: STUDY AREA A BRIEF PROFILE
The study is limited to select SSI units in the north coastal
districts of Andhra Pradesh, namely Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and
Visakhapatnam. These districts are located in coastal belt separating
the State of Andhra Pradesh from the State of Orissa. These districts
are located at fag end of the boundary and also back ward in many
aspects.
42

Srikakulam district located in the north eastern part of Andhra

Pradesh is one of the backward districts of the state. It is bound on the
North by Orissa State, on the West and South by Vizianagaram
Districts and on the East by the Bay of Bengal. The total area of the
district is 5837 sq, kms and its population according to 2010-11
censuses, is 26, 99,471.
Vizianagaram District was formed on 1st June 1979, with
portions carved from Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam Districts. The
District is bounded on the East by Srikakulam District, on the West
and South by Visakhapatnam Districts, and on the North by Bay of
Bengal. The total area of the district is 6539 sq, kms and its population
according to 2010-11 censuses, is 23, 42,868.
Visakhapatnam District is bounded partly by Orissa State and
partly by Vizianagaram District on the North, on the South by East
Godavari District, on the West by Orissa State and on the East by the
Bay of Bengal. The total area of the district is 11,161 sq, kms and its
population according to 2010-11 censuses, is 42, 88,113.
1.5 SAMPLE DESIGN
For the purpose of the present study, SSI and Tiny units
registered in the District Industries Centers at Srikakulam,
Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam constitute the total population. As
per the latest records available i.e., as per 2008-2009, the number of
units registered with the respective District Industry Centers of the
three Districts are as follows. There are 4,837 units in Srikakulam
providing an employment to 43,147 persons with an investment of
Rs.15010 lakh, 2023 units in Vizianagaram providing an employment to
5,321 persons with an investment of the Rs. 10,017 lakhs and 10,746
units in Visakhapatnam providing an employment to 94,067 with an
investment of Rs. 64,687 lakhs. Thus as per the records of 2008-09, the
total number of units registered in the study area comes to 17,606.
43

An attempt has been made in this study to cover 1.28% of the

units [sample size 227]. The investigator personally visited the units
along with his team.
1.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY:
The following are the limitations of this study.
1. The units that are not registered with DICs are not included
because of non availability the required recorded data.
2. The units covered under the study restricted to only
manufacturing, processing units and few service units and other
categories have not been covered to draw meaningful
information.
3. The differently varied nature of SSIs in this region allowed
considering only some selected categories of business units for
the study.
4. The focus of this study is strictly limited to functional
management practices of select SSIs units but not on
comprehensive performance parameters since owners of many
SSI units had not come forward to state the quantitative data to
measure the actual performance.
1.7 SOURCES OF DATA
For the purpose of the study data from primary and secondary
sources have been used.
1.7. a. Collection of primary data:
Primary data from sample units was collected by the researcher
and his team through personal interview on the basis of a schedule &
questionnaire. Researches studies have been conducted in several
districts of different states were referred before designing the schedule.
Discussions were held with the officers of the District Industries
Centers and various 1.7. b. Collection of Secondary Data:
44

1.8. STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES USED:

1. Majority of the analysis is tabular based and Bi-variate analysis
is applied in several places.
2. To discriminate the entrepreneurs adopting the management
practices from others; Discriminate Analysis is used frequently.
It is felt very much useful
i.
for detecting the variables that allow the researcher to

discriminate between different groups and
ii.
For classifying the cases into different groups with a better

degree of accuracy.
TABLE 1
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO CATEGORY

OF BUSINESS &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING
IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE
1.
Agro Based & Edibles
Units
having
indentified
the jobs
48(80)
2.
Engineering
39(84.78)
Sl.
Category Of Business
No.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Units nothaving
indentified
the jobs
12(20)
7(15.22)
Chemical & Pharmacy

33(75.00)
11(25)
Automobile & Services
25(75.75)
8(24.25)
Construction
21(67.74)
10(32.26)
Textiles & Garments
12(92.31)
1(7.69)
Total
178(78.41) 49(21.58)
Note: Figures in brackets indicate % to the row total.
Total
Number
of Units
60(100)
46(100)
44(100)
33(100)
31(100)
13(100)
227(100)
From the above table 1 it can be observed that out of the total units
under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their
organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs of
the organization Out of the total units that had identified their job the
textile units are dominating with 92.31% followed by the engineering
units with 84.78%, the agro base units with 80%, the automobile and
45

service units with 75.75% , the chemical and pharmacy units with
75%and the construction units with 67.74%.
In case of the units that had not identified their jobs , the construction
units are dominating with 32.26%,followed by the chemical and the
pharmacy units with 25%, the automobile and service units with
24.25% and the agro based units with 20% followed by the engineering
units with 15.22% and the textile units with 7.69%.
From the above table it can be concluded that out of the total
units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in their
textile units followed by the engineering units lead. In case of the total
units that did not have identified their jobs, the construction units
followed by the chemical units lead.
Table 2 deals with the data of the TABLE 2DISTRIBUTION OF SSI
UNITS ACCORDING TO TYPE OF ORGANIZATION & UNITS
HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE
ENTERPRISE
Table 2
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO TYPE OF
ORGANIZATION &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING
Sl.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Type Of Business
Proprietary
Firm
Company
Cooperative Society/Trust
Total
Units
having
indentified
the jobs
90(70.31)
54(84.37)
20(95.23)
14(100)
178(78.41)
Units nothaving
indentified
the jobs
38(29.69)
10 (15.63)
1(4.77)
49(21.58)
46
Total
Number
of Units
128(100)
64(100)
21(100)
14(100)
227(100)

From the above table 2 it can be observed that out of the total units
the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs,
thesocieties and the trusts category is dominating with 100% followed
by the, companies with 95.23%,, the firms with 84.37%,and the
proprietary concerns with 70.31%.
In case of the units that had not identified their jobs, the proprietary
concerns are ahead with 29.69% followed by the firms with 15.63% and
the companies with 4.77%.
societies followed by the companies lead. Out of the total units, that did
not have identified their jobs, the proprietary units followed by the
firms lead.
Table 3 deals with the data of the distribution of SSI units according to
location of the unit & units having and not-having identified the jobs of
the enterprise
TABLE 3
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO LOCATION
OF THE UNIT &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING
Units
Units notTotal
Sl.
having
having
Location of the unit
Number
No.
indentified indentified
of Units
the jobs
the jobs
1.
Rural
82(80.39(
20(19.61)
102(100)
2.
Urban
96{76.80)
29(23.20)
125(100)
Total
178(78.41) 49(21.58)
227(100)
47

Note: Figures in brackets indicate % to the total number of units.

From the above table 3it can be observed that out of the total units
the rural category of units; dominate with 80.39% while the urban
units are with 76.80%.
In case of the units that had not identified their jobs, the urban units
are dominating with 23.20% followed by the rural units with
19.61%.From the above table it can be concluded that out of the
total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in
their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their
jobs of the organization Out of the total units that had identified their
job the rural units lead over the urban units. Out of the total units that
had not identified their jobs, the urban units lead.
gender of the entrepreneur & units having and not-having identified
the jobs of the enterprise
TABLE 4
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO GENDER OF
THE ENTREPRENEUR &UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING
1.
Male
Units
having
indentified
the jobs
131(79.39)
2.
Female
47(75.80)
15(24.20)
62(100)
178(78.41)
49(21.58)
227(100)
Sl.
Gender of the entrepreneur
No.
Total
Units nothaving
indentified
the jobs
34(20.61)
165(100)

48
Total
Number
of Units

the organization Out of the total units that had identified their jobs;
the Male group is dominating with 79.39% while the female group is
with 75.80%.In case of the units that had not identified their jobs, the
female group is dominating with 24.20% while the male group is with
20.61%.From the above table it can be concluded that out of the
total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified their jobs in
their organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their
jobs of the female group leads.
In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the male group
leads over the male group.
In case of the total units that had not identified their jobs, the female
group leads.
Table5 deals with thedistribution of SSI units according to level of
education of the entrepreneur & units having and not-having identified
the jobs of the enterprise
TABLE 5
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO LEAVEL OF
EDUCATION OF THE ENTREPRENEUR &UNITS HAVING
AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE
ENTERPRISE
Units
Sl. Level of Education of the having
No. entrepreneur
indentified
1.
Below 10th class
Units nothaving
indentified
the jobs
the jobs
5(45.45)
6(54.55)
49
Total
Number
of Units
11(100)

2.
10th class
8(61.54)
5(38.46)
13(100)
3.
Inter Mediate
23(71.87)
9(28.13)
32(100)
4.
Graduate
59(80.82)
14(19.18)
73(100)
5.
Technical
34(91.89)
3(8.11)
37(100)
6.
Post Graduate& above
9(75)
3(25)
12(100)
7.
Technical diploma holders
40(81.63)
9(18.37)
49(100)
178 (78.41)
49(21.58)
227(100)
Total

the Technical graduate group is dominating with 91.89% followed by
the technical diploma group with 81.63%, the graduate group with
80.82%, the post graduate and above group with 75%, the intermediate
group width 71.87%, the 10th class group with 61.54% and the below
10th class group with 45.45%.
In case of the units that had not identified their Jobs category, the
below 10th class group is dominating with 54.55% followed by the 10th
class group with 38.46%, the intermediate group width 28.13%, the pg
and above group with 25%,the graduate group with 19.18%, the
technical diploma holder group with 18.37%, and the technical graduate
group with 8.11%.
organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs, the
least qualified followed by the less qualified groups lead..
50

In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the technically
qualified graduate group followed by the technically qualified diploma
group leads.
In case of the total units, that had not identified their jobs, the least
qualified groups followed by the relatively less qualified groups lead.
Table 6 deals with the data of the
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO AGE GROUP OF
THE ENTREPRENEUR & UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING
TABLE 6
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO AGE GROUP
OF THE ENTREPRENEUR &UNITS HAVING AND NOTHAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE
Sl. Age
Group
No. entrepreneur
Of
Units
the having
indentified
the jobs
Units notTotal
having
Number
indentified
of Units
the jobs
1.
Below 30 years
9(52.94)
8(47.06)
17(100)
2.
30 to 40 years
50(78.12)
14(21.88)
64(100)
3.
40 to 50 years
84(82.35)
18(17.65)
102(100)
4.
Above 50 years
35(79.55)
9(20.45)
44(100)
178(78.41)
49(21.58)
227(100)
Total

51

the Technical graduate group is dominating with 91.89% followed by

the 40 to 50 years group is dominating with 82.35% followed by the
above 50 years age group with 79.55% ,the 30-40 years age group with
78.12%, the below 30 years age group with 52.94%.
In case of the units that had not identified their Jobs category, the
below 10tb class group is dominating with 47.06% followed by the 30-40
years age group width 21.88%, the above 50 years age group width
20.45% and the 40-50 years age group with 17.65%.
organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs the
units with the least followed by the relatively lesser aged entrepreneur
groups lead. In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the
units with the entrepreneurs with the higher and the highest aged
groups lead.
the entrepreneur having & units having and not-having identified the
jobs of the enterprise
TABLE 7
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO THE
ENTREPRENEUR HAVING & UNITS HAVING AND NOTHAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE ENTERPRISE
Units
Sl. Experience Status of the having
No. entrepreneur
indentified
the jobs
1.
Entrepreneur
with
previous Experience
some
69(38.76)
52
Units notTotal
having
Number
indentified
of Units
the jobs
15(61.24)
84(100)

2.
Entrepreneur without any

109(76.22)
previous Experience
Total
178(78.41)
34(23.78)
143(100)
49(21.58)
227(100)

the Entrepreneur without any previous Experience are dominating
with 76.22% while the Entrepreneur with some previous Experience
are with 38.76%
In case of the units that had not identified their Jobs category,
theEntrepreneur with some previous Experience dominates with
61.24% while the Entrepreneur without any previous Experience is
with 23.78%.
organization. While21.58% of the units had not identified their jobs.
Out of the total units that had not identified their jobs, the units with
Entrepreneur with some previous Experience, leads. In case of the total
units that had identified their jobs, the Entrepreneur without any
previous Experience leads.
Table 8 deals with the data of the DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS
ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL OF THE INVESTMENT IN PLANT
AND MACHINERY & UNITS HAVING AND NOT-HAVING
53

T ABLE 8
DISTRIBUTION OF SSI UNITS ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL
OF THE INVESTMENT IN PLANT AND MACHINERY &UNITS
HAVING AND NOT-HAVING IDENTIFIED THE JOBS OF THE
ENTERPRISE
THE LEVEL OF THE
Units having
Sl. INVESTMENT
IN
indentified
No. PLANT
AND
the jobs
MACHINERY
Units notTotal
having
Number
indentified
of Units
the jobs
1.
below 25 lakhs
117(75.48)
38(24.52)
155(100)
2.
25 to 50 lakhs
37(80.43)
9(19.57)
46(100)
3.
50 to 75 lakhs
11(100)
11(100)
4.
75lakhs & above
13(86.66)
2(13.34)
15(100)
178(78.41)
49(21.58)
227(100)
Total

the 50lakh to 75 lakh investment level group is at the top with 100%
followed by the 75 lakh and above investment level group is dominating
with86.66%, 25 lakh to 50 lakh investment group with 80.43% and the
below d25 lakh rupee investment group with 75.48%.In case of the
units that had not identified their Jobs category, the below 25 lakh
rupee investment group is dominating with 24.52% followed by the 25
lakh to 50 lakh group with 19.57% and the above 75 lakh investment
group with 13.34%.From the above table it can be concluded that
out of the total units under study, 78.41% of the total had identified
54

their jobs in their organization. While21.58% of the units had not

identified their jobs. Out of the total units that had not identified their
jobs, the units with the least followed by the lesser investment groups
lead.
In case of the total units that had identified their jobs, the units with
the higher and the highest investment groups lead.
the level of turnover & units having and not-having identified the jobs
of the enterprise
References:
1. James E.Waltrt,Determination of Technical insolvency
Journal of business, January 2011
2. Simon, HA.(1960) The new science of Management
Decision ,New York, Harper &Row
3. Mc. Greg or, D (1960) The Human Side OF Enterprise
New York, MC Graw Hills
4. ILO (1961) Services for small industry, Geneva
55

ENERGY SECURITY BEING A STATE SECURITY

Dr Nisar Ahmad Meer
Lecturer
Political Science
Govt. Degree College Boys
Anantnag, J & K
INTRODUCTION
The European commission defines energy security as, The ability to
ensure that future essential energy needs can be met, both by means of
adequate domestic resources worked under economically acceptable
condition or maintained as strategic resources, and by calling upon
accessible and stable external sources supplemented where appropriate
by strategic stocks. Bartan Redge Well Ronne, and Zilman defines it
As a condition which a nation and all most of its citizens businesses
have access to sufficient energy resources at reasonable prices for the
Foreseeable future free from serious risk of major disruption of
service.
Although in the developed world the usual definition of energy security
is simply the availability of inefficient supplies at affordable prices,
different countries interpret what the concept means for them
differently. Energy exporting countries focus and maintaining the
security of demand for their export which after all generates the
overwhelming share of their government revenues. Thus the usual
definition varies from country to country. For Russia, the aim is to
reassert state control over strategic resources and gain primary over
the main pipelines market channels through its ships hydrocarbons to
international markets. The concern for developing countries is about
how changes in energy prices affect their balance of payments. For
china and India, energy security lies in their ability to rapidly adjust to
56

their new dependence on global markets, which represents a major

shift away from their former commitments to self sufficiency. For
Japan, it means offsetting its stark scarcity of domestic resources
through diversification, trade and investment. In Europe, the major
debate centers on how to manage dependence an imported natural gas
and in most countries, a side from France and Finland, whether to
build new power plants and perhaps to return to coal. And United
States must face the uncomfortable fact that its goal of energy
independence a phrase that has become a mantra since it was first
articulated by Richard Nixen.
STATE SECURITY AND ITS CHANING NATURE
For civilization energy has fundamental value. Energy security and
even energy independency are critical to all countries energy security
means sufficient depends on sustainable development of energy sphere.
Together energy production and energy consumption, distribution,
transformation and exchange. The energy sphere covers the fuel energy
complex power net works, power plants and energy consumers.
It is extremely difficult to ensure energy security and independence in
the modern world. In the last 100 years world energy consumption has
increased 12 times and has grown twice as fast as the earth population.
Today one is focused with many serious problems. The energy sphere
keeps growing at a pace that is incompatible with the health of the
government, lead to an exhaustion of fossil-fuel resources. The growing
demand energy can not be satisfied by further development of
conventional energy technologies in the existing model of economy,
based an fossil fuels, can not provide less developed countries, because
the rates of growth of oil pumping in the world, is expected to slow
down sharply. According to estimate, energy consumption will increase
57

from the present 14 billion TCF (trillion cubic feet) up to 37 billion TCF
by the end of the 21st century. Civilization faces a real threat to its
existence coming not so much from political factors, but from
contradictions between the level of economic development and the
standards of material well being organized efforts for sustainable
development and energy production and use are required from all
national governments and the international organizations from all over
world, as a whole. In many countries development programmes for
energy industries, to cover next few decades, are being worked out.
However, they do not take enough account of the global energy balance
structure and the role of innovative technologies of the future.
References
1. S.K. Chopra, Energy Policy for India:Towards sustainable
energy security in India in twenty-first century Oxford & IBH
publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, and pp. 1342004.
2. Mikhail Y Pavlov, A New Energy Paradigm for the third
Millennium world affairs, 2006 Vol 10, No. 1,pp.3.
3. Daniel yergin 2006, Ensuring Energy security. Foreign affairs
2006 vol. 85 No.2, pp 69.
4. Michael Field, A Hundred million dollars a day, sidge wick &
Jack Sew, landow 1975.
5. John Baglas. International and global security in the post cold
war era ,in 2008
6. Morgenthau. H., Politics among nations: The struggle for power
and peace, 5th edition Newyark Alford Knopt 1978
7. Michael Y Pavlov, A New Energy Paradigm for the third
Millennium World Affaries,2006 vol 10,
58

DISCOVERING SYNONYM FINDER PRIMARILY BASED

APPROACH FOR VARIOUS DOMAIN OPINION ANALYSIS
Mr.Pramod D.Sinare
Prof. Syed A.H
PG Scholar
Dept. of Computer Engineering
Aditya College of Engineering, Beed
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Computer Engineering
Aditya College of Engineering, Beed
Prof.Kadam S.H.
Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Engineering
Aditya College of engineering, Beed
I INTRODUCTION
Graphs and networks actually rank among one amongst the
foremost in style knowledge representation models because of their
universal relevancy to various application domains. the necessity to
research and mine interesting knowledge from graph and network
structures has been long recognized, however solely recently the
advances in info systems have enabled the analysis of graph structures
at immense scales. Analysis of graph and network structures gained
new momentum with the arrival of social networks. whereas the
analysis of social networks has been a field of intensive analysis,
significantly within the domains of social sciences and scientific
discipline, economy or chemistry, it's the emergence of big social
networking services over the online that spawned the analysis into
large-scale structural properties of social networks.. Social networks
exhibit a really clear community structure. Such community structure
part stems from objective limitations (e.g., internal structure structure
of a corporation will be closely drawn by the ties among a selected social
network) or, to some extent, might result from subjective user actions
59

and activities (e.g., bonding with others who share ones interests and
hobbies). Social networks area unit extremely effective in bolstering
cluster formation of similar people. groups of nodes that share common
properties tend to induce connected within the social network. Opinion
mining is that the domain of language process and text analytics that
aims at the invention and extraction of subjective qualities from matter
sources. Opinion mining tasks will be usually classified into 3 varieties.
the primary task is named as sentiment analysis and aims at the
institution of the polarity of the given supply text (e.g., identifying
between negative, neutral and positive opinions). The second task
consists in characteristic the degree of judgment and sound judgment of
a text (i.e., the identification of factual knowledge as critical opinions).
This task is usually named as opinion extraction. The third task is
aims at the invention and/or summarisation of specific opinions on elect
options of the assessed product. Some authors visit the this task as
sentiment analysis. All 3 categories of opinion mining tasks will greatly
take pleasure in extra knowledge which will be provided from the social
network. extra information might include: a nodes spatial relation
indexes, a nodes cluster membership, terminology utilised among the
cluster, average cluster opinion on elect merchandise, groups
coherence and cohesion, etc. of these variables enrich opinion mining
algorithms and supply extra instructive capabilities to created models.
II OBJECTIVE
Example:
allow us to think about the reviews shown in Table one for the 2
domains: books and room appliances. Table one shows 2 positive and
one negative reviews from every domain. we've got stressed the words
that specific the sentiment of the author in an exceedingly review
victimization previous face. From Table one we tend to see that the
words wonderful, broad, top quality, attention-grabbing, and well
60

researched area unit wont to specific a positive sentiment on books,

whereas the word unsuccessful indicates a negative sentiment. On the
opposite hand, within the room appliances domain the words excited,
top quality, skilled, energy saving, lean, and delicious specific a positive
sentiment, whereas the words rust and unsuccessful specific a negative
sentiment. though words like top quality would specific a positive
sentiment in each domains, and unsuccessful a negative sentiment, it's
unlikely that we might encounter words like well researched for room
appliances or rust or delicious in reviews on books. Therefore, a model
that's trained solely exploitation reviews on books won't have any
weights learnt for delicious or rust, that makes it troublesome to
accurately classify reviews on kitchen appliances exploitation this
model.
One answer to the present feature pair drawback is to use a
synonym finder that groups totally different words that specific an
equivalent sentiment. as an example, if we all know that each
wonderful and delicious are positive sentiment words, then we can use
this information to expand a feature vector that contains the word
delicious exploitation the word wonderful, thereby reducing the pair
between features during a test instance and a trained model. There are
two necessary queries that has to be addressed during this approach:
the way to automatically construct a synonym finder that's sensitive to
the sentiments expressed by words?, and the way to use the synonym
finder to expand feature vectors during coaching and classification?. the
first question is mentioned in Section 4, wherever we have a tendency
to propose a spatial arrangement approach to construct a sentiment
sensitive synonym finder exploitation each labeled and unlabeled
information from multiple domains. The second question is addressed
in Section 5, wherever we have a tendency to propose a ranking score to
pick the candidates from the synonym finder to expand a given feature
vector.
61

III LITERATURE SURVEY

3.1 Related work done:
Supervised learning algorithms that need labelled knowledge
are successfully used to build sentiment classifiers for a given domain
[1]. However, sentiment is expressed otherwise in numerous domains,
and it's pricey to annotate information for every new domain within
which we would prefer to apply a sentiment classifier. as an example,
within the electronics domain the words durable and light are wont
to specific positive sentiment, whereas expensive and short battery
life usually indicate negative sentiment. On the opposite hand, if we
have a tendency to contemplate the books domain the words exciting
and thriller expresses positive sentiment, whereas the words
boring and lengthy sometimes specific negative sentiment. A
classifier trained on one domain may not perform well on a unique
domain as a result of it fails to be told the sentiment of the unseen
words. The cross-domain sentiment classification drawback [7], [8]
focuses on the challenge of coaching a classifier from one or additional
domains (source domains) and applying the trained classifier on a
special domain (target domain). A cross-domain sentiment
arrangement should overcome 2 main challenges.
This is what makes the spatial arrangement synonym finder
sentiment sensitive. unlabeled
knowledge is cheaper to gather
compared to labelled knowledge and is usually out there in massive
quantities. the {use|the utilization|the employment} of unlabeled
knowledge permits us to accurately estimate the distribution of words
in supply and target domains. The planned method will learn from an
oversized quantity of unlabeled knowledge to leverage a strong crossdomain sentiment classifier. In our projected technique, we have a
tendency to use the automatically created synonym finder to expand
feature vectors during a binary classifier at train and check times by
62

introducing connected lexical parts from the synonym finder. we have a

tendency to use L1 regularized provision regression because the
classification algorithmic program.
IV PROBLEM STATEMENT
4.1 Problem Statement:
We outline a domain D as a category of entities within the world or a
linguistics conception. as an example, differing kinds of product like
books, DVDs, or vehicles are thought of as completely different
domains. Given a review written by a user on a product that belongs to
a specific domain, the target is to predict the sentiment expressed by
the author within the review regarding the product. we have a tendency
to limit ourselves to binary sentiment classification of entire reviews.
we tend to denote a supply domain by Dsrc and a target domain by
Dtar. The set of labelled instances from the source domain, L(Dsrc),
contains pairs (t, c) wherever a review, t, is assigned a sentiment label,
c. Here, c , and also the sentiment labels +1 and 1 severally denote
positive and negative sentiments. additionally to positive and negative
sentiment reviews, there can even be neutral and mixed reviews in
sensible applications. If a review discusses each positive and negative
aspects of a specific product, then such a review is taken into account as
a mixed sentiment review. On the opposite hand, if a review doesn't
contain neither positive nor negative sentiment concerning a specific
product then it's thought of as neutral. though this paper solely focuses
on positive and negative sentiment reviews, it's not laborious to
increase the planned methodology to deal with multi-category
sentiment classification issues.
However, the projected methodology is agnostic to the
properties of the classifier and might be accustomed expand feature
vectors for any binary classifier. As shown later within the
experiments, L1 regularization allows us to pick out alittle set of
63

options for the classifier. Our contributions during this work will be
summarized as follows.
we tend to propose a totally automatic methodology to form a
synonym finder that's sensitive to the sentiment of words expressed in
several domains. we tend to utilize each labeled and unlabeled
information on the market for the source domains and unlabeled
knowledge from the target domain.
we tend to propose a technique to use the created synonym finder to
expand feature vectors at train and check times during a binary
classifier.
we tend to compare the sentiment classification accuracy of our
projected methodology against varied baselines and previously
projected cross-domain sentiment classification strategies for each
single supply and multi-source adaptation settings.
we tend to study the flexibility of our methodology to accurately
predict the polarity of words victimization SentiWordNet, a lexical
resource within which every WordNet synset is related to a polarity
score.
V SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
5.1 Dataset
We use the cross-domain sentiment classification dataset1 ready by
Blitzer et al. [7] to match the proposed technique against previous work
on cross-domain sentiment classification. This dataset consists of
Amazon product reviews for four completely different product types:
books, DVDs, electronics and kitchen appliances. every review is
assigned with a rating (0-5 stars), a reviewer name and location, a
product name, a review title and date, and also the review text. Reviews
with rating > 3 ar labelled as positive, whereas those with rating
< 3 ar labelled as negative. the general structure of this benchmark
64

dataset is shown in Table 6.1. for every domain, there ar 1000 positive
and 1000 negative examples, a similar balanced composition because
the polarity dataset created by Pang et al. [1]. The dataset additionally
contains some unlabeled
reviews for the four domains. This
benchmark dataset has been utilized in a lot of previous work on crossdomain sentiment classification and by evaluating on that we are able
to directly compare the projected technique against existing
approaches. Following previous work, we tend to at random choose 800
positive and 800 negative labelled reviews from every domain as
coaching instances (total range of coaching instances are 16004 =
6400), and also the remainder is used for checking (total range of test
instances ar 4004 = 1600). In our experiments, we tend to choose
every domain successively because the target domain, with one or a lot
of alternative domains as sources.
Note that {when we tend to|once we|after we} mix quite one
supply domain we limit the overall range of supply domain labelled
reviews to 1600, balanced between the domains. as an example, if we
tend to mix two supply domains, then we tend to choose 400 positive
and 400 negative labelled reviews from every domain giving (400 +
400) a pair of = 1600. this permits us to perform a good analysis once
combining multiple supply domains. we tend to produce a sentiment
sensitive synonym finder exploitation labelled knowledge from the
supply domain and unlabeled knowledge from supply and target
domains as delineated in Section 4.
We then use this synonym finder to expand the labelled feature vectors
(train instances) from the supply domains and train an L1 regularised
provision regression-based binary classifier (Classias) 2. L1
regularization is shown to supply a thin model, wherever most
unsuitable options ar assigned a zero weight [22].
65

TABLE 3 The effect of using a sentiment sensitive thesaurus

for cross-domain sentiment classification
Method
Kitchen
DVDs
Books
No. Adapt
0.7261
0.6807
0.6272
NSST
0.7750
0.7350
0.7146
SST
0.8518
0.7826
0.7632
In-Domain
0.8770
0.820
0.8040
This enables us to pick out helpful features for classification during a

systematic manner while not having to preselect options exploitation
heuristic approaches. In our preliminary experiments, we have a
tendency to discovered that the classification accuracy on two
development target domains did not vary significantly with totally
different L1 regularization parameter values. Therefore, we have a
tendency to set the L1 regularization parameter to 1, that is that the
default setting in Classias, for all experiments represented during this
paper. Next, we have a tendency to use the trained classifier to classify
reviews within the target domain. The synonym finder is once more
wont to expand feature vectors from the target domain. This procedure
is perennial for every domain in Table
The on top of mentioned procedure creates four thesauri (each
synonym finder is made by excluding labeled coaching information for
a selected target domain).
For example, from the three domains DVDs, electronics and books, we
have a tendency to generate 53, 586 lexical elements and 62, 744
sentiment parts to make a synonym finder that's wont to adapt a
classifier trained on those 3 domains to the kitchen domain. Similar
numbers of options are generated for the opposite domains similarly.
66

To avoid generating distributed and possibly noisy options, we have a

tendency to need that every feature occur in a minimum of two totally
different review sentences. we have a tendency to use classification
accuracy on target domain because the analysis metric. it's the fraction
of the correctly classified target domain reviews from the total variety
of reviews within the target domain, and is outlined as follows:
5.2 Cross-Domain Sentiment Classification
To evaluate the advantage of using a sentiment sensitive synonym
finder for cross-domain sentiment classification, we have a tendency to
compare the planned technique against three baseline strategies in
Table 4. Next, we have a tendency to describe the strategies compared
in Table 4.
No Adapt: This baseline simulates the impact of not playacting any
feature enlargement. we have a tendency to simply train a binary
classifier exploitation unigrams and bigrams as options from the
labeled reviews within the supply domains and apply the trained
classifier on a target domain. this will be thought-about as a boundary
that doesn't perform domain adaptation.
NSST (Non-sentiment Sensitive Thesaurus): to judge the advantage
of exploitation sentiment options on our planned methodology, we have
a tendency to produce a synonym finder only exploitation lexical
elements. Lexical elements will be derived from each labeled and
unlabelled reviews whereas, sentiment elements are often derived only
from labeled reviews. we have a tendency to failed to use rating data
within the supply domain labeled knowledge during this baseline.A
synonym finder is made exploitation those options and afterwards used
for feature growth. A binary classifier is trained exploitation the
enlarged options.
planned (SST: sentiment sensitive thesaurus): this can be the
planned methodology represented during this paper. we have a
67

tendency to use the sentiment sensitive synonym finder created

exploitation the procedure represented in Section 4 and use the
synonym finder for feature growth in a binary classifier.
In-Domain: during this methodology, we have a tendency to train a
binary classifier exploitation the labeled knowledge from the target
domain. This methodology provides an bound for the cross-domain
sentiment analysis. This higher baseline demonstrates the classification
accuracy we are able to hope to get if we have a tendency to had labeled
knowledge for the target domain. Note that this can be not a crossdomain classification setting. Table four shows the classification
accuracy of the abovementioned strategies for every of the four
domains within the benchmark dataset because the target domain.
Moreover, for every domain we've got shown in boldface the simplest
cross-domain sentiment classification results. Note that the In-Domain
baseline isn't a cross-domain sentiment classification setting and acts as
a bound. From the leads to Table 4, we have a tendency to see that the
planned (sentiment sensitive thesaurus) returns the simplest crossdomain sentiment classification accuracy for all four domains. The
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukeys honestly important
variations (HSD) tests on the classification accuracies for the four
domains show that our planned methodology is statistically
considerably higher than each the no synonym finder and nonsentiment sensitive synonym finder baselines, at confidence level
zero.05. This shows that exploitation the sentiment sensitive synonym
finder for feature enlargement is helpful for cross-domain sentiment
classification.
5.3 Effect of Relatedness Measures
The choice of the connection live is an important call in a very thesauribased approach. totally different|completely different} connection
68

measures can list different lexical elements as neighbors for a selected

lexical element.
Therefore, the set of growth candidates are going to be directly
influenced by the connection measure accustomed produce the
synonym finder. to check the result of the connection measure on the
performance of the projected methodology, we have a tendency to
construct four sentiment sensitive thesauri exploitation four totally
different connection measures. we have a tendency to then conduct
feature growth and coaching within the same manner as represented in
Section 5 with all four connection measures. we have a tendency to use
the 3 domains at a time because the sources and therefore the
remaining domain because the target during this experiment. The
classification accuracies obtained victimization the various connection
measures are shown in Table 5. Next, we have a tendency to describe
the four connection measures compared in Table 5.
TABLE 4.Comparison of different relatedness measures
Method
Kitchen
DVDs
electron
Books
Overall
ics
Cosine
0.8342
0. 7826
0.8363
0.7657
0.8047
Lin[19]
0.8367
0. 7826
0.8438
0. 7632
0.8066
Proposed
0.8518
0.7826
0.8386
0. 7632
0.8091
Reversed
0.8342
0.7852
0.8463
0.7632
0.8072
Cosine Similarity: This is the cosine of the angle between the two
vectors that represent two lexical elements u and v. Using the notation
introduced in Section 4, it can be computed as follows:
69

Here, (v) = {x|f(v, x) > 0}, is the set of features x that have positive
pmi values in the feature vector for the element v. Cosine similarity is
widely used as a measure of relatedness in numerous tasks in natural
language processing [23].
Lins Similarity Measure: We use the similarity measure proposed
by Lin [19] for clustering similar words. This measure has shown to
outperform numerous other similarity measures for word clustering
tasks. It is computed as follows:
Proposed: This is the relatedness measure proposed in this paper

and is defined by Equation 2. Unlike the Cosine Similarity and Lins
Similarity Measure, this relatedness measure is asymmetric.
Reversed: As a baseline that demonstrates the asymmetric nature of
the relatedness measure proposed in Equation 2, we swap the two
arguments u and v in Equation 2 to construct a baseline relatedness
measure. Specifically, the reversed baseline is computed as follows:
70

Fig. 2. Correlation between relatedness scores.

From Table 5 we tend to see that the planned connection measure
reports the best overall classification accuracy followed by the Reversed
baseline, Lins Similarity measure, and therefore the cosine Similarity
in this order. However, it should be noted that the variations in
performance among those connection measures don't seem to be
statistically significant. This result implies that a wide-range of
connection measures is accustomed produce a sentiment sensitive
wordbook to be used with the feature enlargement methodology
planned within the paper. any investigations into the unfitness of the
planned methodology to the connection measures discovered three
important reasons that we'll discuss next. First, recall that the planned
feature enlargement methodology (Section 5) doesn't use absolutely the
worth of connection scores, however only uses the relative rank among
the enlargement candidates. Therefore, two connection measures that
turn out totally different absolute scores will acquire similar
performance if the relative rankings among enlargement candidates ar
similar. Second, as a posterior step to feature enlargement we tend to
train a binary classifier with L1 regularization exploitation source
domain labelled knowledge.
71

Therefore, if we tend to introduce any incorrect enlargement

candidates that don't properly mirror sentiment, those enlargement
candidates are appointed zero weights. Consequently, invalid
enlargement candidates are cropped out from the ultimate model learnt
by the binary classifier. However, it should be emphasised that though
this posterior classifier coaching step will take away incorrect
expansions, it cannot introduce the proper expansions. Therefore, it's
important to the performance of the planned methodology that a
connection measure identifies correct enlargement candidates
throughout the feature enlargement step. to review the degree of
spatiality within the connection measure planned in Equation 2, and its
result on the performance of the planned cross-domain sentiment
classification methodology, we tend to conduct the subsequent
experiment. For word pairs (u, v) within the sentiment sensitive
wordbook, we tend to plot the connection scores (u, v) against (v, u)
as shown in Figure two. There ar one, 000, 000 such word pairs (data
points) in Figure 2. From Figure 2, we tend to see that (u, v) is very
related to to (v, u). in reality the Pearson parametric statistic for
Figure 2 is as high as 0.8839 with a decent confidence interval of
[0.8835, 0.8844]. This experimental result indicates that, though by
definition Equation two is uneven, its level of spatiality is incredibly
little in observe. each the planned methodology and its Reversed
baseline (Equation 8) coverage similar accuracy values in Table five any
supports this finding. we tend to take into account this perceived low
level of spatiality to be a third reason that explains the similar
performance among symmetric and asymmetric connection measures
compared in Table 5.
5.4 Effect of using Multiple Sources
In real-world cross-domain sentiment classification settings usually
we've more than one supply domains at our disposal. choosing the right
supply domains to adapt to a given target domain could be a difficult
72

drawback [24]. to check the result of exploitation multiple supply

domain within the planned technique, we tend to choose the electronics
domain because the target and train a sentiment classifier exploitation
all possible mixtures of the three source domains books (B), kitchen
appliances (K), and DVDs (D). Note that we tend to fix the entire
number of labeled coaching instances after we combine multiple
domains as sources to avoid any performance gains just because of the
magnified variety of labeled instances as already explained in Section
6.1. Specifically, once employing a single source domains we tend to
take 800 positive and 800 negative labeled reviews, once exploitation
two source domains we tend to take 400 positive and 400 negative
labeled reviews from every source domain, and once exploitation all 3
source domains we tend to take 266 positive and 266 negative labeled
reviews. Moreover, we tend to use all obtainable unlabeled reviews
from every supply domain and also the target domain. Figure three
shows the result of mixing multiple supply domains to make a
sentiment classifier for the physical science domain. we tend to see that
the room domain is that the single Fig. 4. result of supply domain
labeled information. best input domain once adapting to the electronics
target domain. This behavior is explained by the actual fact that
generally kitchen appliances and electronic things have similar aspects.
however a additional interesting observation is that the accuracy that
we tend to get {when we tend to|once we|after we} use two source
domains is usually bigger than the accuracy if we use those domains
severally. the best accuracy is achieved after we use all three source
domains. though not shown here for house limitations, we tend to
ascertained similar trends with different domains within the
benchmarkdataset.
73

Graph5.1: Effect of using multiple source domains.
Graph5.2.Effect of source domain labeled data.
VI ALGORITHMS
6.1 Lemmatisation
Lemmatisation is a process of identifying the lemma of a word.

Algorithms for performing this operation typically use dictionaries,
where they look up the primary form of the word.
Lemmatisation may find several different lemmas for a given word,

if the word is the inflected form of many various lemmas.
74

The use of lemmatisation reduces the number of terms present in

the corpus and allows matching of words in documents, even if
words tend to occur in different grammatical forms.
The use of lemmatisation may result in deterioration of the

classification accuracy, due to the possible occurrence of words in
different forms derived from one lemma, depending on the
document affiliation to one of the classes.
Pseudo Code for Lemmatisation :
1)
IF suffix("") THEN transform(""-->"") EXCEPT
2)
IF suffix("ote") THEN transform("ote"-->"ite")
3) ELSE IF suffix("ten") THEN transform("ten"-->"e")

4) ELSE IF suffix("s") THEN transform("s"-->"")
5) ELSE IF suffix("g") THEN transform(""-->"") EXCEPT
6) IF suffix("hing") THEN transform("ing"-->"e")
7) ELSE IF suffix("d") THEN transform("d"-->"")
8) ELSE IF suffix("e") THEN transform(""-->"")
9) ELSE IF suffix("r") THEN transform(""-->"")
10) ELSE IF suffix("f") THEN transform(""-->"")
11) ELSE IF suffix("t") THEN transform(""-->"")
6.2.Stopwords
A stop-list is a set of words that should be removed at early stage of

text processing. In most cases, these are conjunctions and other
words which do not contribute additional information to the content
of the sentence.
75

Often, stop-list words are present in the sentence solely due to the
requirements of languages grammar. In many cases the use of stoplists improves accuracy and performance of text document
processing
Pseudo Code for Stop words:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
For (i=0;i<=length;i++)
{
If(word == removerword[i])
{
Removeword();
}
End for }
6.3 Stemming:
Stemming is a process similar to lemmatisation. It aims to extract

the core of the word, referred to as the stem, from the inflectional
word forms. Stemming typically involves removal and replacement
of prefixes and suffixes. The result of stemming does not need to be
and often is not a proper lemma
Pseudo Code Stemming:
Step 1a:
Remove matching instrumental case if preceded by double
consonants and remainder is a valid word:
al el
Then remove one of the double consonants (digraphs included)
Step 1b
Remove the following noun cases if the remainder is a valid word:
ban ben ba be ra re nak nek tl tl rl rl bl bl hoz hez
76

nl nl knt ig val vel

Then if the last letter of the new word is change it to a
Else if the last letter of the new word is change it to e
Step 2
Remove longest matching personal suffix for owned nouns if
remainder is valid word:
ok k 'ak ek
Step 3a
Search for the longest among the following singular owner
suffixes and perform the action indicated:
nk unk nk juk jk uk k em om am m od ed ad d d ja je a e o
Remove if the remainder is a valid word
nk juk m d
Replace with a if remainder is a valid word
nk jk m d
Replace with e if remainder is a valid word
Step 3b
Search for the longest among the following plural owner suffixes
and perform the action indicated:
jaim jeim aim eim im jaid jeid aid eid id jai jei ai ei i jaink
jeink eink aink ink jaitok jeitek aitok eitek itek jeik jaik aik eik ik
im id i ink itok ik
77

im id i ink itek ik
Step 4
Search for the longest among the following plural suffixes and
perform the action indicated:
k ok ek ak
k
k
6.4 social opinion algorithm:
The method proposed in this paper for determining terms semantic
orientation is a variant of the method used in [1]. The drawback of the
original method is that it assigns maximum or minimum value to all
terms if they occur in only one class, regardless of the number of
occurrences. Therefore, we have proposed an alternative way of
calculating the semantic orientation of a term. Our method is based on
the ratio of term occurence frequency in documents assigned to positive
and negative classes. According to our approach the scoring function for
assigning positive and negative scores to terms to terms becomes
78

The score value of a term determined as above increases or

decreases with changing frequency of term occurrences in
positive or negative class, even if the term occurs in only one
class.
The score value of a term determined as above increases or

decreases with changing frequency of term occurrences in
positive or negative class, even if the term occurs in only one
class. Similarly to the score method, the disadvantage of the
proportional method is the noise resulting from an insufficient
number of terms instances in the training set. However, when
proportional method is used, the influence of the noise is limited
in comparison to the score method.
This limitation results from the use of the scaling value .The
score value assigned to a term which occurs only once in the
training set is limited by the ratio of cardinalities of classes,
whereas the semantic orientation of terms characteristic to
positive or negative documents is often orders of magnitude
greater. To further reduce the impact of the noise on the
effectiveness of the algorithm, we propose to add filtering by
removing from the dictionary terms that occur in fewer than
documents
the minority class in the training set. Setting the threshold of term
occurrences in the training set allows to eliminate terms that are not
characteristic for any of the document classes, i.e. these terms for
which conditional probabilities of term occurrences are similar for both
classes, but which occurred too rarely in the training set, to have their
evaluation been determined to be equal or close to zero.
79

Experiments:
Test sets
The main objective of experiments was to test the accuracy of the

classification algorithm proposed in Section IV. We used collections of
opinions harvested from the e-commerce site Merlin, and two social
networks Znany lekarz and Ceneo. The first dataset is the collection of
movie reviews from the Merlin website. The reviewers were grading
movies using the scale from 1 to 5, where the reviews with grades 1 or 2
are considered negative, and the reviews with grades 4 and 5 are
considered positive. We have discarded neutral reviews with grade
equal to 3. The dataset consists of 1055 negative reviews and 9068
positive reviews. The second dataset contains opinions on consumer
products aggregated by the website Ceneo. Among the reviews graded
from 0 to 5, we have chosen 16 674 positive reviews graded 4 or 5, and
793 negative reviews with grades 0 or 1. Again, we have discarded all
neutral reviews.The third dataset comes from the website Znany lekarz
which gathers opinions about physicians. We have assumed that
opinions associated with grades 1 and 2 on a scale 1-6 are negative, and
opinions with grades 5 and 6 indicate a positive feedback. The dataset
contains 2380 negative opinions and 11 764 positive opinions. In
addition we have performed tests using an aggregated dataset created
by merging the three datasets. The aggregated dataset contains 4228
negative opinions and 37 506 positive opinions.
Pseudo Socio-opinion Algo:
1. For(i=0;i<total comments ; i++)
2. {
3. If(points > 1)
4. {
5. Scorer ++
6. }
80

7. Else
8. {
9. Scorer
10. }
11. Counter = 1/scorer
12. }end for
13. Total counter = counter;
14. Update Scorer
6.5 Cross domain analysis algorithm:
Input:
-Dsrc (source domain)
-Dtar (target domain)
Output:
Dsrc
L(Dsrc)
Process:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Dtar
L(Dtar)
Get input source domain

Genrate L(Dsrc) with pair (t,c) review t with label c
Genrate ( ((Dsrc)) (Dtar))
For t Dsrc
If(+ve sentiment)*P
If(-ve sentiment)*N
5) Compute a
For all i: 1to n
A=C(i,w)
a=A/N
6) Compute b
For all j: 1to m
B=C(j,u)
b=B/N
81

7) Compute
F = log
8)
( , )/
Find out target domain

for i having 0 to w length
if (fN > 0) a + = w(x)
else a=a
for j having 0 to w length
if (f(u)>0)
b+=w(x)
9) if (a/b > 0.5)

{
Dtar = w
}
Else
Continue
10) update sentiment to Dtar
VII RESULTs
82

83

VIII CONCLUSION
We planned a cross-domain sentiment classifier exploitation an
automatically extracted sentiment sensitive synonym finder. to
overcome the feature mis-match drawback in cross-domain sentiment
classification, we tend to use labelled data from multiple source
domains and unlabeled data from source and target domains to
calculate the connection of features and construct a sentiment sensitive
synonym finder. we tend to then use the created synonym finder to
expand feature vectors throughout train and check times for a binary
classifier. A relevant set of the options is selected exploitation L1
regularization. The planned technique considerably outperforms many
baselines and reports results that ar comparable previously planned
cross-domain sentiment classification strategies on a benchmark
dataset. Moreover, our comparisons against the SentiWordNet show
that the created sentiment-sensitive synonym finder accurately teams
words that specific similar sentiments. In future, we decide to
generalize the planned technique to resolve different kinds of domain
adaptation tasks.we implement it and compare the results with
expected results.
84

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11. D. Shen, J. Wu, B. Cao, J.-T. Sun, Q. Yang, Z. Chen, and Y. Li,
Exploiting term relationship to boost text classification, in
CIKM09, 2009
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rasp system, in COLING/ACL 2006 Interactive Presentation
Sessions, 2006.
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pp. 137142.
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semantic orientation of adjectives, in ACL 1997, 1997, pp. 174
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AAAI 2000, 2000, pp. 735740.
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21. S. Sarawagi and A. Kirpal, Efficient set joins on similarity
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86

22. A. Y. Ng, Feature selection, l1 vs. l2 regularization, and

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27. G. Qiu, B. Liu, J. Bu, and C. Chen, Expanding domain
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87

WOMEN AND EDUCATION IN INDIA

Dr. Bheemsha D Sagar
Dept of Womens Studies
Gulbarga University. Gulbarga
If you educate a man you educate an individual, however, if

you educate a woman you educate a whole family. Women empowered
means mother India empowered.
PT. Jawaharlal Nehru
India is the second largest country in the world so far as
population is concerned. But so far as education is concerned it is a
backward country. In past, women did not receive any education at all.
They were not allowed to come out of the four walls of their houses.
Domestic works were their only education.
During the British rule in India some noble social thinkers of
the time paid their attention to the education of woman in our country.
Raja Ram Mohan Ray, Iswara Chandra Vidyasagar was famous
reformers who gave emphasis on the education of women. They put
forth a very strong argument.
Man and woman are like the two sides of a coin. Without one,
the other cannot exist. They help each other in every sphere. So
education should be given to both man and woman. Further, women
are the mothers of the future generation. If women are uneducated, the
future generations will be uneducated. For this reason the Greek
warrior Napoleon once said, "Give me a few educated mothers; I shall
give you a heroic race."
In day to day life, the real problems are faced first by women
and then the same problems are conveyed to men for solution. If the
women are educated, they can solve all the problems of their houses.
88

Very often, the working men of some families become handicapped in

unfortunate accidents. In that situation, the complete burden of the
family rests on the women of the families. To meet this exigency
women should be educated. They should be employed in different
spheres. Women can work as teachers, doctors, lawyers and
administrators. Educated women are good mothers.
Education of women can be helpful in eradicating many social
evils such as dowry problem, unemployment problem, etc. Social peace
can easily be established.
Women have played a very important role in human society.
They are creator; they should be given facility to get knowledge so that
they may earn their own bread. Women should be taught about
environmental deterioration and protection as they have played a
significant role in environmental movement such as chipko movement;
they played a role in protestation against the commercial exploitation of
the Himalaya forest. Now the world has awaken and United Nations in
1995 realized and recognized womens need in planning of natural
resources and decision-making process.
Empowerment allows individuals to reach their full potential, to
improve their political and social participation, and to believe in their
own capabilities. Gender empowerment also has important
ramifications for the rest of the household; empowered women have
fewer children and higher child survival rates (Rosenzweig and Schultz,
1982; Dyson and Moore, 1983), healthier and better-fed children
(Lundberg, Pollak and Wales, 1997; Kanbur and Haddad, 1994), and a
generally greater allocation of resources to children (Thomas, 1990;
Handa, 1996). Development programs have aimed to empower women
by increasing their control over contraceptive choices, by providing
them access to credit, and through education.
89

A large body of literature finds that a womans access to

employment outside the house increases her household bargaining
power (Anderson and Eswaran, 2009; Rahman and Rao, 2004). The
ownership of assets, in particular, is one important way through which
access to employment helps empower women in developing countries (
Agarwal, 2001). In addition, several analyses have found that access to
credit programs whether through micro-finance organizations or
rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCA) has a positive effect
on female empowerment (Anderson and Baland, 2002; Hashemi,
Schuler and Riley,1996).
WHY WOMEN ARE NOT EDUCATED IN INDIA
In Asia, India has the lowest rates of female literacy. This is
attributed to the fact the country has a biased outlook towards the
education of women. The Indian society feels that a woman is a liability
who will one time get married and will not contribute the economic and
social development of the family. The society perceives a woman as
somebody who cannot do other duties apart from her traditional duties
of cooking and housekeeping. As a result, the society considers home
training more important as compared to formal education.
Another contributing factor is the rapid growth of the
population. Most Indian households have a number of children whose
needs are much higher than their earning capacity. This leads to the
neglect of the girl education and put more emphasis on the education of
the boy child. In this instance, marriage is taken more seriously as
opposed to education hence a number of Indian girls are married at a
younger age. This becomes as an impediment in the education of the
Indian woman.
90

Some of the programmes taken for womens betterment are

given below:
1. Sarwa Shiksha Abhiyan
2. Balika Samridhi Yojana
3. Indira Mahila Yojana
4. Mahila Samridhi Yojana
5. Employment and Income Generating Training-cum-Production
Centres
6. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh
7. Short Stay Home for Women and Girls
8. Programme of Development of Women & Children in rural areas.
Problems Affecting Women Education
(a) Undernourishment
(b) Malnutrition
(c) Sexual harassment and abuse
(d) Lower socio-economic status
(e) Infections
(f) Forced for uncontrolled reproduction
(g) Limited education
Sarwa Shiksha Abhiyan
It is a national mission which provides quality education for 8 years
between 6 and 14 years. It has following targets to achieve(a) By the year 2002, all districts are to be covered by the programme.
(b) By the year 2003, all children are to be taken to school, education
guarantee centers and alternative school or back-to-school campus.
(c) By the year 2007, all children must complete 5 years of education.
(d) By the year 2010, all children must complete 8 years of quality
elementary education.
91

Present position:
Indians are conservative by nature. So, their blind faith and age
old superstition stood against the female education. Now, people have
felt the virtue of female education. The do not hesitate to send their
daughters to schools. Now in India we find women professors, lady
doctors, lady scientists, lady politicians and lady ministers. But a large
number of women are still in dark. They should be educated in the
interest of our national progress.
The female education is highly necessary for the society.
Because mothers are the first teachers of the children. They are the
first teachers of the future citizens of the country. If the mothers be
ignorant, they cannot take proper care of the children. They cannot
infuse good qualities in them. Hence, the very foundation of our people
will remain weak, if the females will be ignorant the society will lose
the services of a powerful part of our society. So, female education is
quite necessary for the girls. The women are in no way inferior to men.
In western countries the women are writing books, driving cars and
aero-planes, running banks and big business firms and doing research
in the laboratory. There are women scientists, women officers and
women writers. The typewriters, the news agents, the sales agents the
commercial solicitors are mostly women. Hence, we cannot decry the
women-folk in our country. Educating an Indian woman creates a vital
opportunity for the social and economic development of India. An
educated Indian woman will yield a positive impact in the Indian
society by contributing positively to the economy of both the country
and the society.
An educated woman reduces the chances of her child dying before the
age of five. The chances of controlling the population are high as an
educated woman is likely to marry at a later age as opposed to
uneducated woman.
92

Conclusion:
India is now optimistic in the field of female education. We had the
female philosophers like Gargi, Maritreyi and Viswabara in the Vedic
age. We had Mirabai, Ahalyabi, Durgabati and Laxmibai in the days of
history. They were all learned. Hence, we had a great tradition during
the days of our degeneration. Now, we have revived. So, we will
certainly revive the female education in India.
Reference
1. Anderson, S., and J.-M. Baland. 2002. The Economics of Roscas
and Intrahousehold Resource Allocation. The Quarterly
Journal of Economics, 117(3): 963995.
2. Anderson, S., and M. Eswaran. 2009. What Determines Female
Autonomy? Evidence from
Bangladesh. Journal
of
Development Economics, 90(2): 179 191.
3. Dyson and Moores Thesis with New Data. Population and
Development Review, 30(2): 239268.
4. Dyson, T., and M. Moore. 1983. On Kinship Structure, Female
Autonomy, and Demographic Behavior in India. Population
and Development Review, 9(1): 3560
5. Eeshani Kandpal Kathy Baylis Mary Arends-Kuenning :
Empowering Women through Education and Influence: An
Evaluation of the Indian Mahila Samakhya Program IZA DP
No. 6347 February 2012 http://ftp.iza.org/dp6347.pdf
6. http://www.preservearticles.com/201104306066/short-essay-onwoman-education.html
7. http://www.shareyouressays.com/89159/short-essay-on-womenseducation-in-india
93

8. Kanbur, R., and L. Haddad. 1994. Are better off households

more equal or less equal? Oxford Economic Papers, 46(3): 445
58.
9. Lundberg, S., R. Pollak, and T. Wales. 1997. Do husbands and
wives pool their resources? Evidence from the United Kingdom
child benefit. Journal of Human Resources, 32(3): 463480
10. Rahman, L., and V. Rao. 2004. The Determinants of Gender
Equity in India: Examining
11. Rosenzweig, M., and T. P. Schultz. 1982. Market
Opportunities, Genetic Endowments, and Intra family Resource
Distribution: Child Survival in Rural India. The American
Economic Review, 72(4): 803815.
12. Thomas, D. 1990. Intra-Household Resource Allocation: An
Inferential Approach. The Journal of Human Resources, 25(4):
635664.
94

WOMEN AND POLITICS IN INDIA

Dr Bheemsha D Sagar
Guest faculty
Dept. of. Womens Studies
Gulbarga University, Gulbarga, Karnataka
Social class, status, and power are predetermined by ones

gender. Within todays patriarchal society, men simply possess greater
power than women, and enjoy greater access to what is valued by the
social group. (Code 1993, 19) Patriarchal thought produces male
dominance, and authority within multiple areas, including politics.
Throughout history, governments have designed laws to maintain such
divisions of power, resulting in the oppression of women. Patriarchal
power relations construct sexual differences as political differences by
giving legal form to the belief that women, because of their sex, are fit
only to serve as wives and mothers. One must question how women
can achieve greater influence within the male political arena if they are
not viewed as equal? How are determined women attempting to change
their position within society, regarding politics? Multiple changes have
been made throughout history regarding the place of women in society,
but are they leading towards equality?
The main goal of the womens movement was basic citizenship
rights for women. For decades, many of the first womens groups
strived for their civil, and political rights as women. Their central focus
was the right to vote, and the right to run for office. The purpose was to
claim a role in democratic politics. Many believed that in order to attain
political goals, the right to vote was vital. The womens movement has
touched the lives of many Canadian women, radically transforming the
nature of their everyday experiences. .Women assumed that once the
95

right to vote was granted, equality in the eyes of males was soon to
follow, along with their new influence within politics.
After the right to federal franchise for women was established,
females continued to be disqualified from positions within the Senate
because they were not considered qualified persons as defined by the
British North America (BNA) Act.. It was not until 1929 when five
women from Alberta disputed the BNA Act, and the British Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council determined that women be recognized
as persons within the law.
Soon, it became apparent that legal rights alone would not be
enough for women to acquire an impressive influence within politics.
Within the nineteen sixties, and seventies, women continued to remain
fixtures within the second-class, and unable to alter their status.
Women still performed most of the domestic duties; could not find
adequate, affordable child care; were woefully under-represented in
politics; earned a fraction of the pay men earned; faced spousal abuse,
sexual assault, and sexual harassment; and had no legal access to birth
control. Many of these issues remained unimportant to politicians, and
decision makers, as they did not directly affect them. Multiple womens
groups began demanding care for their children, equal pay,
unrestrictive employment legislation, and the termination of sex-role
stereotyping in schools, and by mass media. Once it became evident
that the government was not concerned with womens rights, groups
began to form in an attempt to correct the setback. Some womens
groups made demands on the state; others provided services for women;
others offered solidarity based on ethnicity, class, ideology, sexual
orientation, and disability.
Decades full of protests for womens rights created several
political gains, as well as improvements in their status; however,
inequality remained. Womens beliefs that political rights would lead to
96

equal opportunity, were overshadowed by the reality that their

inequality resulted in their lack of influence within politics. Multiple
policies and laws may have been created or changed in an attempt to
improve womens role in society, but economic dependence, and
physical reliance on men continued as issues. Women remained
underrepresented within politics, holding fewer than twenty percent of
federal, and provincial elected offices in Canada. In 1998, only
fourteen percent of provincially appointed judges, and twenty percent
of justices appointed by the federal government were women.
Eliminating women from political positions hindered their ability to
become a valid influence within the political arena.
Unequal
pay,
workplace
harassment,
and
discrimination
continued to plague women in the work force. Statistics Canada

released a report, Women in Canada, in 2000, detailing womens
position in society. In 1999, seventy percent of women were employed
in clerical or administrative positions; teaching, nursing, and health
occupations; and sales, and service occupations. The report also
confirmed that womens income remained drastically lower than mens.
Many believe that the variance between wages is due to the fact that
forty-one percent of women are employed in part-time, or temporary
positions; however, those employed in full-time positions only earn
seventy-three percent of what male employees make. Women occupy
only twenty-two percent of the countrys highest paying jobs, but hold
sixty-eight percent of the lowest paying jobs. With the lack of women in
high profile positions, and the belief that women are not as valuable as
men, they continue to provide no bearing on the political aspects of
society.
Women continue to receive less in our patriarchal society.
Women have less political power, fewer economic resources, less
security, and lower status that do men. This continues regardless of
decades dedicated to movements for womens rights, and lobbying for
97

policies designed to alter womens status in society. For those women

who are poor, immigrant, Aboriginal, or disabled, they find themselves
even more inferior than other women. Therefore, the question remains,
are women equal? Simply stated, they are not equal. Women continue
to fight for liberal democratic political power. Their gender continues to
play a role in how society will view them, as well as their position. For
centuries, power has been allotted to men, which continues to this day.
Few women possess great political power due to the difficulties of
obtaining customary equality within society.
In a world where men rule, how is a women able to gain great
authority, and step into the political spot light? In a society where
women are viewed as insignificant, how are they to influence political
decision makers? The law has granted women a voice within politics;
however, it remains weak and inaudible. In order for women to increase
their influence in politics, they must first become equal with men. Until
then, they will be viewed as inferior; therefore, not requiring influence
in politics. Gradually women are gaining more power, and prestige in
society. Soon, the number in high-paying jobs will increase, creating a
less economically dependent gender. As women strive for these changes,
men, especially politicians, will be forced to take notice. As power for
women intensifies, so will their influence in politics. As the voice for
womens rights grows, so will their equality; therefore, leveling out the
playing field in the political arena for both men, and women.
Women remain underrepresented in governance and politics,
although no legal impediments hinder their participation in the
political process. A 1998 "Times of India" report revealed that domestic
responsibilities, lack of financial clout, rising criminalization of politics
and the threat of character assassination" are making it increasingly
difficult for women to be part of the political framework. Moreover,
women politicians point out that even within the political parties,
women are rarely found in leadership positions. In fact, "women
98

candidates are usually fielded from 'losing' constituencies where the

party does not want to 'waste' a male candidate".
Despite the difficulties, women have made inroads to public life
mainly due to the so-called male equivalence or kinship link. The
assumption here is that women access political life with the support,
backing and contacts of the family, in particular that of the husband. In
a study made in 1998 wherein 15 women were surveyed, 1/3 of the
women MPs, for example, have "family support" in the background.
However, other points out that "male equivalence" is an inadequate
conceptual framework. First, because it is the public sphere (e.g. state
institutions, press, and political discourse) that has to be negotiated if
the family decision to put forward a woman in politics is to succeed; it is
not a private, but a public matter. Second, in many cases the husbands
do not support the candidature of the wife at all. It is the pressure of
party political bosses that forces the issue in many cases. The
centralized system of distribution of seats in mass political parties helps
in this context. A party's concern with levels of representation of
certain groups within its ranks, and consequences for legitimacy of the
party among the under-represented groups might be the motive for
including women.
Together with "kinship link" and state initiatives, an important
factor impacting on women's access to political life seems to be social
and political movements. These movements have created windows of
opportunity and some women have been able to take advantage of these
opportunities to access political life. For example, the national
movement was an important mobilizer of women. Gandhi's
contribution to bringing women into politics is well-documented; the
left movement also mobilized women. Women's organizations were
constituted under the umbrella and control of the party the Mahila
Congress and the All India Women's Federation (CPI).
99

The 1993 passage of the "Panchayati Raj" constitutional

amendments reserved 30 percent of seats in elected village councils
(Panchayats) for women, which has brought more than 1 million
elected women into the political life at the grassroots level. The passage
of the "Panchayati Raj" was due to the Seventy-third Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992, a central government law which is supposed
to be enacted by all the states and union territories. The panchayats
have been assigned various subjects ranging from agriculture to
poverty eradication. The panchayats have a five-year tenure, and they
are given 29 subjects to look after ranging from agriculture, forestry,
and fisheries to family planning, health and education.
As of 2002, there were 70 women in the 783-seat legislature.
There were 6 women in the Cabinet. A large proportion of women
participated in voting throughout the country (with turnout rates
slightly lower than those of men), and numerous women were
represented in all major parties in the national and state legislatures.
The Emergence of Gender Issues
Gender has been a central issue in India since the colonial
encounter. An overwhelming preoccupation with the womans
question arose from the 19th century social reform movement,
crucially informed anti-colonial nationalism, and remains a point of
crisis in Indias cultural, social, and political space. The recognition of
gender as an issue forms the basis for Indias womens movement. One
prominent gender concern was status that is, the rewards and
benefits that
determination,
accrued
to
statehood,
women
on Indias journey
democracy,
progress,
to
self-
modernity,
and
development. In 1974 the Indian government published a report,

Towards Equality, That put status of women forcefully on the national
agenda by arguing that the position of Indian women had declined, not
improved, since 1911 (Committee on the Status of Women 1974). As a
100

result development and progress became gender issues Data on gender

discrimination in employment, education, land distribution,
inheritance, nutrition, and health became impossible to overlook.
At the same time violence against women was on the rise and
widely reported in the media. There were cases of rape in police
custody, wife murder (usually called bride-burning or dowry deaths) on
a large scale, and sexual harassment in the workplace and on the street.
Womens issues entered the fields of culture, religion, and law; of
family and community structures; of the problems of and official
responses to population, poverty, illiteracy, and labor; and of the new
social movements of dalits, environmentalists, tribals, anti-dam
activists, peasants, and trade unions. Rajeswari Sunder Rajan, taking
stock of the 50th independence celebrations, comments that in all these
discourses, disciplines and sites of action, gender began to figure as an
issue as well as a category of analysis.
This paper addresses this critical challenge. It seeks, through
historical analysis, to understand the cleavages in the womens
movement by examining the two most divisive issues before it: the
Uniform Civil Code and the move to reserve for women one-third of the
seats in legislative bodies. But it also mines the promise of a
transformative (feminist) politics. Today there is not one womens
movement in India, an overarching collective in which gender politics is
articulated. Yet the multiplicity of sites, disciplines, and discourses
makes for vibrant gender politics. Although women often define and
identify themselves through difference and conflict rather than through
similarity or common belonging, this paper uses the term womens
movement.
This approach is justified because analytical categories often
must indulge in abstraction from the perceptions and definitions of
social actors, so the term can be used to indicate a variety of campaigns
101

around issues important to women. Moreover, I wish to affirm the

possibility and even necessity for a womens movement to exist, to
offer women the possibility of a space outside the structures, if not also
the identities, of community.
Reserving Seats for Women in Legislative Bodies
In September 1996 the United Front government introduced the
Constitution (Eighty-first) Amendment Bill, which sought to reserve
for women one-third of the seats in Lok Sabha and state assemblies. In
the preceding elections almost all political parties had promised such
reservation in their manifestos. The bill was referred to a joint select
committee under the chairpersonship of Gita Mukherjee, a veteran
member of Parliament from the Communist Party of India. The
resubmitted bill was hotly debated in the House in 1997 and 1998.
Since then the bill has been stalled. It remains on the agenda in each
parliamentary session, but with current political instability, no party is
willing to take on such a controversial issue.
Empowerment and political representation Empowerment is the
buzzword of the 1990s. But there is little consensus on the definition
and use of the term. Indeed, most of the time it seems to be
transparent, and so not in need of definition. Eempowerment is a
process that enhances the ability of disadvantaged (powerless)
individuals and groups to challenge and change (in their favour)
existing power relationships that place them in subordinate economic,
social and political positions. In a general way, the emphasis on power
is a response to post-feminist (and feminist) critiques of the earlier
focus on victimization. But indiscriminate application of the term is
likely to trivialize it and defuse its potential. Devaki Jain rightly points
out that to say inputs of education, better health facilities or toilets
are empowering is misusing the word and misleading policy. Toilets
by themselves cannot be empowering, but the exercise of power by
102

certain groups may lead to a situation where most people are denied
basic facilities, like toilets, and the goal should be to empower
underprivileged groups so that they can claim such facilities.
Empowerment is about power and politics is the field where power is
negotiated. Achieving empowerment requires the womens movement
to operate in the field of politics, not only in the manner in which it
redefines the field (the personal is the political) but also in the arena
where power is brokered the public world of formal, institutionalized
politics. In India the demand for reserved seats in legislative bodies did
not arise from the womens movement, but the alacrity with which a
section of the movement picked it up reflects a political understanding
of empowerment and shifts in the womens movement. A crucial step
has been taken since the 1980s, from protest politics toward the
political mainstream, in order to actualize the movements claims of
playing a transformative role in society and politics. In addition, there
is growing awareness that since governments matter, women must be
part of them. This awareness was reflected in the platform for action
developed at the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing,
one of the goals of which was to increase womens participation in
political institutions. In fact, the government claimed the reservation
bill to be a fulfillment of the pledge made at Beijing. But despite their
best intentions, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) cannot claim
true and authentic representation of a tenuously defined people
relative to democratically elected governments.Indian women have had
little representation in institutional politics since independence. The
largest share of women in Parliament occurred in 1985, when the
womens movement was at its peak. Since then womens representation
has fallen. The womens constituency is fragmenting rather than
consolidating. There is an urgent need for political intervention. The
issue of reservation is meaningful for womens leadership; feminist
arguments and advocacy now have to deepen into validating claims
103

about the quality of leadership. Leadership is essential because feminist

claims on the political arena are not just to share power but to change
the nature of power; not just to govern but to change the nature of
governance. Women have many ways of enhancing, transforming, and
expanding the notion of power and politics and giving full meaning to
the concept of representation. All this requires us to address the
broader field of power and politics. Action at the local level can be
useful. But such action inevitably remains at the margins and has
limited transformative potential. Only a strong political content can
make empowerment a reality. Similarly, empowerment can be made
meaningful for women only by enhancing the political-ideological
content of development. The definition of political has to reach out
to the widest arena of power. Moreover, to be effective players in the
distribution of power and resources, women have to stake a claim not
only on the states munificence, but also on state power.
As noted, the issue of reservation did not emanate from the
womens movement. Nor has the debate been confined to the
movement. The possibility of such a large claim by women is of major
significance to established and entrenched interests. Passions have
risen to a fever pitch, both in Parliament and outside, especially in the
visual and print media. Notably, the public ascribes authorship of the
measure to feminists. Many feminists have welcomed the bill and the
political vicissitudes through which it is passing.
Male members of Parliament who oppose the bill have indulged
in aggression and violence on the floor of the House; and there has been
explicit male collusion to block the bill.15 The male plot, says Jain,
has actually done women a service by uniting women parliamentarians
across party lines as never before. Yet the Indian womens movement is
bitterly divided on the issue. One section, led by leftist females
members of Parliament, has vociferously campaigned in its favor. But
104

an equal number of activists have been hesitant, doubtful, indifferent,

and even hostile to the proposed measure.
Progress and problems
Womens participation in local governance had already been
discussed in the context of Panchayat Raj, introduced in 1957. The
solution at that time was a provision for co-opting two women who
were interested in work among women and children (Balwantrai Mehta
Commitee Report). The 1961
Maharashtra Zilla Parishad and
Panchayat Samiti Act provided for the nomination of one or two women
if they were not elected, and the 1973 West Bengal Panchayat Act
provided for coopting two women. The major breakthrough came in
1983 when a law was passed in the southern state of Karnataka to
reserve for women 25 percent of seats in local councils. In 1987 the first
elections were held. The impetus came not from the womens
movement but from Janata Dal, whose ideology was a mix of
democratic socialism and Gandhian politics, and as part of a pro-people
agenda. This initiative was adopted nationally 10 years later, in April
1993, when the Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act 1992 and
The Constitution (Seventy-fourth Amendment) Act 1992 were passed.
The first related to panchayats and the second to municipalities. In all
panchayats and municipalities one-third of seats were reserved for
women. One-third of the offices of chairpersons of panchayats and
municipalities were also reserved for women. The full effects of this
radical step have yet to be realized. However, in 1987-92 Karnataka
had 14,000 women in its development councils. In 1991 in Orissa,
22,000 women were elected to panchayats. In Kerala 30 percent of seats
were reserved, but women won 35 percent. In 1994 in the Madhya
Pradesh panchayati polls, 33 percent of seats were reserved, but women
won 43 percent. In West Bengal in the same year, the all-women
Kultikori panchayat took office with 11 members. In just two to three
years, from about 1 percent elected women and 4-5 percent total
105

women in local government bodies, there were more than 350,000

women. This figure is expected to rise to about 1 million. The
panchayati reservations were passed in a sudden move that generated
little debate and no opposition. Male Parliament members gave
women one-third of the seats in the lowest elected bodies in the
country. This measure had (or still has) the potential of revolutionizing
not only the common lot of village women but also Indias political
culture. Immediately after the first round of elections, there was a
great deal of skepticism. Studies in West Bengal showed that in many
areas, womens inexperience allowed their marginalization; that given
the limited power and resources of the panchayats, womens roles were
highly circumscribed; and that political parties included women for
panchayati representation without allowing them voice in party
decision making. A second round of elected women are now in office,
and activists and scholars argue that there have been many benefits.
True, many of the women elected had little or no political experience,
but they have gained self-confidence. These women have questioned
priorities in panchayat programs and stressed domestic issues like
fuel, water, schools, and the proximity of services. Women have been
less committed to party interests and been able to build broad alliances
among themselves.
Some argue that the success of the panchayati reservations has
been an eye-opener. The backlash has hardened male opposition to
womens inclusion in higher decision making bodies. Nevertheless, the
81st Amendment Bill was proposed. Its provisions were similar to the
73rd and 74th amendments: one-third of seats in Lok Sabha and state
assemblies were to be reserved for women along with the existing
provisions for SC/ST (Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes). The
justification given was that since independence, womens participation
in Parliament has been quite limited And in 1995 women accounted for
just 3.9 percent of the members of state assembles
106

Thus there is an urgent need to redefine feminist political

agency to allow for the possibility of secular political collectives to
which women can belong not by ascription, but by voluntary
participation. In other words, to rebuild the fragmented constituency of
women. But the solution may not lie in a revitalized national womens
movement, particularly in the current context of economic fragility and
political instability. There is already the contours of a womens
movement, actual or potential, in the impressive networking capacities
of autonomous groups and the mobilizing potential of left-led womens
groups. We need to recognize the importance of womens associations at
the local and regional levels without retreating into the irreducibly
local. The developing and strengthening of local institutions is also
necessary, and seems to dominate womens movements in the late
1990s. The question is how to mobilize these institutions for a
transformative feminist politics that is, to ensure that these localized
struggles face and accommodate the challenges posed by community
and caste politics without allowing them to displace gender concerns.
Reference
1. Arscott, Jane. 1998. In the Presence of Women: Representation
in Canadian Governments. Toronto: Harcourt Brace.
2. Brodie, Janine. 1995. Politics on the Margins: Restructuring and
the Canadian Womens Movement. Halifax: Fernwood.
3. Code, Lorraine. 1993. Feminist Theory, in Sandra Burt,
Lorraine Code, and Lindsay Dorney, eds., Changing Patterns:
Women in Canada. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.
4. Patel, Vibhuti. 1985. Reaching for half the sky, Antar Rashtra
Prakashan Bawda, Bombay.
5. Rajan, Rajeswari Sunder. 1999. Signposts, Kali for Women, New
Delhi.
6. Ray, Bharati. 1995. The Freedom Movement and Feminist
Consciousness in Bengal, 1905-1929 in
7. Bharati Ray (ed.), From the Seams of History. Essays on Indian
Women, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp. 174-218.
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8. Rosen, Lawrence. 1978. Law and Social Change in the New

Nations, Comparative Studies in Societyand History, 20, 1.
9. Rural Development Consortium. 1995. Women in West Bengal
panahayats. Presentstion (in Bengali) by Seema Chatterjee at
Conference on Election Agenda. Calcutta, January 1995.
10. Sachetana. 1996. Minutes of meeting on Personal Law and
Uniform Civil Code, March 1996.
11. Manimala. 1983. The Story of Womens Participation in the
Bodhgaya Movement, Manushi, 3, 2.
12. Mies, Maria. 1976. The Shahada Movement: A Peasant
Movement in Maharashtra, Its Development and Its
Perspective, Journal of Peasant Studies, 3, 4.
13. Mill, James. 1817. The History of British India, with notes by
H.H. Wilson, James Madden, London, 5th Ed. [1840].
14. Mukherjee, Gita. 1997. Unite in Support of One-third
Reservation for Women, National Federation of Indian Women,
Calcutta.
15. Mukhopadhyay, Maitrayee. 1998. Legally Dispossessed. Gender,
Identity and the Process of Law, Stree, Calcutta.
16. Chakrabarty, Renu. 1980. Communists in Indian Womens
Movement, 1940-50 , Peoples Publishing House, New Delhi.
17. Chakravarti, Uma. 1998. Rewriting History. The Life and Times
of Pandita Ramabai, Kali for Women, New Delhi.
18. Chatterjee, Partha. 1989. The Nationalist Resolution of the
Womens Question in Kumkum Sangari and
19. Sudesh Vaid (ed.), Recasting Women. Essays in Colonial History,
Kali for Women, New Delhi,1989, pp. 233-253.
108

FINDING THE OPTIMAL NUMBER OF TICKETING

COUNTERS AT MUMBAI SUBURBAN RAILWAY STATIONS
USING QUEUING THEORY
R Arvind Srivatsan
Department of Production
Engineering
NIT Trichy, India
R Abhishiekh
Department of Production
Engineering
NIT Trichy, India
Dr. Koilakuntla Maddulety

Associate Professor
National Institute of Industrial Engineering (NITIE)
Vihar Lake Post , Mumbai ,India
I. INTRODUCTION
Mumbai has an extensive network of suburban rapid transit system
which transports 7.24 million people daily. Spread over a distance of
432 Km, this suburban system is one of the busiest and crowded rapid
transit systems in the world. There are a total of 136 stations spread
over 3 lines, the Central, Western and Harbor Lines.
Purchasing of tickets for the travel is done by and large on a daily basis
through manual ticketing counters, though a small fraction of people
use monthly passes and smart cards while commuting. Thus, the
queues at the ticketing counters generally overflow during peak hours
causing difficulties to commuters and decreasing the systems
efficiency greatly which calls for optimization.
Since the suburban system is the de-facto lifeline for the citys
transportation needs optimizing its ticketing system would provide a
great deal of logistic and economic advantages. Therefore this paper
aims to achieve the same by considering the system as a multi-server
109

infinite length queuing model and solve for the fundamental quantities
of the system. Using these quantities the number of servers
corresponding to maximum operational economy and minimum
waiting time would be found.
1.1 Introduction to queuing models
Queues are a very common phenomenon experienced by people in their
everyday lives. Merriam Webster dictionary defines a queue as A line
of people who are waiting for something. Common examples of queues
are the ones that are formed at ticketing counters, hospitals, banks etc.
More technical examples include manufacturing systems, computer
networks etc.
In general, a queuing system is one where people who require a
particular service arrive, wait in a queue and then get served by a
server and leave the system [2].
As much as queues form a part of our daily lives so do the delays that
are caused as a result of waiting in it. These delays result in wastage of
precious time and also tend to cause economic losses. Thus, studying
these queuing systems to improve their performance has been of great
research interest.
Queuing Theory is the mathematical study of these queuing systems.
This generally involves the construction of a mathematical model to
predict the waiting times and lengths of a given queue. The concept of
Queuing theory was first devised by Danish mathematician Agner
Krarup Erlang.
1.2 Characteristics of Queuing Models
Arrival and Service Patterns: In Queuing models, customer
arrivals into the system and service times generally follow particular
probability distributions [1]. From these distributions two basic
110

elements of any queuing system are obtained, these are the Arrival
rate and the Service rate.
Arrival rate is the number of arrivals into the system during an
interval of time, it is represented as /hour. Service rate is the number
of services carried out by the server in a queuing system during an
interval of time, it is represented as /hour.
The ratio / is called the server efficiency and for an infinite queue
length the server efficiency >1, this is because if >, then a person
entering the queue might never get served and the queue length always
keeps increasing, for a multiple server queuing system the value of
=/c where c is he number of servers.
An assumption made here is the system is considered to have exhibit a
Markovian or memory less property which is the independence of the
future from the past given the present that is, the property states that
a customer currently in service has t units of service left is independent
of the time elapsed since the commencement of the service [3]. Systems
having markovian property have arrival rates following a poisson
distribution
and
the
service
times
following
an
exponential
distribution.
Number of servers: The systems can be a single server or a multiple
server queuing systems. Common example of a single server type is a
hospital where the patients who wait in a queue are served by one
doctor, whereas the railway ticketing is an example for multiple sever
system. Increasing the number of servers decreases the queue length
and the waiting time but at the same time results in excess cost for
operation of the additional server.
Queue length: This is the maximum allowable length of queue in a
system. The systems can have finite or infinite queue length. In an
infinite queue length model, every person who comes, joins the queue
111

whereas in an finite model, there is a restriction of queue length up to

a certain limit, if the thresh hold limit is reached people who come into
the system cannot or do not join the system.
Population size: The queuing systems can either have an infinite and
a finite population. In the former there is no limit to the number of
people who can be present in the system whereas in a finite model
there is a restriction to the number of people in the system, a good
example for this is the public distribution centers, here the number of
people getting served by it are restricted to the number living in this
area. Generally a queuing system is considered to be an infinite
population system.
Queuing Discipline: In any a queuing system a particular discipline
or methodology is adopted while service is done. Common types are
First in First out (FIFO), Last in first out (LIFO), Random Service,
Priority Service. In general when humans are involved in the service
providing FIFO principle is followed extensively
Kendalls notation is widely used to represent a queuing system, it is
done as follows:1/2/3:4/5/6
Where,
1: Distribution of Arrival Rates
2: Distribution of Service times
3: Number of servers
4: Queue length
5: Population Size
6: Queuing Discipline
The Kendalls representation for the considered model is: M/M/c:/
where M represents Markovian property of the arrival and the service
rates and c represents the number of servers. It can also be
112

understood that the maximum Queue length and population size are
infinity, since there is no mention of queuing discipline, it is considered
as First in First Out by default.
1.3 Customer Behavior in Queuing Systems
Customer behavior in a queuing system is classified into the following
types:
Balking: If an arriving customer leaves without joining the system
then he is said to balk from the system. Balking is of two types, when
the circumstances force a person to balk from the system, it is called as
forced balking whereas a voluntary balking is called as unforced
balking.
Reneging: If an arriving customers joins the system but exits it before
being served then he is said to renege from the system.
Jockeying: This is a phenomenon that happens in a multiple server
system, a person is said to jockey if he keeps switching from one queue
to another in the queuing system.
In this particular paper the effects of Balking, Reneging and Jockeying
have been ignored.
1.4 Measures of Performance of Queuing Systems
Under steady state conditions the following measures of performance
are determined.
Expected Length of System Ls: This is the expected number of
people present at any given time in the queuing system, this includes
even the number of people who are currently getting served by the
server.
113

Expected Length of the Queue Lq: This is the expected number of

people present at any given time in the queue, this does not include the
number of people getting served.
Expected Waiting time in the system Ws: This is the expected time
any person spends waiting in the system.
Expected Waiting time in the Queue Wq: This is the expected time
any person spends waiting in the queue.
These values are very important from a customer point of view.
Ls and Lq are related to Ws and Wq respectively in the following way:
Ls = Ws
(1.1)
Lq = Wq
(1.2)
This relation is known as the Littles Law [16].

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Over the years Queuing Theory has gained popularity for its simple
and effective approach towards optimization of systems and have been
used extensively and researched upon. A majority of this research is
concentrated in the field of healthcare and allied services.
Eman Almehdawe et al [4] constructs a queuing model of an
emergency service by taking into account the ambulance offload delay.
Two types of customers, ambulance and walk-in customers are
considered and the effect of service distribution on waiting time is
studied and it is found that off load delays are insensitive to the service
distribution while walk-in waiting times are lesser for exponential
service times rather than an Erlang distribution. Lakshmi C et al [5]
presents a review of the contributions in the applications of queuing
principles in the design of health care system design especially
Ambulatory care, Hospital and primary services.
114

Apart from health queuing theory research has been expanded to

numerous other areas some of which are manufacturing, air transport
and
optimsation
of
services
such
as
ATM
and
restaurants.
Manish K Govil et al [6] provides an overview of and then devices

queuing model for model for different types of manufacturing systems.
H.T Papaduoplous et al [7] studies the queuing models for production
lines in manufacturing systems and finds that adding buffers to
production lines has no effect on the production rates.
Mehri et al [8] uses an M/G/c queue to represent a toll motorway and
uses simulation to arrive at measures of performance for the system.
Yanagisawa et al [9] studies the effect of walking distance in the
waiting time of a queuing system and then compares a parallel and
forked parallel system and arrives that a parallel system is more
efficient than a normal forked parallel queuing system.
Marianov et al [10] designs an M/D/c queuing system to study the
choosing of hubs for airlines for minimal transportataion and
congestion by considering using the probabilty of a number of palnes in
the system at particular time as the constraint.
In above studies have mostly used non-standard queuing models which
are difficult to be modelled analytically and requires simulation.
Batabayal [11] finds that though a non-standard stochastic model
generally depicts the system more accurately, at moderate crowding a
standard M/M/c queue can provide more or less similar results.
Dharmawirya et al [12] analyses the measures of performances of a
restaurant by using an M/M/1 queuing model considering the balking
of customers when Lq value reaches a threshold limit. A similar study
is done by Patel et al [13] for an ATM service.
Hwong et al [14] introduces a joint strategy of improving service
performance and operational economy and shows that both these
115

features are not inversely related as popularly presumed. Acharya et al

[15] uses a similar strategy to find optimal number of service counters
in a library.
This paper aims at constructing a similar queuing model for optimizing
the overcrowding plagued yet largely addressed ticketing service of the
Mumbai Suburban Railway. A standard M/M/c queuing model is
considered and strategy inspired from [13] and [14] of combining
operational economy with improved service has been implemented in a
slightly different manner.
III. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Basic Principle
The framework for optimization proposed in this paper is as follows,
the number of arrivals and the time taken to serve each customer is
measured for fixed time intervals and using these the average arrival
rate and the average service rate is computed. Using these as input
parameters, the performance indicators of the system Lq, Ls, Wq and
Ws are estimated.
For the purpose of optimization we consider a quantity called Total
cost which is the sum of server operation cost and the customer
waiting cost the customer waiting cost component takes into account
the precious time lost in waiting in the queue and emphasizes lower
wait time. Increasing the number of servers time reduce the customer
waiting costs but at the same time increase the server operational cost.
By considering two cost components we ensure both maximum service
performance and operational economy. Thus trade-offs between the
two cost-components is done to arrive at the minimum total cost. The
number of servers corresponding to this minimal total cost is
established as the optimal number.
116

Mathematically the total cost per hour Ct is calculated as follows:

Ct = Server operation cost per hour (Cs) * Number of servers +
Customer waiting costs per hour (Cc)
3.1.1 Server operation cost per hour.
Every ticketing counter is manned by a single person with a computer
and a printer to issue tickets. The average salary of each person was
found to be Rs 30,000 by interviewing the employees. Every employee
works for an average of 7 hours per day. Considering the salary as the
only significant cost, the cost of maintaining one server for one hour is
calculated from observation as:
Cs
= Average salary per month / (24*7)

= 30000 / (24*7)
= Rs 178.5
3.1.2 Customer Waiting costs per hour

The average salary of Mumbai city is Rs 14,700 The cost lost due to
waiting in the queue for one person is
Cc/person
= Average salary per month / (24*7)

= 14700 / (24*7)
= Rs 87.5
The customer waiting cost per hour = Cc/person * Ls

Ct = 178.5* Number of servers + 87.5*Ls
3.2 Data Collection
The station chosen for the study is Ghatkopar station in the central
line. Ghatkopar is a suburb in eastern Mumbai and an important
station where fast trains towards CST/Thane stop. The station sells an
average of 35,000 tickets daily [18].
117

The rate of arrival of customers/people coming into the station and the
rate at which they are being served are the quantities that are
measured. The station has a maximum of 4 ticketing counters, thus at
any particular time the number of servers operational were 4 or less.
The study was conducted for a total of 6 days which comprised 5 week
days and a Saturday from 8:30 am to 6:00pm and 8:30 am to 10:00am
during the weekdays and the weekend respectively
Arrival Rate: The number of people arriving during these intervals
and the time in between 2 arrivals were measured using a digital stop
watch and arrival rate for one hour was calculated as: No of people
entering the system in the interval / Total time taken during the
interval.
During weekdays the number of servers operational at various
intervals and the arrival rates during those interval were averaged to
be as follows:
Arrival
Rate
is
calculated
as
Table 3.1:
8:30-10:30
No of
customers
per server
310
620
0.971360531
10:30-12:00
210
420
0.877357899
12:00-13:00
116
348
0.726953688
13:00-15:00
276
276
0.864824215
15:00-16:00
84
252
0.52641474
16:00-16:30
60
240
0.752021057
16:30-18:00
165
330
0.689352635
Time
Interval
No of servers
operational
118
Total Arrival
Rate
Server
Efficiency

The same for weekends was found as follows:

Table 3.2:
Time
Interval
No
of
Total
No of servers
customers per
Arrival
operational
server
Rate
Server
Efficiency
142
0.712331056
8:4510:00
341
Note: The Arrival Rate measured here is the net arrival rate into the
station and not the arrival rate for one server.
From Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 it is seen that readings are taken for 7
different shifts, some of these shifts having similar arrival rate and
number of servers were merged and the following new shifts are
established:
Table 3.3:
Shifts
Average Arrival Rate
Week Day 8:30-10:30
620
Week Day 10:30-1:00
391
Week Day 1:00-4:00
260
Week Day 4:00-6:00
308
Weekends
341
Service Times: Since the station has a total of 4 servers, the time
taken to serve a customer was computed for different servers at
random time intervals throughout the course of 6 days. Again a digital
stop watch was used for this purpose.
119

The average service time for a customer was found as 22.56 seconds.
The average service rate = Number of customers served in one hour
= 3600/Average Service time
= 3600/22.56
= 159.57
Thus = 159.57
3.3 Derivation for Obtaining Quantities of Performance
Measure [2]
Thus the equations for Ls, Lq, Ws and Wq are derived as follows:
We assume the arrival rate of /hour following a Poisson distribution
and the service rate of /hr to following exponential distribution
By assuming markovian property we can conclude that at an instant
only one event can occur. This event can either be an arrival or service.
Since Ls, Lq, Ws and Wq are expected values, these are dependent on
the steady state probability pn that there are n people in the system.
The probability that at any time there are 0,1,2,....n people in the
system is p0,p1,p2..pn.
From the previous assumption of a markovian property:
pn(t+h) = pn-1(t) * One arrival and no service + pn+1(t) * One service and
no arrival + pn(t) * No service and no arrival.
(3.1)
Where pn(t) is the steady state probability that there are n people in
the system at a time.
The probability of one arrival and one service at an interval h is h and
h respectively, substituting in Eq 3.1 we get
pn(t+h) = pn-1(t)*(h)*(1-h) + pn+1(t)*(h)*(1-h) + pn(t)*(1-h)*(1-h)
(3.2)
120

On simplifying and neglecting higher order terms of h we get

pn-1(t)* + pn+1(t)* + pn(t)*(+)
(3.3)
Since system is in steady state left hand side becomes zero thus,
pn(t)*(+)= pn-1(t)* + pn+1(t)*
(3.4)
Probability that there are zero persons in the system is,

p0(t+h) = p1(t)*(h)*(1-h) + p0(t)*(1-h)*1, because the probability of
no service when the number of people in the queue is 0 is 1.
(3.5)
On simplifying and neglecting higher order terms of h we get

p1(t)* + p0(t)*
(3.6)
Since system is in steady state left hand side becomes zero thus,
p1 = p0
(3.7)
Substituting n=1 in Eq 3.7 we get,

P1(t)*(+)= p0(t)* + p2(t)*
(3.8)
From Eq 3.7 and Eq 3.8 we get,

p2 = p1
=
p0
(3.9)
Thus we can write pn as,

pn =
p0 = np0
(3.10)
We know that there are c number of servers so,

The service rate when there are n people in the system is written as
n = n when n<c
121

=c when n>c
Therefore considering this Eq 3.10 is modified as,
pn =
p0
pn =
When n <c and,
(3.11)
p0 When nc
(3.12)
The sum of all steady state probabilities is 1 therefore,

p0 + p1+p2+.pn = 1
(3.13)
Substituting Eq 3.11 and Eq 3.12 in Eq 3.13 we get,

(3.14)
On simplifying we get,
p0 =
(3.15)
Substituting in Eq 3.11 and Eq 3.12 the value of pn can be found.

In a multiple server system the expected length of queue is zero when
n < c, thus the values of Lq are computed for n c, Thus
Lq =
(3.16)
On simplifying we get,
(3.17)
Lq =
Knowing Lq, Ls can be calculated as
Ls = Lq + (expected number of people being served) (3.18)

Ws and Wq can be calculated using Eq 1.1 and Eq 1.2, Ws = Ls/
(3.19)
Wq =Lq/
(3.20)
122

Thus by knowing values for and , we find the steady state

probabilities pn from which Ls, Lq, Ws and Wq for the system is
calculated.
IV. CALCULATIONS
The values of Lq, Ls, Ws and Wq are calculated for each time interval
specified in Table 3.3 and total cost is computed by considering
diferent values for the number of servers.
4.1 Weekdays
4.1.1 8:30 am to 10:30 am
Table 4.1
Number of
Servers
Ls
Lq
Ws
Wq
Total cost
35.67307 31.78763 0.05754 0.05127 3835.393625
5.66609
1.78065
0.00914 0.00287 1388.282875
4.35871
0.47327
0.00703 0.00076 1452.387125
4.0347
0.14926
0.00651 0.00024 1602.53625
3.93369
0.04825
0.00634 0.00008 1772.197875
Model Calculations:
=
Lq =
Ls = 31.78763 + 3.88544 =35.67307
Wq = Lq/620 = 0.05127
Ws = Ls/629 = 0.05754
123

The total cost is plotted in a graph as a function of the number of

servers:
Fig. 4.1
From the graph it is clearly seen that minimum total cost is obtained
when number of servers is 5.
Current number of servers: 4
Optimal number of servers: 5
4.1.2 10:30 am to 1:00 pm
Table 4.2
No
of
Servers
Ls
Lq
Ws
Wq
8.19336
5.56129
0.07951
0.01324 1252.419
3.33606
0.70399
0.00794
0.00168 1005.90525
2.80416
0.17209
0.00668
0.00041 1137.864
2.67797
0.04589
0.00638
0.00011 1305.322375
2.64411
0.01204
0.0063
0.00003 1480.859625
124
Total cost

The total cost as a function of number of servers:
Fig. 4.2
Original number of servers: 5
4.1.3 1:00pm to 4:00pm
Table 4.3
No
of
Servers
Ls
Lq
Ws
Wq
4.84529
3.21591
0.01864
0.01237 780.962875
1.96831
0.33894
0.00757
0.0013
1.69522
0.06584
0.00652
0.00025 862.33175
1.6428
0.01342
0.00632
0.00005 1036.245
1.63199
0.00261
0.00628
0.00001 1213.799125
125
Total cost
707.727125

The total cost is plotted as a function of the number of servers
Fig. 4.3
4.1.4 4:00pm to 6:00 pm
Table 4.4
No
of
Servers
Ls
Lq
Ws
28.13923 26.20905 0.09136 0.08509 2819.182625
2.67387
0.74368
0.00868 0.00241 769.463625
2.0768
0.14661
0.00674 0.00674 895.72
1.96316
0.03298
0.00637 0.00637 1064.2765
1.93747
0.00728
0.00629 0.00002 1240.528625
126
Wq
Total cost

The total cost plotted as a function of number of servers
Fig. 4.4
4.2 Weekends
Table 4.5
No
of
Servers
Ls
Lq
Ws
Wq
3.40127
1.26424
0.00997
0.00371 833.111125
2.37711
0.24012
0.00697
0.0007
2.19352
0.05653
0.00643
0.00017 1084.433
2.15038
0.01336
0.00631
0.00004 1259.15825
2.14001
0.00301
0.00628
0.00001 1436.750875
127
Total cost
921.997125

The total cost plotted as a function of number of servers
Fig. 4.5
V. ANALYSIS
Thus the number of servers for each shift/interval having the lowest
total cost is considered optimal.
These are summarized as follows
Table 5.1
Shifts
Average Arrival Rate
Optimal No of Servers
Week Day 8:30-10:30
620
Week Day 10:30-1:00
391
Week Day 1:00-4:00
260
Week Day 4:00-6:00
308
Weekends
341
128

5.1 Comparison of Costs

5.1.1 Weekdays
5.1.1.1 Original coats
Table 5.2
Time
Arrival
Rate
No
of
Servers
35.6730
Cost
per
hour
3835.39362
8:30-10:30
620
10:30-12:00
420
8.19336
1252.419
1878.6285
12:00-1:00
348
3.59853
850.371375
850.371375
1:00-3:00
276
6.86153
957.383875
1914.76775
3:00-4:00
252
1.87484
699.5485
699.5485
4:00-4:30
240
3.46183
659.910125
329.9550625
4:30-6:00
330
3.12619
809.041625
1213.562438
Total Cost
14557.62088
Ls
Total Cost per

slot
7670.78725
The total cost of the system for 8:30 am to 6:00 pm was found as Rs
14557.62
5.1.1.2 Optimized costs
Table 5.3
Shifts
8:30-10:30
10:30-1:00
1:00-4:00
4:00-6:00
Average
Arrival
Rate
620
391
260
308
Optimal
No
of
Servers
5
4
3
3
Ls
Cost per hour
Total
Cost
per slot
5.66609
2.93
1.96831
3.40127
1388.275
970.375
707.727
769.434
Total Cost
2776.55
2425.9375
2123.181
1538.868
8864.5365
The optimized cost for the same duration is found as Rs 8854.54
129

5.1.2 Weekends
During weekends, we find the original number and the optimal
number of servers are equal, thus the existing system is optimal
Table 5.4
Average
Shifts
Arrival
Optimal No
Rate
of Servers
8:4510:00
Cost
Ls
per
Total Cost per
hour
slot
833.111125
1041.388906
3.4012
341
Both Original and Optimal cost is Rs 1041.39 per slot

5.1.3 Cost Saved (Weekdays)
Thus the difference in cost is Rs 5604.26
The percentage of cost saved is 38.49%
5.2 Benefits of the Study
Apart from the obvious monetary benefit, it is also seen that the
performance measures Ls and Ws are greatly reduced for the optimal
number of servers as compared to current operating number. Here we
are able to achieve better performance of the queuing system at lower
costs and thus ensuring improved customer satisfaction.
Another observation that can be done here is the reduction in the
number of shifts as a result more homogenization in the number of
servers during the shift leading to easy of shift planning.
5.3 Limitations of the Study
The study conducted had the following limitations
The study ignores phenomenon of balking and reneging
130

The pattern of arrival rate is extremely unpredictable and may vary

with different times of the year (during festivals etc.) and data
taken over a period of 6 days may not be very reliable
The priority system for first class passengers ( though very few in
number as compared to the regular class passengers ) has been
ignored
5.4 Scope for Further Studies
The model can be improved to overcome its inherent limitations. An
extensive long-term study showing seasonal variations can be done to
make the model move closer to the real one. Accurate automated
simulation and prediction of customer arrival data for the model can
also be developed by the usage of sophisticated analytics software.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The multiple server queuing model was used to represent the railway
ticketing system. Using measured data for the arrival rate and service
rate the measures of performance for the queuing system were
calculated.
A quantity total cost containing two components namely server
operational cost and customer waiting cost was defined taking into
account the cost of additional cost of having extra servers and the loss
to customers as a result of waiting in the queue. Tradeoff between the
components was done to obtain the optimal number of servers having
minimum total cost which corresponds to maximum operational
economy and minimum waiting times.
The total costs of obtained as a result of the optimized number of
servers was compared to the existing number of servers. It was
observed that the new model not only saved about 38% of the total but
131

also provides drastic reduction in the queue length and waiting times
than the previous model.
Finally the limitations of the paper were briefly discussed paving way
for further improvements to making the study more infallible.
Thus the above considered framework provides an effective method by
helping predict customer flow, reducing cost, waiting times and
ensuring good Quality of Service (QoS).
References
1. H.A. Taha, Operations Research-An Introduction. 8th Edition,
ISBN 0131889230. Pearson Education, 2007.
2. NPTEL, Fundamental of Operations Research.
3. Donald Cross, John F Shortle, James M Thomson, Carl M
Harris, Fundamental of Queuing Theory.
4. Eman Almehdawe, Beth Jewkes, Qi-Ming He, A Markovian
queuing model for ambulance offload delays.
5. Lakshmi C, Sivakumar Appa Iyer, Application of queuing theory
in health care: A literature review.
6. Manish K. Govil and Michael C. Fu, Queuing Theory in
Manufacturing: A Survey
7. H.T.
Papadopoulos,
C.
Heavey,
Queuing
theory
in
manufacturing systems analysis and design: A classification of

models for production and transfer lines.
8. Houda Mehri, Taoufik Djemel, Study and Simulation of Queuing
Theory in the Toll Motorway.
9. Daichi Yanagisawa, Yushi Suma, Akiyasu Tomoeda, Ayako
Miura, Kazumichi Ohtsuka, Katsuhiro Nishinari,Walking-
132

distance introduced queuing model for pedestrian queuing

system: Theoretical analysis and experimental
verification.
10. Vladimir Marianov, Daniel Serra, Location models for airline

hubs behaving as M/D/c queues.
11. Amitrajeet A. Batabyal, The queuing theoretic approach to
groundwater management
12. Mathias Dharmawirya, Erwin Adi, Case Study for Restaurant
Queuing Model.
13. Bhavin Patel1 and Pravin Bhathawala, Case Study for Bank
ATM Queuing Model.
14. Johye Hwang a, Long Gao b, Wooseung Jang, Joint demand and
capacity management in a restaurant system.
15. U H Acharya, G Ravindran, Application of Queuing Theory to
Libraries and Information Centres.
16. J.D.C. Little, A Proof for the Queuing Formula:
Operations Research,
17. Xin-yue Xu, Jun Liu, Hai-ying L, Jian-Qiang, Analysis of
subway station capacity with the use of queuing theory.
18. Wikipedia
the
Free
Encyclopedia,
g/wiki/Gh atkopar_ railw ay_station.
133
http://en.w
ikipedia.or

AN EVALUATION OF PUBLIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IN

PUNJAB A STUDY OF MANSA DISTRICT
Ms. Gurdeep Kaur Ghumaan

Research scholar
Deptt of Management
&Humanities,
Sant Longowal Institute of
Engineering & Technology
Longowal
Dr. Pawan Kumar Dhiman

Associate Professor
Deptt of Management
&Humanities
Sant Longowal Institute of
Engineering & Technology
Longowal
Introduction
Improving food security is an issue of considerable significance for a
developing country like India where millions of population suffer from
hunger and malnutrition. It is now widely recognized that food security
is not just a matter of the availability of food, but even more of the
access of households and individuals to sufficient nutritious food. As a
result, food security is analyzed along the axes of availability, access
and absorption and nutritional security becomes an important
component of food security in our country.
Thus, for a country of Indias size and diversity, the question of
providing adequate food to its population is a difficult task and the
difficulty is compounded by lack of access to adequate food for a
sizeable section of its population and in recent periods, the access is
threatened by rising food prices across the world. Given the high
incidence of poverty, under-nutrition and hunger in our country, the
task of ensuring food security becomes a formidable one , particularly
in a situation where the functioning of the governments public
distribution
system
exhibits
weakness,
inefficiency
and
often
corruption, which tend to aggravate the problem of food insecurity,

particularly among the poor and vulnerable sections of the
population.(Chatterjee and Karmakar,2012)
134

Of all the safety net operations that exist in India, the most far
reaching, in terms of coverage as well as Public expenditure on subsidy,
is the public distribution system. PDS has been in operation in some
form or another since the inter-war period; thus it is probably the
earliest publicly-funded safety net in the country. It aims to provide
essential commodities such as rice, wheat, sugar, edible oil, soft cake
and kerosene oil at subsidized prices. State governments, which
manage the public distribution in their respective states, also supply
other commodities like pulses, salt, coarse clothing etc.
(R.Radhakrishna & K.Subbarao,1997). As per (GOI,1991-92, p.55), The
PDS has remained a major instrument to execute the Government of
Indias economic policy to protect the poor. Public Intervention in the
foodgrains market aims at procurement of foodgrains for public
distribution and maintenance of buffer stocks to ensure not only short
term but also long-term stability of prices of essential commodities and
protect the interest of the consumers. Procurement of foodgrains also
ensure remunerative returns to the farmers and provides them
incentives to invest more on agriculture and to ensure that in the event
of any glut or due to any other reason, the market prices do not fall
below the support prices.(Bhaskar Majumder, 2009).
The concept of Public Distribution System in the country was evolved
around 1942 due to shortage of food grains during 2nd World War and
Government intervention in distribution of food started. The drought
and food shortages of the mid-sixties highlighted the need for
strengthening and continuing with a system of food distribution and
the PDS was made a universal scheme in the 1970s. There have been
four phases, broadly speaking, in the history of the PDS in India
(Swaminathan, 2000). The first phase was from 1942 to 1960, a period
when the system was expanded to cities. The Second phase: from 1960
to 1978, The government of India set up the Agricultural Prices
Commission and the Food Corporation of Indi. The Third phase: from
135

1978 to 1991, was marked by large-scale expansion of the PDS,

supported by domestic procurement and stocks. The Fourth phase:
from 1991 to the present, is one in which the policy of universal PDS
has been replaced by a targeted policy.
The public distribution system(PDS) is a mature system distribution
network operative in India, through which Government of India
provides food(ration) and non-food items at high subsidized rates to the
poor and vulnerable sections of the population chain of shops called
ration shops or fair price shops (FPS) are set-up over the country to
distribute rations to three category of households holding ration cards:
Above Poverty Line(APL), Below Poverty Line(BPL) and Antyodaya
Anna Yojana (AAY). With about 4.5 lakhs Fair Price Shops (FPS)
distributing food and non-food items to about 16 crore families, the
government spends about Rs.25,000 crore on subsidies. .(Chatterjee
and Karmakar,2012)
A well-organized Public Distribution System (PDS) is maintained in the
Punjab State through network of 8040 Fair Price Shops. As on
31.03.2010 there were 27496752 cardholders. As per the present Govt.
policy 350 ration cards are required for opening a fair price shop in the
urban areas and 300 ration cards or 1500 units in the Rural areas.
Whenever the number of ration cards exceeds 700 in urban areas a
second ration depot can be opened in that area. The total number of
BPL families in the State is limited to 5.23 lakh (3.44 lakh rural and
1.79 lakh urban) which is about 12% of the families in the State. In
Punjab, 15.10 lakh families availing food subsidy under the Atta Dal
scheme criterion annual income less than Rs. 30,000(Govt of
Punjab,2011). The present study aims at analyzing the functioning of
Public Distribution System on BPL(Below Poverty Line) families in
Mansa district of Punajb, an agricultural state in Northwest India.
136

Review of Literature
Numbers of studies have been done on PDS in India. The past studies
were required to understanding the research problem and in carrying
out the formulated work. Hence various research studies related to the
Public distribution system are as following:
Sharma
Anuradha:
attempted
to
detailed
analysis
of
the
administration and the organization of the PDS as also the operational

aspects of the fair price shops in the Jammu region of the state of
Jammu & Kashmir .This study explain the major objectives of the PDS
i.e adequacy of the rural coverage, management of the fair price shops
under the scheme, consumers perception and managerial aspects of the
PDS at the central and the State level to assess the ability to run this
system effectively and to suggest suitable measures in the light of the
problems identified. this study seeks to examine the gap between the
promises and performance of the PDS.
Preeti Rajpal Singh: revealed in her study, the evolution, growth and
performance of the institutional framework of procurement, storage
and distribution of essential commodities viz. Food corporation of
India, Central warehousing corporation, State warehousing corporation
& State civil supplies Corporation. She explained the performance &
activities of Delhi State Civil supplies Corporation and has also been
done the framework of growth of PDS in Delhi.
Rao Subha: discussed in his study, a balanced coverage of the
practices and scope of PDS in India and contains an exhaustive account
of how PDS has been targeted towards the consumers. A number of
suggestions have been made to revamp the system so as to make it
more effective. This study also found that the cardholders were facing
the problems like under-weighment, poor quality, leakage and nonavailability of controlled and non-controlled articles.
137

Dholakia and Khurana: explained that the structure as well as the

functioning of the public and private distribution systems remains far
from satisfactory in relation to several key social objectives. Since the
ultimate interest of public policy is to improve the effectiveness of the
distribution system as a whole, it is essential that the planning for
public distribution system be integrated with the measures taken to
influence the private trade in respect of poverty alleviation and price
stabilization. This is only possible if a long range national distribution
policy is developed.
Narwal
Sujata:
revealed in her study Management of
Public
Distribution System analyzed the policy framework and several

managerial aspects of the PDS in Haryana. Further, evaluated the
working of the system from the feed-back of consumers and
beneficiaries, in term of their satisfaction level. The study has
highlighted several weak spots and loop-holes in present system of
Public Distribution which need to be strengthened and plugged at the
earliest. She suggested that PDS is a valuable respite for the have-nots
and an indispensable tool to alleviate the sufferings of starving masses
and it may be necessary to maintain subsidies on foodgrains at levels
that are sustainable by the government and the economy and yet help
poor household in a real way.
Objectives of study
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To examine the availability and accessibility of food grains
supplied to the people by Govt
under Public
Distribution
system.
2. To know about the perception and satisfaction level of
consumers regarding the overall functioning of
Distribution system in mansa district of Punjab.
138
Public

Research Methodology and findings

The Present study is empirical in nature and has been studied by using
primary and Secondary data. Survey method was followed for this
study. The present study was undertaken in Mansa district of Punjab,
an agricultural state in Northwest India. and three blocks from Mansa
district were selected for this study. For collecting data,
100
respondents (50 urban and 50 rural) were selected by using random
sampling. 100 respondents were visited with the help of block officials
of Punjab. Punjab is situated in north-west of India and has an area of
50,362 km2. According to 2011 census, the population of Punjab is
27,704,236 and literacy rate is 76.70 percent. Punjab is divided into
three regions namely Malwa, Majha and Doaba. Malwa region of
Punjab covers 11 districts, Barnala, Bathinda, Faridkot, Fatehgarh
Sahib, Firozpur, Ludhiana, Mansa, Moga, Muktsar, Patiala and
Sangrur. The Sangrur is one of the backward districts in Punjab.
Mansa is situated in the cotton belt of Punjab, called the Area of white
gold and is bounded on the northwest by Bathinda district, on the
northeast by Sangrur district and on the south by Haryana state.
According to 2011 census, Mansa district has a population of 7,68,808,
Mansa has a sex ratio of 880 female for every 1000 males and a literacy
rate of 62.8 percent. There are 5 blocks in Mansa district as Budhlada,
Bhikhi, Jhunir, Mansa and Sardulgarh. The details of fair price shops
of Mansa district have been listed on the following table.
139

Table:1
Details of Fair Price Shops/No. of Ration Cards (BPL,AAY,APL
& BLUE) has been shown
of the Mansa District in the
following table.
Sr.No
Block
Name
APL cards
AAY cards
BPL cards
Blue cards
1.
Budhlada
61123(40.28)
1527(26.94)
3194(25.86)
16075(32.07)
2.
Bhikhi
22359(14.73)
1006(17.75)
1468(11.88)
6164(12.29)
3.
Jhunir
13522(8.912)
1428(25.19)
1221(9.88)
7719(15.40)
4.
Mansa
35980(23.715)
1024(18.06)
2053(16.62)
11913(23.76)
5.
Sardulgarh
18733(12.347)
682(12.03)
4411(35.725)
8247(16.45)
Total
151717(100.0)
5667(100.0)
12347(100.0)
50118(100.0)
Source: Department of Food & Civil Supplies, Punjab.

The above table-1 reveals that in the year 2012, there were 151717
APL ration cards, 5667 AAY ration cards, 12347 BPL ration cards and
50118 Blue ration cards in sangrur district to provide essential
commodities to the consumers. The maximum no of APL ration cards
61123 (40.28percent)were in Budhlada block, 35980(23.715 percent)
were in Mansa block of Mansa district and minimum no of APL ration
cards
13522
(8.912percent) were in
Jhunir
block,
18733(12.347percent) were in Sardulgarh block of mansa district. The
maximum no of AAY ration cards 1527(26.94percent)were in Budhlada,
1428(25.19 percent) were in Jhunir blocks and minimum no of AAY
ration cards 682(12.03 percent) were in Sardulgarh, 1006(17.75
percent) were in Bhikhi blocks of Mansa district. The maximum no of
BPL ration cards 4411(35.72 percent) were in sardulgarh block,
3194(25.86 percent) were in Budhlada blocks and minimum no of BPL
ration cards 1221(9.88percent) were in Jhunir and 1468(11.88 percent)
were in Bhikhi blocks of Mansa district. The maximum no of Blue cards
140

16075(32.07 percent) were in Budhlada block, 11913(23.76 percent)

were in Mansa blocks of Mansa district and minimum no of Blue cards
6164(12.29 percent) were in Bhikhi, 7719(15.40 percent) were in jhunir
blocks of Mansa district. The details of ration cards of Mansa district
have been listed on the following table.
Field Survey:
A study of utilization of PDS and Consumer satisfaction with
PDS(Public Dsitribution System), A survey was conducted in blocks
(Budhlada, Bhikhi and Mansa) of Mansa district. For collecting data,
100 respondents (50 urban and 50 rural) were selected by using
random sampling. 100 respondents were visited with the help of block
officials of Mansa. In Mansa district, there are BPL, AAY, Blue cards,
BPL+Blue cards and AAY+Blue types of ration cards. The details of
various types ration cards of Mansa district have been listed on the
following table.
Table:2
Types of Ration Cards
Ration
cards
BPL
Antyodaya
Blue
card
BPL+
Blue
card
AAY+
Blue
Totl
Card
Urban
22(44.0)
2(4.0)
14(28.0)
8(16.0)
4(8.0)
50(100.0)
Rural
14(28.0)
8(16.0)
22(44.0)
4(8.0)
2(4.0)
50(100.0)
Total
36(36.0)
10(10.0)
36(36.0)
12(12.0)
6(6.0)
100(100.0)
Source: Personal prove survey

It is clear from table number-2 that out of 100 respondents ( 50 Rural
& 50 Urban )Hundred cardholders were selected for study, out of total
100 Cardholders around 36 percent cardholders are from the BPL
families , largest number of the interviewed cardholders is from this
141

category, 10 percent cardholders are from the Antyodaya ration card

families which is the poorest among the poor category, 36 percent
cardholders are from Blue card families, second largest number of the
interviewed cardholders is from this category, 12 percent cardholders
are from BPL+ Blue cards cardholders and 6 percent are from AAY+
Blue cards cardholders. The details of different commodities like wheat,
wheat & Kerosene, Wheat+ Kerosene+ Dal and wheat & Dal which
are mainly purchased by Householders in rural and urban areas of
Mansa district have been listed on the following table.
Table:3
Commodities mainly purchased from FPS
Commodity/
Wheat
Wheat &
Kerosene
Wheat,
Kerosene
& Dal
Wheat &
Dal
Nothing
Total
Urban
26(52.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
16(32.0)
8(16.0)
50(100.0)
Rural
4(8.0)
8(16.0)
36(72.0)
2(4.0)
0(0.0)
50(100.0)
Total
30(30.0)
8(8.0)
36(36.0)
18(18.0)
8(8.0)
100(100.0)
Area

Table -3 depicts that among all sections of the masses the commodities
are mainly purchased by householders in rural and urban areas. It has
been noted that the wheat, kerosene, Dal are the major items
purchased by the people in FPS. Out of 100 households, 36
householders (72 percent) only rural respondents are getting wheat,
kerosene, Dal from FPS. The 18 householders including 16(32 percent)
urban and 2(4 percent) rural respondents are purchasing wheat and
Dal from FPS. The only 8 rural households (16 percent) respondents
are purchasing wheat and kerosene from FPS. The 30 householders
including 26(52 percent) urban and 4(8 percent) rural respondents are
purchasing only wheat from FPS. The last 8 respondents(16 percent)
from urban area, are purchasing nothing from FPS. The details of
142

satisfaction level of ration cardholders with the service of dealers of

FPS have been listed in the following table.
Table:4
Satisfaction level of ration cardholders with the service of
dealers
Satisfaction level of consumers
with FPS.
Highly
Dissatisf
Dissatisf
Avera Satisfied
Highl
ied
ge
y
Satisf
ied
iv) Are you satisfied
with
the
service of
FPS dealers.
Total
Responses
100
ied
Urban
26(52.0)
16(32.0)
2(4.0)
6(12.0)
0(0.0)
50(100.0)
Rural
14(28.0)
18(36.0)\
0(0.0)
16(32.0)
2(4.0)
50(100.0)
Rural/
40(40.0)
34(34.0)
2(2.0)
22(22.0)
2(2.0)
100(100.0)
Urban

The above table-4 reveals that most of the households in general
expressed dissatisfaction about the FPS dealers. It reveals that, out of
50 respondents of urban areas, 6 are satisfied, 2 are on average
satisfaction level, 16 are dissatisfied and 26 are highly dissatisfied with
the service of dealers of FPS. In Rural areas, 2 respondents are highly
satisfied, 16 respondents are satisfied, no one respondents on average
level, 18 are dissatisfied and 14 are highly dissatisfied with the service
of FPS dealer. The total respondents of rural and urban area, 22
respondents are satisfied, 2 are on average level, 34 are dissatisfied, 40
are highly dissatisfied and 2 is highly satisfied with the service of FPS
dealers. So, Majority of respondents are dissatisfied with the service of
dealers and they explained various reasons behind this. The above table
explains the experiences of customers while purchasing food items from
the FPS to evaluate the performance of Public Distribution System in
Mansa district of Punjab.
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Table:5
Experiences of customers while purchasing food items from
Fair Price Shops
Question-4
i)Inadequat
e and
irregular
supply of
ration items
Total
ii) Unfair
distribution
of food
grains
Total
iii) Rude
behavior of
dealers
Total
iv)Corrupt
practices of
the dealers
Total
v)Preferenc
e to known
people
Total
Disagree
Urban
Rural
Strongl
y
Disagre
e
0(0.0)
2(4.0)
Neutral
Agree
Strongly
Total
8(16.0)
12(24.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
16(32.0)
22(44.0)
26(52.0)
14(28.0)
50(100.0)
50(100.0)
Urban/Rural
Urban
Rural
2(2.0)
2(4.0)
2(4.0)
20(20.0)
6(12.0)
12(24.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
38(38.0)
12(24.0)
20(40.0)
40(40.0)
30(60.0)
16(32.0)
100(100.0)
50(100.0)
50(100.0)
Urban/Rural
Urban
Rural
4(4.0)
0(0.0)
2(4.0)
18(18.0)
2(4.0)
14(28.0)
0(0.0)
3(6.0)
0(0.0)
32(32.0)
17(34.0)
18(36.0)
46(46.0)
28(56.0)
16(32.0)
100(100.0)
50(100.0)
50(100.0)
Urban/Rural
Urban
Rural
2(2.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
16(16.0)
0(0.0)
12(24.0)
2(2.0)
4(8.0)
2(4.0)
36(36.0)
14(28.0)
16(32.0)
44(44.0)
32(72.0)
20(40.0)
100(100.0)
50(100.0)
50(100.0)
Urban/Rural
Urban
Rural
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
12(12.0)
0(0.0)
12(24.0)
6(6.0)
0(0.0)
0(0.0)
30(30.0)
20(40.0)
16(32.0)
52(52.0)
30(60.0)
22(44.0)
100(100.0)
50(100.0)
50(100.0)
Urban/Rural
0(0.0)
12(12.0)
0(0.0)
36(36.0)
52(52.0)
100(100.0)
Agree

Inadequate and irregular supply of ration items is the major problem, it
was felt by majority of the respondents. The low quality of food grains
is another complaint. The above table-5 reveals the satisfaction level of
respondents with the performance of Public Distribution System. The
respondents have been asked if the good quality commodities supplied
under PDS by the FPSs are available in time. In response to the
questions, the majority of the respondents have said that the quality of
all the food items is average. They have indicated that the food items
are not available in time and have given negative responses are of the
opinion that the non-availability of items is due to various reasons. In
Urban area 26(52 percent) of households are strongly agree, 16(32
144

percent) are agree and only 8(16 percent) of households are disagree
with the non-availability of adequate and good quality food items . In
rural areas, 14(28 percent) of households are strongly agree, 22(44
percent) are agree, 12(24 percent) are disagree and only 2(4 percent)
are strongly disagree with the non-availability of adequate and good
quality food items on time. Majority of respondents are dissatisfied
with non-availability of adequate and good quality food items on time.
Regarding the proper and equitable distribution of food grains,
In
Urban areas, 30(60 percent) of households are strongly agree, 12(24

percent) of households are agree, 6(12 percent) of households are
disagree and only2( 4 percent) of households are strongly disagree. In
Rural areas 16(32 percent) of households are strongly agree, 20(40
percen)t of households are agree, 12(24 percent) of households are
disagree and only 2( 4 percent) of households are strongly disagree with
unfair distribution of food items. Total respondents from urban and
rural areas, 78% are agree with that there always unfair distribution of
foodgrains at FPS. Majority of respondents are dissatisfied with
improper and unfair distribution of food grains at FPS.
With the polite & courteous behaviour, any shopkeeper can win his
consumer and expand his market. The following table explain the
responses of consumers of FPS, regarding the rude behaviour of FPSs
dealer with customer during purchasing the food items. The table
shows that 28 respondents (56%) from total 50 respondents of urban
areas and 16 respondents(32%) from total 50 respondents of rural areas
are strongly agree with that their dealers show very rude behaviour
with them. 17 respondents (34%) from urban areas and
18
respondents(36%) from rural areas have also a complaint against rude
behaviour of the dealers at FPS .only 3 respondents (6%) from the
urban areas have fallen in the category of neutral. Rest of the 2
respondents from urban areas and 14 respondents (28%) rural areas
are disagree and only 2 respondents(4%) from rural area are strongly
145

disagree with that their dealers show rude behavior with them. They
have expressed that their dealers show very polite behavior with them.
It is concluded that majority of respondents have complained about the
rude behavior of FPS dealers and only few respondents are satisfied
with the behavior of FPS dealers.
Most of the respondents are of opinion that there is corruption in FPS
as the stocks are
sold in open market and the required quantity is not given to them.
This above table discuss the opinion of consumers about the corruption
practices of the dealers of FPS. 46 (92 percent) respondents from urban
area and 36 (72 percent) respondents from rural area are agree that
there is a corruption in the public distribution system. The total 82
percent respondents of urban and rural areas using PDS felt it to be
corrupt. Regarding the preference given to known people, all the
respondents from urban areas and 38(76 percent) respondents from
rural areas are agree with the preference given to known people. Only
12 (24 percent) respondents are disagree with this.
Conclusion
We got varying responses from the beneficiary households on the
indicators that we considered for performance of PDS in Mansa district
of Punjab. Majority of respondents are dissatisfied with the
performance of PDS on indicators like non-availability of food items on
time at reasonable price, unfair distribution of food grains, Rude
behavior of dealers of FPS, Corrupt practices of the dealers and their
preferences to known people and FPS dealers in collusion with local
political leaders and bureaucrats. The respondents have also been
asked if the good quality commodities supplied under PDS by the FPSs
are available in time on lower price. In response to the questions, the
majority of the respondents have said that the quality of all the food
items is average and food items are not available in time. Most of the
146

respondents are of opinion that there is corruption in FPS as the stocks

are sold in open market or somewhere else and the required quantity of
wheat, pulses and kerosene is not given to them. The information
related to stock and price is not shared with them. The BPL families of
rural areas of Mansa district are demanding BPL ration cards in order
to get more quantity of food grains from Fair price shops, even though
a large percentage of non-poor are included and real BPL families are
outside the purview of BPL category. There are some people who
generally do not complaint about the PDS even though they have the
ground to do so. There might be few respondents who do not make
complaints as they do not know how to and whom to lodge complaints.
A majority of respondents both from urban & rural areas would like to
improve the quality and quantity of ration goods. They suggested that
households with high income should excluded from PDS and should be
targeted only towards poor, below the poverty line people. They also
suggested that the adequate arrangements for transportation &
warehousing be made for quick & timely distribution of good quality
rationed commodities. Some measures to check corruption &
malpractices are needed from the govt and consumers both and for its
success it is necessary that it is implemented in the true spirit of its
aims and objectives.
Suggestions
1. The number of cards handled by the FPS should be reduced
from the present level so that the dealer can distribute the
ration items to consumers with out any delay.
2. Provide proper commission and monthly salary to Fair Price
Shops dealers so that they can supply the fair and equal
distribution of foodgrains to consumers.
3. There should be effective and systematic complaint redressal
mechanism for the common people and FPS level vigilance
147

committees are to be created consisting of officials, cardholders

and consumer organizations so as to make the functioning of
FPS more efficiently.
4. The Punjab government must ensure timely supply of
commodities with good quality to fair price shops and see that it
reaches only to the needy section of the society through the
public distribution system.
5. There has to be transparency in the system. The availability,
allocation, lifting and distribution of items per period per FPS
should be on display. The verification report must be displayed
at the level of consumers in village and block. The State
Government should continue its vigil and control over hoarding,
black marketing and speculation through Consumer protection
Cell.
6. Increasing the margin of profit for the shopkeepers on one hand
and control of black marketing, adulteration, under-weighing
and quality control of commodities on the other hand can be
some extent induce consumer interest in the PDS.
7. Punishing the corrupt officials and consumer awareness will go
a long way in making the system successful and popular.
Reference
1. Sharma Anuradha (2002): Organisation & management of
Public Distribution System; Anmol publications pvt ltd; Delhi.
2. Preeti Rajpal Singh (1998) Management of Public Distribution
System; Anmol publications pvt ltd, Delhi.
3. Biswajit chatterjee and Asim k. karmakar(2012): Food Security
in India : A comprehensive plan for sustainable solution Regal
publications.
148

4. R.Radhakrishna & k.Subharao with S. Indrakant & C. Razi

(1997): Indias Public Distribution System, A National &
International perspective.
5. K.V Subha Rao: Management of Public Distribution System;
Neha publishers & Distributors.
6. Swaminathan, Madhura (2000). Weakening Welfare: The Public
Distribution of Food in India. New Delhi:LeftWord Books
7. .Pathania, Kulwant Singh. (2005). Public Distribution System,
Status,
Challenges and Remedial strategies, New Delhi:
Kanishka Publishers.
8. Sujata Narwal(2001): Management of Public Distribution
System, Deep & Deep Publications , New Delhi.
9. Annual Report of 2010-11, Department of Food & Civil Supplies,
Punjab
10. Majumder, Bhaskar. (2004). Poverty, Food Security and
Sustainability, Public Distribution System in India. Jaipur:
Rawat Publications
11. Annual Report of 2011-12, Food Civil Supply and Consumer
Affairs, Mansa.
12. Ghumaan & Dhiman,(2013), Organization and Working of
Public Distribution
System A study of Punjab, INDIAN
JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH, Volume : 3 | Issue : 4 |
April 2013 | ISSN - 2249-555X
13. Nikhilesh
Dholakia
&
rakesh
Khurana(1979)
Public
Distribution System: Evolution, Evaluation and Prospects:

Oxford & IBH.
149

14. Ghumaan & Dhiman (2014): Impact Of Public Distribution

System On BPL Families- An Analysis of Punjab International
Journal of Business management & Research.
15. Annual Report 2010-11. Department of Food and Public
Distribution, Government of | India.
150

AN OVER-VIEW DISCUSSION & CONSERVATION OF

WETLANDS IN SRIKAKULAM DISTRICT, ANDRAPRADESH,
INDIA
S.Mukunda Rao
Research Scholar
Department of Zoology
INTRODUCTION
Wetlands are defined as lands transitional between terrestrial and
aquatic eco-systems where the water table is usually at or near the
surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Mitsch & Gosselink
1986). Wetlands are an important feeding and breeding areas for
wildlife and provide a stopping place and refuge for waterfowl. As with
any natural habitat, wetlands are important in supporting species
diversity and have a complex of wetland values.
MATERIAL& METHODS
Wetlands of the Srikakulam District (fig1) were located using
Survey of India Topo Sheets and Google Earth Maps and field surveys
were planned and executed accordingly. Feild visits in all the mandals
of the district and important wetlands in each mandal to collect as
much primary data as possible, within my time and logistic constraints.
Before embarking upon the field trips extensive survey of literature
was collecting maximum information available. Government
departments such as Irrigation, Forest, Fisheries and District
Industries Centre were valuable sources of information. NGOs,
industrialists, public and other knowledgeable people were also helpful
in this regard.
151

Since the coastal wetlands such as Sompeta and Bhavanapadu were

found to be the major wetland complexes supporting large human
population and are apparently rich in biodiversity, special attention was
given to these wetlands in terms of time and efforts. Stratified random
sampling strategy was adopted for sampling the wetlands ensuring
representation from diverse geographical areas as well as the wetlands
under varying disturbance regimes. All the large wetlands of the
districts, especially the ones with more than 500 acres of ayacut area,
were surveyed. Wetlands of lesser size classes were also visited on a
rapid survey mode and sample data collected.
WETLANDS IN THE SRIKAKULAM DISTRICT
The Srikakulam district abounds in wetlands both natural and man
made. The number of wetlands, small to large ones, is more than 8000.
Though the wetlands are distributed more or less evenly in the district,
the coastal wetlands are ecologically and economically more sensitive
and came into focus for various reasons.
The coastal plains consist of 10-15 Km strip of land all along the
sea coast of 193 Km starting from Itchapuram to Kandivalasagedda.
The major rivers of the district, namely the Nagavalli drains into Bay of
Bengal near Kallepalli, the Vamsadhara near Kalingapatnam and the
Mahendratanaya near Baruva creating estuaries.
The Coastal Plains all along the seacoast are characterized by
Beelas (in vernacular) or backwaters, typical wetland systems fed by
flood waters through a vast network of small streams/channels and
connected to the sea via a creek/channel marked by sandy dunes. The
two major Beelas of the district are Sompeta swamp and Bhavanapadu
swamp. Sompeta swamp is situated in the northern part of the district
and Bhavanapadu lies near to Tekkali town in the central part of the
district. The Poondi wetland complex, extending to about 320 ha acres
with more than 200 acres of back water area and adjacent salt pans and
152

aquaculture fields, is a major wetland near Vajrapukkotturu in

Nandigam mandal. Ichapuram wetland, into which the river Bahuda
drains, is partly situated in the extreme north of the Srikakulam
district and partly in the Odisha state.
Apart from the above major wetlands there are hundreds of wetlands
with fresh water, most of them being perennial, and providing habitat
for important varied biodiversity. Some such wetlands surveyed
(Table1) are Dunkuru, Narasipuram Peddacheruvu, Pathatekkali,
Telineelapuram, Kotabommali, Sivarampuram, Narayanapuram,
Mettucheruvu, Lanka and Kuddiram Cheruvu. As discussed above
coastal plains are highly productive with similar but varied ecosystem
characteristics. Sand bars / mounds can be seen near Kallepalli,
Srikakulam, kalingapatnam, Bhavanapadu, Vajrapukotturu, Baruva
etc., along the estuaries of the rivers Nagavalli near Kallepalli,
Vamsadhara near kalingapatnam and Mahendratanaya near Baruva.
Major Corporates were eyeing the coastal areas of Srikakulam district
for setting up Thermal Power Plants due to various reasons such as the
availability of water, and transportation facilities in the form of NH-5
from Chennai to Calcutta and the broad-gauge railway line from
Chennai to An ecological status survey of wetlands of Srikakulam 26
Calcutta. Proximity to the sea facilitates building jetties for
transportation of coal and other materials and also for drawing sea
water as coolant or for other uses and for discharge of effluents.
The present review is aimed at providing in a nutshell, the
distribution of wetlands, the value of wetlands, the causes and
consequences of the loss of wetlands. The review attempts to provide a
glimpse of the use of modern spatial technology tools, viz. Remote
Sensing / GIS for obtaining an assessment, description and monitoring
of inland wetlands. The review also gives a methodology for an ongoing
nationwide attempt on evolving a con-servation area network or a
protected area net-work of inland wetlands.
153

WETLAND VALUES OF SRIKAKULAM DISTRICT

The values of the wetlands are increasingly being acknowledged all over
the world as a result of the ever increasing awareness about the role
they have been playing in the development of civilisations and over all
welfare of the humanity by ensuring water security and food security
and several other services being derived from them. As earlier,
wetlands no more are considered as wastelands. It has been estimated
that wetlands provide US $4.88 trillion as ecosystem services. These
ecosystem services include flood regulation, water supply, water quality
maintenance, facilitating pollination, biological control, food
production, and others. According to Costanza et al., (1997) wetlands
are 75% more valuable in terms of ecosystem services than lakes and
rivers, 15 times more valuable than forests, and 64 times more valuable
than grassland or rangelands (Bruland, 2008).
As noted above the wetlands offer a variety of services to human kind,
numerous other species and to the environment. Some of the well
known such services, grouped into different types, are briefed below.
Basic categories of Ecosystem Services (Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, 2005)
Provisioning Services: supply a large variety of ecosystem goods and
other services for human consumption, ranging from food and raw
materials to energy resources and genetic material.
Regulating Services: regulate essential ecological processes and life
support systems through bio-geochemical cycles and other biospheric
processes. These include things like climate regulation, disturbance
moderation and waste treatment.
Cultural Services: provide an essential reference function and
contribute to the maintenance of human health and well being by
154

providing spiritual fulfilment, historic integrity, recreation and

aesthetics.
Supporting Services: provide a range of services that are necessary for
the production of the other three service categories. These include
nutrient cycling, soil formation and soil retention.
Wetland ecosystems provide many services that contribute to
human wellbeing and poverty alleviation. Some groups of people,
particularly those living near wetlands are highly dependent on these
services and are directly harmed by their degradation. However the
primary indirect drivers of degradation and loss of wetlands have been
population growth and increasing economic development. And loss
include infrastructure development, land conversion, water withdrawal,
pollution, over harvesting and over exploitation and the introduction of
invasive alien species. The continued degradation of wetland and more
specifically the continued decline in water quality and quantity will
result in further impoverishment of human health (Millennium
Ecosystem, 2005).
Ecosystem services (Table2) are the benefits provided by
ecosystems to households, communities and economies (Boyd and
Banzhaf 2006). The millennium Ecosystem assessment (2005)
described four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, for
example the production of food and water, regulating, such as the
control of climate and disease, supporting for example nutrient cycles
and crop pollination and cultural such as spiritual and recreational
benefits. Table 11.2 provides example of the different types of
ecosystem services provided by wetlands
DIVERSITY OF BIRDS
In total 224 bird species belonging to 141 genera, over 56 families and
17 orders were recorded .This included 174 species that were directly
observed and rest 50 species were based on various secondary
155

information. Of the 224 bird species, 100 species were aquatic, 124
species terrestrial, 169 species resident, and 55 species migratory (both
winter and summer visitors,). In the study area insectivorous birds
represented by 96 species dominated, followed by omnivores (50
species), piscivores (32 species), predators (23 species), granivores (14
species) and frugivores (12 species,).
DIVERSITY OF FISHES
The result of present investigations confirmed the occurrence of fourty
six (46) species of fishes belonging to six orders and eighteen families
recorded in commercial catches. The order cypriniformes was dominant
with 18 species followed by order perciformes with 16 siluriformes with
08 species, while the order cyprinidontiformes were represanted by 02
Angulliformes
were
represented
by
01
species
and
order
osteoglossiformes with 01 species.

THREATS TO THE WETLANDS
Wetlands are one of the most threatened habi-tats of the world.
Wetlands in India, as elsewhere are increasingly facing several
anthropogenic pres-sures. Thus, the rapidly expanding human population, large scale changes in land use/landcover, burgeoning
development projects and improper use of watersheds have all caused a
substantial decline of wetland resources of the country. Significant
losses have resulted from its conversion threats from industrial,
agricultural and various urban developments. These have led to
hydrological per-turbations, pollution and their effects. Unsustain-able
levels of grazing and fishing activities have also resulted in degradation
of wetlands.
Urbanisation: Ever increasing demand for space for residential,
infrastructure, commercial and recreation activities are adding
pressure on wetlands. Already the wetlands are fast disappearing for
various such reasons.
156

Pollution: Dumping solid wastes and discharge of liquid waste and

industrial effluents, toxic chemicals from industries and households are
destroying the wetlands. Industrialisation: More and more wetlands are
being diverted for setting up industries flouting wetland conservation
rules and guidelines.
Agriculture: Booming requirement for new areas for cultivation makes
wetlands very prone for diversion.
Deforestation: Extensive land use changes in the catchment and
deforestation is leading to heavy siltation of wetlands and changes in
the water regime.
Climate change: Coastal wetlands are under threat from sea level rise
as a consequence of global warming. Erratic changes in the pattern of
precipitation increase in ambient temperature, frequent floods and
droughts pose serious threats to the hydrological regime and
biodiversity of wetlands.
Weeds: Exotic species like Salvinia and Water Hyacinth invade
wetlands, dominate the macrophytes and choke them and curtail the
growth of the planktonic forms eventually leading to the death of the
wetlands.
Salinisation: Depletion in the water table due to overexploitation of
ground water leads to reduction of wetland size as well as increase in
salinity.
WETLAND MANAGEMENT - CURRENT STATUS
Wetlands are not delineated under any specific administrative
jurisdiction. The primary responsibility for the management of these
ecosystems is in the hands of the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
Although some wetlands are protected after the formulation of the
Wildlife Protection Act, the others are in grave danger of extinction.
Effective coordination between the different minis-tries, energy,
157

industry, fisheries revenue, agricul-ture, transport and water resources,

is essential for the protection of these ecosystems.
Protection laws and government initiatives
Wetlands conservation in India is indirectly in-fluenced by an array
of policy and legislative measures (Parikh & Parikh 1999). Some of the
key legislations are given below:
The Indian Fisheries Act - 1857

The Indian Forest Act - 1927
Wildlife (Protection) Act - 1972
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollu-tion) Act - 1974
Territorial Water, Continental Shelf, Ex-clusive Economic Zone
and other Marine Zones Act - 1976
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollu-tion) Act - 1977
Maritime Zone of India (Regulation and fishing by foreign
vessels) Act - 1980
Forest (Conservation act) 1980
Environmental (Protection) Act - 1986
Coastal Zone Regulation Notification - 1991
Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act - 1991
National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on
Environment and Develop-ment 1992
National Policy And Macro level Action
Strategy on Biodiversity-1999
National wetland strategy
National wetland strategy should encompass
(i) Conservation and collaborative management,
(ii) Prevention of loss and restoration and
(iii) Sustainable management.
USE OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS IN WETLAND
MANAGEMENT
Remote sensing data in combination with Geo-graphic Information
System (GIS) are effective tools for wetland conservation and
158

management. The application encompasses water resource assessment,

hydrologic modeling, flood management, reservoir capacity surveys,
assessment and monitoring of the environmental impacts of water resources project and water quality mapping and monitoring (Jonna
1999).
WETLAND MAPPING A STATUS REVIEW
Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining the overall cultural,
economic and ecological health of the ecosystem, their fast pace of
disappearance from the landscape is of great concern. The Wild-life
Protection Act protects few of the ecologically sensitive regions whereas
several wetlands are becoming an easy target for anthropogenic
exploitation. Survey of 147 major sites across various agro climatic
zones identified the anthropogenic interference as the main cause of
wetland degradation (The Directory of Indian Wetlands 1993). Current
spatial spread of wetlands under various categories is shown. (Parikh &
Parikh 1999).
CONCLUSION
It is noteworthy that even a small country like UK could designate
161 wetlands as Ramsar sites, India being a mega-diversity country, so
far managed to delineate a mere six sites till date one in andrapradesh,
no one in srikakulam district. There is obviously much ground to be
covered in our conservation efforts of wetlands. In addition, a paradigm
shift in conservation ethic is also a strong need of the hour. This shift is
necessary and perhaps mandatory due to the very nature of resource
being conserved and protected. Since wetlands are a common property
resource, it is an uphill task to protect or conserve the ecosystems
unless; the principal stakeholders are involved in the process. The
dynamic nature of wetlands ne-cessitates the widespread and
consistent use of satellite based remote sensors and low cost, affordable GIS tools for effective management and monitoring.
159

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1999), In-dian Society of Remote Sensing, Banglore.
160

11. Foote Lee, S., Pandey & N.T. Krogman. 1996. Processes of
wetland loss in India. Environmental Conserva-tion 23: 45-54.
12. Gitelson, A., G. Garbuzov., F. Szilagyi., K.H. Mit-tenzwey., A.
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14. Gopal, B. 1995. Biodiversity in Freshwater Ecosystems Including
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15. Gosselink, J.G. & R.E. Turner. 1978. The role of hy-drology in
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Whigham & R.L. Simpson (eds.) Freshwater Wetlands:
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Fish diversity and conservation aspects in an aquatic ecosystem
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Asso-ciation
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(http://
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20. Mitsch, W.I. & I.G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands. Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
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21. Parikh, J. & K. Parikh. 1999. Sustainable Wetland. Environmental Governance 2, Indira Gandhi Insti-tute of
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22. Ramsey III, E.W. 1995. Monitoring flooding in coastal wetlands
by using radar imagery and ground-based measurements.
International Journal of Remote Sensing 16: 2495-2502.
23. Samant, S. 1999. Prioritization of biological conserva-tion sites
in India wetland. pp. 155-167. In: Shek-har Singh, A.R.K.
Sastry, Raman Mehta & Visha-ish Uppal (eds.). Setting
Biodiversity Conservation Priorities for India. World Wide Fund
for Nature, India.
24. Sasmal, S.K. & P.L.N. Raju. 1996. Monitoring sus-pended load
in estuarine waters of Hooghly with satellite data using PC
based GIS environment. In: Proceedings of National Symposium
on Coastal Zone Management. Feb. 25-26 Behrampur
University, Behrampur, Orissa.
25. Seshamani, R., T.K. Alex & Y.K. Jain. 1994. An air-borne sensor
for primary productivity and related parameters of coastal
waters and large water bod-ies. International Journal of Remote
Sensing 15;1101-1108.
26. Srivastava, H.S., S.N. Prasad., M.L. Manchanda & S. Adiga.
2001. Radar remote sensing applications in wetland habitats - a
case study with multi-incidence angle radarsat SAR data. pp. 8792. In: I.V. Mu-ralikrishan (eds) Spatial Information Technology
Remote Sensing and GIS. Vol 2. B.S. Publications, Hyderabad.
27. Vijayan, V.S. 1991. Keoladeo National Park Ecology Study. Final
Report. Bombay Natural History So-ciety.
162

Fig 1; study area
Table1; Wetlands visited during the present study

1
Asalu cheruvu
17 Mettucheruvu
Arisadu wetlands
18 Nagavalli River Mouth
Bhavanapadu Creek
area
19 Narasapuram Peddha
Cheruvu
Cheri Cheruvu
20 Narayana Sagaram
Chintada Cheruvu
21 Narayanavalasa
Damodar Sagaram
22 Naupada Swamps
Dhyal Cheruvu
(Dhevunuvalu)
23 Pathatekkali
163

Dunkuru Wetlands
24 Peddapadu Cheruvu
Harichandra puram
petcheruvu
25 Poondi Back waters
10
Kottabommali Cheruvu
26 Pydibhimavaram Cheruvu
11
Kuddiram Sagaram
27 Rajakaru Cheruu
12
Lakhamdiddi
peddacheruvu
28 Rajulu Cheruu
13
Lanks Cheruvu
29 Sompeta
14
Madduvalasa
30 Telineelapuram Wetland
15
Mahendratanaya
swamps
31 Thamarai Cheruvu
16
Marandupada Cheruvu
32 Vaddidhandra Karricheruvu
Table 2; Types of an ecosystem services with examples from

srikakulam wetlands
Service
Specific services
Examples
categories
Provisioning
services
from
Srikakulam
wetlands
Food
Fish production
Fresh water
Water for domestic

agricultural use
Drinking water
Drinking
water
and
supply
extracted from the wetlands.

Regulating
Climate regulation
services
Wetlands
regulates
high
temperatures, making the area

cooler
164

Water purification
Water purification undertaken

by physical environment and
plants
Cultural
Spiritual activities
services
Supporting
services
Religious
activities
are
performed and temples are

situated in the wetlands of the
district
Educational activities
Educational tour and trips are

held in wetlands by many
institutions.
Sediment retention
Eroded
sediments
are
accumulated in this wetlands
Nutrient cycling
Storage, recycling, processing

and acquisition of nutrients
165

DESIGN, ENGINEERNING AND ANALYSIS OF UTILITY

SCALE SOLAR PV POWER PLANT
M. Srinu
S. Khadarvali
Department of Electrical and

Electronic Engineering
Madanapalle Institute of
Technology and Science
Madanapalle
Department of Electrical and

Electronic Engineering
Madanapalle Institute of
Technology and Science
Madanapalle
I. INTRODUCTION
In the most recent time, fresh energy sources have been planned
and urbanized due to the need and regular increase of expenses of
vestige fuel. On additional hand, vestige fuels have an enormous
pessimistic blow on the atmosphere. In this circumstance, the novel
energy sources are basically non-conventional energies [1]. It is
predictable that the electrical energy generation from non conventional
energy sources will boost from 19% in 2010 to 32% in 2030 most
important to a subsequent decline of CO2 emission [2]. The planetary
PV systems have established that they can produce power to extremely
minute electronic devices up to utility range PV power plant. The
current power system is more and more attractive benefit of solar
power systems incoming the marketplace. Solar PV power systems
setting up in the region of the universal demonstrate a almost
exponential boost. Utility-scale PV plants are typically owned and
operated by a third party and sells the electricity to a market or load
serving entity through a Purchase Power Agreement (PPA). Utility
scale systems that can reach tens of megawatts of power output under
optimum conditions of solar irradiation [3]. These systems are usually
ground mounted and span a large area for power harvesting [16]. The
feat of a PV system is in general evaluate under the standard test
condition (STC), where an regular planetary spectrum at AM1.5 is
used, the irradiance is standardize to 1000W/m2, and the cell hotness is
166

defined as 25oC [10] [11]. On the other hand, under actual working
circumstances with changeable irradiance as well as major temperature
changes in the ground most profitable modules do not automatically
perform as in the condition given by the manufacturers [11].
II.
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Several components are needed to construct a grid coupled PV
system to perform the power generation and conversion functions

shown in fig.1.[6].
Fig.1.Grid connected PV power plant topology.

A PV array is used to transfer the light from the sun into DC
current and voltage [3]. A three phase inverter is then attached to
perform the power conversion of the array output power into AC power
appropriate for injection into the grid [16] [15]. A harmonics filter is
additional after the inverter to diminish the harmonics in the output
current which result from the power conversion process [17]. An
interfacing transformer is connected after the filter to step up the
output AC voltage of the inverter to match the grid voltage level.
167

III.
SYSTEM DESIGN
This segment highlights several of the key issues that need to be
considered when designing a PV plant. The electrical design of a PV

plant can be split into the DC and AC systems [8]. Sizing the DC
component of the plant the maximum voltage and current of the
individual strings and PV array(s) should be calculated using the
maximum output of the individual modules. For mono-crystalline and
multi-crystalline silicon modules all DC components should be rated as
follows to allow thermal and voltage limits.
minimum voltage rating = VOC(STC) 1.15
(1)
minimum current rating = I SC ( STC ) 1.25
(2)
For non-crystalline silicon modules DC component ratings should be

calculated from manufacturers data taking into account the
temperature and irradiance coefficients.
A.
Solar pv module selection and sizing
Poly crystalline silicon cell type solar PV modules are now -a

days becoming best choice for most of the residential and commercial
applications [23]. Recent improvements in the technology of multicrystalline or poly crystalline solar modules which are having better
efficiency, size and heat tolerance levels than their mono crystalline
counterparts. A central power generation system with a set of solar PV
arrays has been considered for the 25 MW solar PV plant. For the
proposed system power output required from solar PV arrays would be
approximately 25 MW peak. In this paper CANADIAN SOLAR CS6P250P solar modules have been selected and the electrical specifications
for the module are given below table 1 [23]. By using the PV syst
software the sizing of the 25 MW PV plant can be done and the results
are shown in fig.2.from the fig.2 the number of series connected modules
168

per string is 20 and the total number of strings per inverter is 100. Here
we required 50 inverters each of capacity 500kW so the total number of
modules for designing a 25MW PV plant are 1, 00,000.
Table 1 Parameters of a CS6P-250P solar module under Standard test
condition (STC) [23].
B.
Maximum Power (Pmax )

Rated power @ PTC (W)
Module efficiency (%)
Power tolerance
Maximum Power Voltage (Vmpp )
Maximum Power Current ( Impp)
Open Circuit Voltage ( Voc)
Short Circuit Current ( Isc)
Voltage/Temperaturecoefficient(Kv )
Current/Temperaturecoefficient ( Ki)
Series Connected cells ( C)
Inverter selection and sizing
250W
227.6W
15.54%
+2%
30.1 V
8.30 A
37.2 V
8.87 A
-0.0034 V/K
0.00065 A/K
60X1
Grid connected inverters are necessary for dc-ac conversion. To

avoid the power distortions the generated currents from these inverters
are required to have low harmonics and high power factor. PV system
inverters can be configured in four general ways. Those are central
inverter, string inverter, multi string inverter and ac module inverter
configurations [14]. This kind of inverters has enough voltage on its dc
side i.e. from 150V to 1000V and there is no need to use an
intermediate dc-dc converter to boost the voltage up to a reasonable
level.
Central inverter has got the advantage of high inverter efficiency at
a low cost per watt. As efficiency is one of the major concern in the PV
system, central inverter based PV system is a better economical choice
[14]. Therefore it is the first choice of medium and large scale PV
systems. In this paper SMA SOLAR TECHNOLOGY 500 kW solar
169

inverter has been selected and, electrical specifications for the inverter
are given below table 2.
Table 2 electrical specifications SMA SOLAR TECHNOLOGY 500 kW
solar inverter.
Maximum PV power (Pdc) kW
560
Maximum open circuit voltage (Vdc)
1000
MPPT range(Vdc)
430-850
Maximum DC input current (Idc)
1250
Maximum Output power(Pac) KW
500
Nominal output voltage (Vac)
243-310
AC output wiring
3wire w/neut
Maximum Output current (Iac)
1176
Maximum efficiency (%)
98.6
CEC-weighted efficiency (%)
98.4
It is not possible to formulate an optimal inverter sizing strategy
that applies in all cases. While the rule of thumb has been to use an
inverter-to-array power ratio less than unity this is not always the best
design approach. Most plants will have an inverter sizing range within
the limits defined by
0.8 < Power Ratio < 1.2
Where
P
Power Ratio = inverter DC rated
P
PV Peak
(3)
P
Pinverter DC rated = inverter AC rated
100%
(4)
Inverters can control reactive power by controlling the phase angle of

the current injection. The array to inverter matching can be done by the
following way.
Maximum number of modules per string
170

Maximum input voltage for an inverter is a hard stop design

limit. Exceeding the maximum inverter operating voltage can result in
catastrophic failure of the inverter and also in some cases result in
National Energy Commission (NEC) violations [23]. Therefore, when
designing a PV array the maximum open circuit voltage plays a vital
role. The number of modules in series determines the array open-circuit
voltage (Voc).The maximum numeral of modules connected in series for
an inverter can be calculated as
N max
maximum dc input voltage for the inverter

maximum module voltage(Voc max )
(5)
temperature
temperature
Voc_max = Voc +{(
)(
)}
coefficient of Voc
difference
(6)
temperature
Voc-max = Voc +{(T_min - T_STC )(
)}
coefficient of Voc
(7)
Where
N max
Voc
= Maximum number of Modules in Series.

= Open circuit voltage of the module.
Voc_max = Maximum module voltage.

T
= Minimum temperature for the site.
_min
T_STC = Temperature at Standard Test condition.
Minimum number of modules in a string

Excessively low array voltage can have a dramatic negative
impact on PV system energy production. If the array voltage falls below
the minimum operating voltage the inverter may not be able to track
the array maximum power point [23]. The minimum number of
171

modules
N
min
for
an
inverter
can
be
minimum dc input voltage for the inverter

maximum expected module
maximum power voltage(V
)
mp_min
temperature
temperature
Vmp_min = Vmp +{(
)(
)}
coefficient of Vmp
difference
calculated
as
fallows.
(8)
(9)
temperature
Vmp_min = Vmp + {(T_max - T_STC ) (
)}
coefficient of Vmp
(10)
Where
Nmin = Minimum number of Modules in Series
Vmp = Maximum power voltage
Vmp_min = Minimum expected module maximum power voltage
T_max = Maximum temperature for the site
T_stc = Temperature at Standard Test Conditions
Number of strings in parallel per inverter

The maximum number of parallel strings that can be connected
to the inverter without causing current limiting can usually
determined by a simple calculation without the need for temperature
correction. To calculate the maximum number of parallel strings, divide
the maximum inverter input current by either the module Maximum
power current (Imp) or Short-circuit current (Isc).
N
maximum inverter input current

maximum power current at STC
(11)
WhereN = Maximumnumberof StringsinParallel
C.
Dc cable selection and sizing

In the selection and sizing of DC Cables in general, three criteria
must be observed. Those are the cable voltage rating, the current
172

carrying capacity of the cable and the minimization of cable losses [20].
DC cabling consists of module, string and main cables as shown in fig.2.
Fig.2. PV array showing module, string and main Cables.

A number of cable connection systems are available those are i. Screw
terminals.
ii. Post terminals.
iii. Spring clamp terminals.
iv. Plug connectors.
Plug connectors have become the standard in grid connected solar PV
plants due to the benefits that they offer in terms of installation ease
and speed.
For module cables the following should apply
Minimum Voltage Rating = VOC (STC) 1.15
Minimum Current Rating = ISC (STC) 1.25.
(12)
(13)
In an array comprising of N strings connected in parallel and M

modules in each string, sizing of cables should be based on the following.
Array with no string fuses (applies to arrays of three or fewer strings
only).
Voltage: VOC (STC) M1.15
(14)
Current: ISC (STC) (N - 1) 1.
(15)
173

Array with string fuses

Voltage Rating = VOC (STC) M1.15
(16)
Current Rating = ISC (STC) 1.25

(17)
The formulae that guide the sizing of main DC cables running
from the PV array to the inverter, for a system are given below.
minimum voltage rating = VOC(STC) M 1.15
(18
minimum current rating = ISC(STC) N 1.25
(19)
In order to reduce losses, the overall voltage drop between the PV

array and the inverter (at STC) should be minimized. A benchmark
voltage drop of less than 3% is suitable.
D.
Junction boxes/combiner box
Junction boxes or combiners are needed at the point where the

individual strings forming an array are marshalled and connected
together in parallel before leaving for the inverter through the main DC
cable. As a precaution, disconnects and string fuses should be provided.
E.
String fuses
The main function of string fuses is to protect PV strings from overcurrents. Miniature fuses are normally used in PV applications. The
faults can occur on both the positive and negative sides, fuses must be
installed on all unearthed cables. To avoid nuisance tripping, the
nominal current of the fuse should be at least 1.25 times greater than
the nominal string current. The string fuse must be rated for operation
at the string voltage using the formula.
String Fuse Voltage Rating = VOC(STC) M 1.15
(20)
F.
Ac cabling
Cabling for AC systems should be designed to provide a safe,

economic means of transmitting power from the inverters to the
174

transformers and beyond. Cables should be rated for the operating

voltage. Cables should comply with relevant IEC standards or national
standards. Examples of these include.
IEC 60502 for cables between 1 kV and 36 kV.
IEC 60364 for LV cabling (BS 7671 in UK).
IEC 60840 for cables rated for voltages above 30 kV and up to 150 kV.
G.
Sizing of transformer
The purpose of transformers in a solar power plant is to provide
suitable voltage levels for transmission across the site and for export to
the grid. In general, the inverters supply power at (LV) Low Voltage.
But for a commercial solar power plant, grid connection is typically
made at upwards of 11 kV. It is therefore necessary to step up the
voltage using a transformer between the inverter and the grid
connection point.
Cables, fuse, switches are standard components meeting with
(NEC) National Energy Commission requirements. The proposed
25MW system needs 1, 00, 000 solar PV modules with 250 watts of
power generation at STC arranged 20 solar PV modules in series for
each string and total of 100 strings connected to one inverter of 500
kW. The selected and simulated components are given in fig.3.
Fig.4. Sun path diagram for utility scale solar PV plant [26].
175

Fig.3.Solar PV power plant component sizing [26].

IV.
ENGINEERNING
A. solar fixed layout

The general layout of the plant and the distance chosen between
rows of mounting structures will be selected according to the specific
site conditions and location on earth, plotting its altitude and azimuth
angle on a sun path diagram as shown in Fig.4 [20]. Computer
simulation software could be used to help design the plant layout.
Tilt angle
Every location will have an optimal tilt angle that maximizes the
total annual irradiation (averaged over the whole year) on the plane of
the collector [20]. For fixed tilt grid connected power plants, the
176

theoretical optimum tilt angle may be calculated from the latitude of

the site.
Panel tilt angle() = -
(21)
360(284+ n)
Declination angle() = 23.45sin

365.24
(22)
where tiltangle
declinationangle
latitudeof thesite
n number of days in that month
Inter-row spacing
The choice of row spacing is a compromise chosen to reduce
inter-row shading while keeping the area of the PV plant within
reasonable limits, reducing cable runs and keeping ohmic losses within
acceptable limits. Inter-row shading can never be reduced to zero [24]:
at the beginning and end of the day the shadow lengths are extremely
long, so we can maintain the inter row spacing amoung arrays is two
times to its height.
Orientation
In the northern hemisphere, the orientation that optimizes the total
annual energy yield is true south [20] with tilt angle of 35is shown in
fig.5.
Fig.5.Collector plane orientations [26].

177

B. Loss analysis
There are various losses are occurred in the large scale solar pv
power plant, the aggregation of those losses in the large scale power
system are shown in the fig.6 and the percentage representation of
losses in the system are also shown in the fig.7.
Fig.6.Aggregations of losses in the large scale PV plant.
Fig.7.Percentage representations of various losses in the large scale

solar PV power plant.
The aggregation of losses in the large scale power system using
PV syst software is shown in the fig.8.
178

Fig.8. Detailed power losses considered in sizing the power plant [26].
V.
MATLAB/SIMULINK MODELLING
The Matlab/Simulink model of a 25MW utility scale solar PV plant is
shown in fig.9.
Fig.9.Simulink model for the 25 mw solar PV plant

179

In fig.9 we have 25 sub systems each of capacity 1 MW, from

which a 1.25 MW, 744/25kV transformer for step up the voltages and
these are fed to the utility grid through a transmission lines to transfer
the power to the utility grid. Each sub system has two solar PV panels,
two inverters and two LCL filters to minimizing the harmonic contents
that are present in the systems due to PWM inverters as shown in
fig.10.
Fig.10.1MW subsystem for 25 MW pv plant

A.
PV array
A Photovoltaic (PV) cells are used to convert the sunlight into

direct current (DC). Due to the low voltages and current generated in a
PV cell several PV cells are connected in series and then in parallel to
form a PV module for desired output. The modules in a PV array are
usually first connected in series to obtain the desired voltages and
individual strings are then connected in parallel to allow the system to
produce more current. The equivalent circuit of PV array is shown in
fig.11 [6] [8] [9].
Fig.11. Equivalent circuit of a PV array.

180

From the above fig.10

I A = (I ph N p ) - Ish - Id
(23)
I ph = I rr (Isc + K i (Top - Tref ))

[
V + IR S
I d = IS N P {{exp
VT =
(24)
NS
n
VT C} - 1}
(25)
KTOP
q
(26)
2
q Eg
T
1
1
3
IS = I rs [ OP ] (exp
(
))
Tref
Kn Tref Top
I rs =
ISh =
VT =
I sc
qVoc
exp(
)
KCTop n
(27)
-1
(28)
IR S + V
RP
(29)
KTOP
q
(30)
Where
I A PV array output current
I Ph Solar cell photocurrent
Ish Shunt current of PV array
Id
diode current of PV array
N p number of modules in parallel

VA array output voltage
R s series resistance of the PV module
R P parallel resistance of the PV module
I rr cell reverse saturation current at temperatureTref
Isc short circuit current of the PVcell
181

Ki
short circuit current temperature coefficient
Top operating temperature of the PV cell in Kelvins

Tref reference temperature of the PV cell in Kelvins
Is
Reverse saturation current equation at Top
Vt
terminal voltage of the pvcell
I rs cell reverse saturation current at temperature Tref
E G band gap of the semiconductor used in the cell

K Boltzmann's constant, 1.380658e 23 J / K
q Electron charge, 1.60217733e 19 Cb
Ns number of modules in series
N p number of modules in parallel
n p - n junction ideality factor
Ctotalnumberof cellsinaPVmodule
By grouping all the above equations from (23) (30) and the
data available in the table 1 gives the Simulink model for PV array is
shown in fig.12.
Fig.12.Simulink model of a PV array.
182

B.
Inverter
A three phase inverter is attached to carry out the power change of
the array output power into AC power appropriate for injection into the
grid [19]. Pulse width modulation control is one of the techniques used
to shape the phase of the inverter output voltage. The sinusoidal pulsewidth modulation (SPWM) method produces a sinusoidal waveform by
filtering an output pulse waveform with varying width. A high
switching frequency leads to a better filtered sinusoidal output
waveform. The most wanted output voltage is achieved by changeable
the frequency and amplitude of a reference or modulating voltage. The
variations in the amplitude and frequency of the reference voltage
change the pulse-width patterns of the output voltage but keep the
sinusoidal modulation.
The modulation index [19] is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of output voltage generated by SPWM to the fundamental
peak value of the maximum square wave. Thus, the maximum
modulation index of the SPWM technique is
MI=
VPWM
V
max-sixstep
Vdc
= 2 = 0.7855=78.55%
2Vdc 4
(31)
Where VPWM is the maximum output voltage generated by a SPWM and
Vmax sixstep is the fundamental peak value of a square wave.

C.
Filter
In the grid-connected inverter all the controlled power electronic
devices like IGBT and GTO are to be used which are modulated by the
high frequency PWM. As a result the du/dt and di/dt are ever large [25].
Due to the occurrence of some drifter parameters the current
incorporated high order harmonic flow into the power grid this made the
183

harmonic pollution. The most ordinary filter is L filter in the gridconnected inverter [27]. In order to reduce current ripple, the
inductance have to be increased. As a result, the volume and weight of
the filter increased. While the arrangement and the parameter of the LC
filter are easy the filtering effect is not good because of the uncertainty
of network impedance. LCL filter had an naturally high cut-off
frequency and strong penetrating capability in low frequency. So LCL
filter has come into extensive use in the inverter [27].
Filter inductor design
For the given circumstance of DC bus voltage and AC output
voltage and current as the L value is increasing the ripple content
decreases, tracking speed of current is reduces, weight, volume and cost
increases. Under the idea of the price economy how to design the
inductance parameters for the best consequence is the key question.
Based on great reference, the constraints could be got as
1) Under the rated circumstances the voltage drop of the inductive filter
is smaller than 5% of the network voltage.
2) The peak to peak amplitude of harmonic current will be prohibited
within 10%~20% of the rated value of the inverter.
3) The inrush current of inverter should be as small as possible.
4) In order to attain the best presentation of LCL filter, in the low
frequency range the current should be as smooth as possible and in the
high frequency range the shrinking rate should be as fast as possible.
5) Let the high order harmonic flow through the capacitance, and the
low order harmonic flow through the inductance.
XC =
1
CS
; X L2 = SL 2
(32)
184

Therefore, f is bigger and XC is as smaller as better or both the f and X L2

is as smaller as better. P is defined as the rated output power of threephase grid-connected inverter cos is power factor, V is rated network
voltage, and f is driven frequency. Then equation (33) can be derived
from the constraint 1).
4fPL
5%
2
3V cos
(33)
2Vdc
i max = 3 + V
2L f
(34)
i max
2P
* (0.1
0.2)
3Vcos
(35)
Equations (34) and (35) can be derived from constraint 2) and reference
[25].The constraints 2) -5) show that the values of L and C are as bigger
as better.
Filter capacitance
How to design the capacitance parameters is one more key
question. If the Xc value is more, the high frequency harmonics that
flow through the shunt capacitor branch is not enough. As a result, the
great high-frequency harmonic current flow into the grid [27]. If the Xc
got too small, which will lead to the great reactive current flow though
the capacitor branch thereby increasing the inverter output current
and increasing system losses. In general when the resonant frequency
of filter capacitance and inductance is inside the range 1/4 to 1/5 carrier
frequency then the filtering performance is bet. The resonant
frequency of LCL filter could be described as
185

f =
L1 + L 2
L1L 2C
1
2
(36)
Generally, the resonant frequency is bigger than the 10 times

the power frequency and smaller than 1/2 times the switching
frequency.
C=
1
2
4f L
(37)
In order to avoid the low power factor of grid-connected inverter

the reactive power that is absorbed by filter capacitance should not
exceed 5% of the rated active power.
C
P
6fE M
(38)
Considering the equations (37) and (38), the filter capacitance value can
be calculating the filter capacitance value.
WhereEm istherootmeansquarevalues RMS of
grid connected phase voltage,
f1 isthefundamentalfrequency of the grid,
is the ratio of fundamental power absorbed by

the filter capacitor to total power.
D.
GRID IMPEDANCE
The grid impedance was the leakage impedance of the 25MW

distribution transformers [25]. It is calculated according to (39) using
the transformer parameters.
2
V
V
Lg = cc . 1L
2f PNT
(39)
186

WhereLgleakageimpedanceofthe transformer
PNT power of the grid connected transformer
V1L primarysidelinevoltage of the transformer
f
grid frequency
Vcc voltagetoleranceofthe transformer
The cable impedances of the PV plant and most parasitic impedances

were neglected. These parasitic impedances mainly affect the highfrequency range and are difficult to estimate.
VI.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Fig.13.500kW inverter output voltage
Fig.14.500kW inverter output current
187

Fig.15.500kW inverter output power
Fig.16.Transformer input voltage
Fig.17.Transformer input current
Fig.18.Transformer input power

188

Fig.19.Transformer output voltage
Fig.20.Transformer output current
Fig.21.Transformer output power
Fig.22.Grid voltage
189

Fig.23.Grid current
Fig.24.Power fed to the Grid
CONCLUSION
For developing a 25MW utility scale PV power plant in this paper
a site which has a GHI of 5.65 kWh/m2/day, it requires total area of
160582m2 and annual yield is 41313 MWh. In this paper sizing of basics
components of solar PV plant can be designed using the PV syst
software. The present study of engineering analysis of 25MW solar
photovoltaic (PV) power plant includes the losses analysis and the
module orientation of the PV plant, these are also done by using PV syst
software. The modeling of 25 MW solar PV power plant is done in
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment.
190

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using MATLAB/SIMULINK, in: Proceedings of the World Congress on
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modeling and simulation of photovoltaic arrays, IEEE Transaction on
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192

TIME CONSTRAINED SELF-DESTRUCTING DATA SYSTEM

(SeDaS) FOR DATA PRIVACY
S. Savitha
Dr. D. Thilagavathy
PG Scholar
Department of CSE
Adhiyamaan College of
Engineering
Hosur, Tamil Nadu, India
Professor
Department of CSE
Engineering
I. INTRODUCTION
Internet-based development and use of computer technology has
opened up to several trends in the era of cloud computing. The software
as a service (SaaS) computing architecture together with cheaper and
powerful processors has transformed the data centers into pools of
computing service on a huge scale. Services that reside solely on remote
data centers can be accessed with high quality due to increased network
bandwidth and reliable network connections. Moving data into the
cloud offers great convenience to users since they dont have to care
about the complexities of direct hardware management.
Cloud computing vendors like Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3),
Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) are well known to all. When
people rely more and more on internet and cloud technology the privacy
of the users must be achieved through an important issue called
security. When data is transformed and processed it is cached and
copied on many systems in the network which is not up to the
knowledge of the users. So there are chances of leaking the private
details of the users via Cloud Service Providers negligence, hackers
intrusion or some legal actions.
193

Vanish [1] as shown in Figure 1, provides idea for protecting and

sharing privacy where the secret key is divided and stored in a P2P
system with distributed hash table (DHTs).
Figure 1. The Vanish system architecture

In order to avoid hopping attacks which is one kind of Sybil attack
[7],[9] we go for a new scheme, called Self Vanish [4] by extending the
length range of key shares as shown in Figure 2(b), along with some
enhancement on Shamir secret sharing algorithm [2] implemented in
vanish system.
Figure 2(a). The push operation in the VuzeDHT network.
Figure 2(b). Hopping Attack

194

Figure 3. Increasing the length of range of key shares

II. RELATED WORK
In cloud, providing privacy to the data stored in it is a major task where
performance measures are also important to be done to achieve
excellence. So accordingly storage and retrieval plays an important role
where the use of Object-based storage (OBS) [10] uses an object-based
storage device (OSD) [11] as the underlying storage device. The T10
OSD standard is being developed by the Storage Networking Industry
Association (SNIA) and the INCITS T10 Technical Committee. Each
OSD consists of a CPU, network interface, ROM, RAM, and storage
device (disk or RAID subsystem) and exports a high-level data object
abstraction on the top of device block read/write interface.
Another scenario for storing the data and files is active storage
framework which has become one of the most important research
195

branches in the domain of intelligent storage systems. For instance,

Wickremesinghe et al. [12] proposed a model of load-managed active
storage, which strives to integrate computation with storage access in a
way that the system can predict the effects of ofoading computation to
Active Storage Units (ASU). Hence, applications can be congured to
match hardware capabilities and load conditions. MVSS [13], a storage
system for active storage devices, provided a single framework 2550
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 49, NO. 6, JUNE
2013 to support various services at the device level. MVSS separated
the deployment of services from le systems and thus allowed services
to be migrated to storage devices.
III. DISCUSSION AND RESULT
Various techniques has been covered to provide security for the data
stored in cloud alone with performance evaluation for uploading and
downloading the files. Researchers have mainly concentrated on the
algorithms that is used for key encryption/decryption and sharing. Let
us discuss various approaches that has been used for the same.
The paper [3] describes vanish implementation that leads to two Sybil
attacks, where the encryption keys are stored in million-node Vuze Bit
Torrent DHT. These attacks happens by crawling the DHT and saving
each stored value before its time goes out. More than 99% of Vanish
messages can be recovered with the keys efficiently in this method.
The paper [5] as shown in Figure 4, has taken advantage of the process
capabilities of service migration they need used a method known as
Active storage. However, in recent analysis, they have enforced a model
of service execution that also remains passive request-driven mode. In
self-management scenario, a mechanism for automatic service
execution has been implemented which is important. To handle this
drawback they have employed an energetic storage framework for
object-based device that provides a hybrid approach to mix request196

driven model and policy-driven model. Supported the necessities of

active storage, some enhancements area unit additional into the
present version T10 OSD specification have been given in the paper.
Finally, they have shown a classification system example with the
assistance of the active storage mechanism, network delay may be
dramatically reduced.
Figure 4. Active Storage in context of parallel file systems

The paper [6] introduces parallel I/O interface that executes data
analysis, mining, statistical operation evaluated on an active storage
system. They have proposed a scheme where common analysis kernels
are embedded in parallel file systems. They have shown experimentally
that the overall performance of the proposed system improved by 50.9%
of all four benchmarks and that the compute-intensive portion of the kmeans clustering kernel can be improved by 58.4% through GPU
offloading when executed with a larger computational load.
The paper [7] describes various techniques used to reduce the data
management cost and to solve security concerns they have used a
concept called FADE to outsource the data to the third-party cloud
197

storage services. FADE is designed to be readily deployable in cloud

storage system which focuses on protecting deleted data with policybased file assured deletion. FADE guarantees privacy and integrity of
the outsourced data files using some standard cryptographic techniques
encrypts the outsourced data files. Important of all it assuredly deletes
files to make them unrecoverable to anyone (including those who
manage the cloud storage) when those files are tried to access. This
objective is implemented by a working prototype of FADE atop Amazon
S3 which is one of todays cloud storage service uses the working
prototype of FADE , which provides policy based file assured deletion
with a minimal performance overhead. This work provides the insights
of how to incorporate value-added security features into data
outsourcing applications.
The paper [8] has discussed about Sybil attack in detail as how it occurs
in a distributed hash table (DHTs). Sybil attacks represents the
situation where a particular service in an identity-based system is
subverted by forging identities. The Sybil attack refers to the situation
where an adversary controls a set of fake identities, each called a Sybil,
and joins a targeted system multiple times under these Sybil identities.
In this paper, they have considered an identity-based systems where
each user is intended to have a single identity and is expected to use
this identity when interacting with other users in the system. In such
systems, we call a user with multiple identities a Sybil user and each
identity the user uses a Sybil identity. The solution to this attack has
been given in the paper Safe Vanish [4].
IV. PROPOSED WORK
As per the proposed, the security measures have been taken effectively
for the files stored on the cloud server. Hence in order to avoid
unauthorized control over the users personal data SeDas is proposed as
shown in Figure 5. Self-Destructing data system aim is to destruct all
the data along with its copies, either cached or archived after certain
198

period of time so that it becomes unreadable even to the admin (say

CSPs) who maintains it. Whenever the user uploads/downloads a file
SeDas works such that the ttl (Time-to-Live) parameter will be given
for that particular file. This can be implemented by using Shamir
Secret Sharing algorithm which seems to be one of the strongest
algorithm in usage. An easy solution to this can be provided by using
the spring MVC framework that provides model-view-controller
architecture and ready components which can be used to develop
flexible and loosely coupled web application which has interceptors as
well as controllers, making it easy to factor out behavior common to the
handling of many requests. It helps to create high performing, easily
testable, reusable code
Figure 5. SeDaS system architecture

Storing data in cloud might be safe on one side but on the other hand
what if the confidential data gets misused? There are also some amount
of data residing in the cloud which has not been used for years and
years. This leads to lower performance in the cloud and issues in
network traffic. So this paper gives the solution for the above problems
199

with the help of SeDas. Thus the latency and throughput performance
measures are being improved here in this paper.
V. CONCLUSION
In cloud computing environment many a technique have been used to
provide security for the users data/files. As of the above information
many researchers have given many techniques and ideas for the same.
According to the above analysis many techniques has been taken into
work where the data disappears but without the knowledge of the user.
SeDas makes the sensitive information such as credential details to get
self-destructed without any action on the users part so that the details
are unreadable to anyone after that supported by object-based storage
technique. The Experimental security analysis sheds intuitive
practicableness of the approach. This time-constrained system can
facilitate to produce researchers with any valuable expertise to tell
future of Cloud services.
References
[1] R. Geambasu, T. Kohno, A. Levy, and H. M. Levy, Vanish:
[2]
[3]
[4]
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Increasing data privacy with self-destructing data, in Proc.

USENIX Security Symp., Montreal, Canada, Aug. 2009, pp. 299
315.
A. Shamir, How to share a secret, Commun. ACM, vol. 22, no. 11,
pp. 612613, 1979.
S. Wolchok, O. S. Hofmann, N. Heninger, E. W. Felten, J. A.
Halderman, C. J. Rossbach, B. Waters, and E. Witchel, Defeating
vanish with low-cost sybil attacks against large DHEs, in Proc.
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L. Zeng, Z. Shi, S. Xu, and D. Feng, Safevanish: An improved data
self-destruction for protecting data privacy, in Proc. Second Int.
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200

[6] S. W. Son, S. Lang, P. Carns, R. Ross, R. Thakur, B. Ozisikyilmaz,
W.-K. Liao, and A. Choudhary, Enabling active storage on parallel

I/O software stacks, in Proc. IEEE 26th Symp. Mass Storage
Systems and Technologies (MSST), 2010.
[7] Y. Tang, P. P. C. Lee, J. C. S. Lui, and R. Perlman, FADE: Secure
overlay cloud storage with file assured deletion, in Proc.
SecureComm, 2010.
[8] J. R. Douceur, The sybil attack, in Proc. IPTPS 01: Revised
Papers from the First Int. Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Systems,
2002.
[9] T. Cholez, I. Chrisment, and O. Festor, Evaluation of sybil attack
protection schemes in kad, in Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Autonomous
Infrastructure,Management and Security, Berlin, Germany, 2009,
pp. 7082.
[10] M. Mesnier, G. Ganger, and E. Riedel, Objectbased storage,
IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 41, no. 8, pp. 8490, Aug. 2003.
[11] R. Weber, Information TechnologySCSI object-based storage
device commands (OSD) - vol. 41, no. 8, pp. 8490, Aug. 2003.
[12] R. Wickremesinghe, J. Chase, and J. Vitter, Distributed computing
with load-managed active storage, in Proc. 11th IEEE Int. Symp.
High Performance Distributed Computing (HPDC), 2002, pp. 1323
[13] X. Ma and A. Reddy, MVSS: An active storage architecture, IEEE
Trans. Parallel Distributed Syst., vol. 14, no. 10, pp. 9931003, Oct.
2003.
201

ANALYSIS ON PACKET SIZE OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES

IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS
P. Venkatesh
PG Scholar
Department of CSE
Engineering
Dr. M. Prabu
Professor
Department of CSE
Engineering
I. INTRODUCTION
Wireless Sensor Networks is collection of sensing devices that can
communicate wirelessly. Each device can perform three important
tasks such as, Sense, process and talk to its peers. Hence it has
centralized Collection point (sink or base station). A WSN can be
defined as network devices, denoted as node, which can sense the
environment and communicate through wireless links. The data is
forwarded, possibly via multiple hops to sink, that can use its locally or
is connected to other network (e.g. internet) through gateway. The
node can be Stationary or moving. They can be homogeneous or not [1].
The traditional single-sink WSN may suffer from lack of scalability. So
by increasing large number of nodes, amount of data gathered by sink
increases and once its capacity is reached, the network cannot be
increased. Furthermore, for reasons related to MAC and routing
aspects, network performance cannot be considered independent from
the network size.
202

Fig.1. Architecture of wireless sensor network

As there are many problems in the single sink scenario, moving to
multiple sink scenario can be scalable and also increase the
performance of the WSN in terms of increasing the number of the
nodes, which it not possible in the single sink scenario. In many cases
nodes send the collected data to one sink, select among many, which
forward data to the gateway, towards the final user. The selection of
sink is based on certain suitable criteria that could be, for example,
minimum delay, maximum throughput, minimum number of hops etc.,
Hence the presence of multiple sink ensures better network
performance with respect to single sink case where designing part is
more complex for communication protocol and must design according
to suitable criteria[2].
The WSN can be used for a variety of applications such as
Environment monitoring [3], healthcare, positing [4]and tracking [5]
etc., The applications of the wireless sensor network can be classified
according to the Event Detection (ED) and the Spatial Process
Estimation (SPE) .
203

Fig. 2. Left side Single-sink scenario and Right side Multi-sinkscenario] [2]
In the ED scenario, the sensor is deployed to detect the events such as,
fire in the forest, Earthquake. In SPE scenario it is deployed to monitor
the physical phenomenon (for example atmospheric pressure in a wide
area or temperature variation in a small volcanic site), which can be
modeled as a bi-dimensional random process (generally non-stationary).
Power consumption plays an important role in the WSN, so the
designers are now mainly focusing on the power aware- protocol and
algorithm for design of energy efficient sensor network. For all the
operations to be performed in the network, such as sensing
information, processing the information and forwarding to the sink
node. Hence the power consumption and power management are more
important in the wireless sensor networks [1].
204

II. RELATED WORK

In the WSN packet size is a major problem, which will directly affect
the reliability and the performance of communication between the
nodes. However choosing the packet size must be optimal. According to
the first scenario the packet size is long in WSN that causes data bit
corruption and data packet re-transmission [6]. Power consumption is
also high during the transmission of data packet to the sink which in
turn ultimately loses the performance of the WSN when the packet size
is long.
In second scenario the packet size is small, which increase the data
transmission reliability and reduces the data bit error. But short packet
size degrades the performance of the WSN. Also management of packet
at each node will become complicated. So many techniques were
developed so far to get an optimal packet size for the WSN, but most of
the researchers suggest fixed packet size [7].The minority researchers
are promoting the use of the dynamic packet length [8] i.e. variable size
of data packets in WSN. In this survey report numbers of techniques
have been discussed to obtain an appropriate data packet size in WSN
and finally the conclusion for each technique.
III. DISCUSSION AND RESULT
Various techniques are used for packet size optimization for wireless
sensor networks. A range of techniques were developed by the different
researcher for the packet size optimization in WSN.The researchers
have majorly focus on the two approaches which is, either fixed packet
size or variable packet size approach. In this section we discuss those
approaches and results.
A. Fixed size packet in WSN
In the [7] they have used the fixed packet size in WSN rather than the
variable packet size. Even though the variable packet size will increase
205

the throughput of the channel and enhance the wireless sensor network
transmission mechanism the simplicity of such independent system is
also compromised. Since choosing the variable packet size leads to the
resource management overhead they choose the fixed size data packets
for energy efficient WSN. Basically, there are three fields in the data
packet.
1) Packet header.
2) Payload/Data Segment.
3) Packet Trailer.
The packet header contains many fields that are usually less important
for WSN nodes and removing those will help us to reduce the packet
size in the WSNs. Those fields include current segment number, total
number of segments, packet identifiers, source and destination
identifiers [7].By employing these method the overall throughput and
efficiency is increased.
Fig 3. Packet format [7]

B. Variable Size packet in WSNs
In the [8] variable packet size in WSNs plays a vital role and this paper
describes the creation of packet size according to the channel condition
i.e. in a dynamic manner, they developed a scheme called dynamic
packet length control. In the WSNs if the channel is noisy or busy
(means it is congested having lots of packets) it will automatically
create small packets. When the channel is empty or channel if it is
capable of processing large packet means it will automatically generate
the large packet size. By using this method they are increasing the
overall throughput and efficiency.
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C. Framework for optimization of packet size

There are various researchers who developed lot of frameworks for
creating or generating an optimal packet size for reducing the energy
consumption and to increase the throughput and energy efficiency in
WSN. In this framework [9] for packet optimization in WSNs, they are
describing that the longer packet size is more appropriate than the
shorter packet size in some case. In certain situation this may lead to
inefficiency in the WSNs. The framework must be employed there to
find an appropriate method for optimal solution to the problem in
wireless sensor networks. The paper [9] used a framework to find the
optimal packet size based on some performance metric. The metric
consists of the throughput, energy consumption per bit, latency, and
packet error rate.
D.
Various packet size used in different techniques
In this paper [10], they describe that if small packet size produces more
energy efficient in WSN, overhead of each packet is ignored. Tracking
per packet overhead created in WSN will lead to favor large size packet
for this type of resource constrained in tiny sensor node. So it depends
on overhead produced by each packet generation in WSN. There are
some suggested packet sizes as follows
Fig. 4. Effect of packet size on the ESB [10]
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There are some other packet formats designed by the researchers for
energy efficiency in wireless sensor networks. In the paper [11] they
describe different header formats and researchers could use predefined
formats for designing their own packets. Designers have to design their
packet header using common header format that is shown in the figure
below
Fig. 5. Packet header format [11]

In the paper [12], they describe the Dynamic Packet length control
scheme that provides more efficient terms of channel utilization than
the paper [8]. They provide two services, i.e., small message
aggregation and large message Fragmentation. By using those services
they provide better performance compared to the previous works. The
two service are shown clearly in the below figure.
208

Fig. 6. DPLC overview [12]

IV. PROPOSED WORK
The proposed work describes and improves the data aggregation i.e.
decrease the power consumption and increase the life time of packet
send between the two nodes using BEAR protocol. The data
aggregation scheme is used to improve the network functionality with
energy competence. Each and every sensor is used to minimize the
energy consumption. In data aggregation there are various algorithms
used to measure the performance such as lifetime, data accuracy and
latency. To improve the lifetime of the mobility nodes based on the
centralized and localized algorithm by using the BEAR [A Balanced
Energy Aware Routing] Protocols, the dynamic fixed length packets
lifetime is measured and this protocol increases the coverage areas to
get better performance and where large nodes are to be used.
Wireless sensor network latency refers to data transmission, data
aggregation and routing. It defines the time delay between the sink and
209

destination. This paper decides to improve the coverage areas, lifetime

and also decreases the power consumptions by the protocol. Source
node sends packet to destination node where the source node has the
backup and increases the networks lifetime generated and maintain by
the centralized and localized algorithm. While sending the source node
is in off mode and after receiving the acknowledgement it moves to on
mode so, in this way the energy consumption is minimized, increases
the data size and lifetime and avoids the latency.
V. CONCLUSION
In
the
Wireless
Sensor
Networks
major
factor
deciding
the
performance, i.e. to choose the packet size leads to efficiency in energy.

There are so many researchers who proposed packet size format and
there are also some framework approaches for the same. According to
above analysis some of the researcher have encouraged fixed size packet
for the data transmission in the sensor node, whereas at the same time
other researchers encourage variable size packet for data transmission
in the sensor node according to the channel capacity. The former
approaches are easy to implement and process less overhead but they
are inefficient with regards to energy efficiency, overall throughput and
performance. Next approaches are capable with respect to energy
efficiency, throughput and performance but major drawback is it
possess a lot of overhead at each node. Each and every approaches and
framework has their own negative aspect and the positive aspect. Yet
we develop an optimal approach which combines the advantages of the
previous approach and avoids the drawbacks in those approaches.
References
1. I.F.Akyildiz, W.Su, Y.Sankarasubramaniam and E. Cayirci, A
Survey on Sensor Networks, IEEE Communications Magazine, pp.
102-114, August 2002.
210

2. Lin, C.; Tseng, Y.; Lai, T. Message-Efficient In-Network Location

Management in a Multi-sink Wireless Sensor Network. In
Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on
Sensor
Networks, Ubiquitous, and Trustworthy Computing, Taichung,
Taiwan, 2006; pp. 18.
3. Ong, J.; You, Y.Z.; Mills-Beale, J.; Tan, E.L.; Pereles, B.; Ghee, K. A
wireless, passive embedded sensor for real-time monitoring of water
content in civil engineering materials. IEEE Sensors J.2008, 8,
20532058
4. Lee, D.-S.; Lee, Y.-D.; Chung, W.-Y.; Myllyla, R. Vital sign
monitoring system with life emergency event detection using
wireless sensor network. In Proceedings of IEEE Conference on
Sensors, Daegu, Korea, 2006.
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S. Human tracking with wireless distributed pyroelectric sensors.
IEEE Sensors J. 2006, 6, 16831696.
6. Low Tang Jung, Azween Abdullah, Wireless Sensor Networks:
Data Packet Size Optimization, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,
Malaysia, 2012.
7. Y. Sankarasubramaniam, I. E Akyildiz and S. W. Mchughlin,
Energy Efficiency based Packet Size Optimization in Wireless
Sensor Networks, School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Georgia, Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, 2003.
8. Wei Dong, Xue Liu, Chun Chen, Yuan He, Gong Chen, Yunhao Liu,
and Jiajun Bu,and Zhejiang Key, DPLC: Dynamic Packet Length
Control in Wireless Sensor Networks, Lab. of Service Robot,
College of Comp. Sci., Zhejiang University School of Comp. Sci.,
McGill University 2010.
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9. Vuran, M.C.; Akyildiz, I.F.;, "Cross-Layer Packet Size Optimization

for Wireless Terrestrial, Underwater, and Underground Sensor
Networks," Infocom 2008. The 27th Conference on Computer
Communications. IEEE, vol., no., pp.226-230, 13-18 April 2008.
10. Matthew Holland, Tianqi Wang, Bulent Tavli, Alireza Seyedi, and
Wendi Heinzelman, Optimizing physical-layer parameters for
wireless sensor networks, ACM Trans. Sen. Netw. 7, 4, Article 28
(February 2011), 20 pages. DOI=10.1145/1921621.1921622
http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1921621.1921622.
11. Haboub, Rachid, and Mohammed Ouzzif. "Secure Routing in
WSN."International Journal 2 (2011).
12. Wei Dong, Member, IEEE, Chun Chen, Member, IEEE, Xue Liu,
Member, IEEE, Yuan He, Member, IEEE, Yunhao Liu, Senior
Member, IEEE, Jiajun Bu, Member, IEEE, and Xianghua Xu,
Member, IEEE Dynamic Packet Length Control in Wireless Sensor
Networks IEEE Transactions ON Wireless Communications, VOL.
13, NO. 3, March 2014.
212

COMPRESSED AIR VEHICLE (CAV)(A PRACTICAL

APPROACH WITH DESIGN)
Sai Chakradhar. Kommuri

Student
Department of Mechanical Engineering
QISCET, Ongole
HISTORY OF CAV:
Compressed air has been used since the 19th century to
power mine locomotives and trams in cities such as Paris (via a central,
city-level, compressed), and was previously the basis of
naval torpedo propulsion.
During the construction of the Gotthardbahn from 1872 to
1882, pneumatic locomotives were used in the construction of
the Gotthard Rail Tunnel and other tunnels of the Gotthardbahn.
In 1903, the Liquid Air Company located in London England
manufactured a number of compressed-air and liquefied-air cars. The
major problem with these cars and all compressed-air cars is the lack of
torque produced by the "engines" and the cost of compressing the air.
INTRODUCTION
Compared to batteries, compressed air is favourable because of a
high energy density, low toxicity, fast filling at low cost and long service
life. These issues make it technically challenging to design air engines
for all kind of compressed air driven vehicles. To meet the growing
demand of public transportation, sustainable with environmental
consciousness, people are in the search for the ultimate clean car with
zero-emissions. Many concept vehicles were proposed that run on
everything from solar power to algae, but most of them are expensive
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and require hard-to-find fuels .Compressed air vehicle project in the

form of light utility vehicle (LUV) (i.e., air car in particular) has been a
topic of great interest for the last decade and many theoretical and
experimental investigations.
COMPRESSED AIR TECHNOLOGY
Mankind has been making use of uncompressed airpower from
centuries in different application viz., windmills, sailing, balloon car,
hot air balloon flying and hang gliding etc. The use of compressed air
for storing energy is a method that is not only efficient and clean, but
also economical and has been used since the 19th century to power
mine locomotives, and was previously the basis of naval torpedo
propulsion. The laws of physics dictate that uncontained gases will
fill any given space. The easiest way to see this in action is to inflate
a balloon. The elastic skin of the balloon holds the air tightly inside, but
the moment you use a pin to create a hole in the balloon's surface, the
air expands outward with so much energy that the balloon explodes.
Compressing a gas into a small space is a way to store energy. When the
gas expands again, that energy is released to do work. That's the basic
principle behind what makes an air car go. The air compressors are
built into them.
The principle of compressed-air propulsion is to pressurize the
storage tank and then connect it to something very like a reciprocating
engine of the vehicle. Instead of mixing fuel with air and burning it in
the engine to drive pistons with hot expanding gases, compressed air
vehicles (CAV) use the expansion of compressed air to drive their
pistons. Thus, making the technology free from difficulties.
The air is compressed at pressure about 150 times the rate the
air is pressurized into car tyres or bicycle. The tanks must be designed
to safety standards appropriate for a pressure vessel. The storage tank
may be made of steel, aluminium, carbon fibre, Kevlar or other
214

materials, or combinations of the above. The fibre materials are

considerably lighter than metals but generally more expensive. Metal
tanks can withstand a large number of pressure cycles, but must be
checked for corrosion periodically. A company has stated to store air in
tanks at 4,500 pounds per square inch (about 30 MPa) and hold nearly
3,200 cubic feet (around 90 cubic metres) of air. The tanks may be
refilled at a service station equipped with heat exchangers, or in a few
hours at home or in parking lots, plugging the vehicle into an on-board
compressor. The cost of driving such a car is typically projected to be
around Rs. 60 per 100 km, with a complete refill at the "tank-station" at
about Rs. 120 only.
The compression, storage and release of the air together
are termed as the Compressed Air Technology. This technology
has been utilized in different pneumatic systems. This technology has
been undergoing several years of research to improve its applications.
WORKING
The air-powered car runs on a pneumatic motor that is powered
by compressed air stored on board of the vehicle. Once compressed air
is transferred into the on board storage tank, it is slowly released to
power the cars pistons The engine that is installed on the compressed
air car, uses compressed air which is stored in the cars tank. The
compressed air drives the piston down as the power stroke. At the end
of the power stroke, the compressed air is released through the exhaust
valves and the exhaust is only air. The motor then converts the air
power into mechanical power. That power is then transferred to the
wheels and becomes the source of power for the car. ( i.e. the pistons
were connected to the wheels through the HERO HONDA bikes 4
speed transmission.). This modified engine was mounted on a
rectangular crossectional frame and a body that looked like a curious
crossbreed of a car.
215

PROPERTIES OF AIR CAR ENGINE

The properties of air car engine are:
1. Approximately 0.05 mt3 of compressed air is stored in mild steel
tank in the vehicle.
2. The engine is powered by compressed air, stored in the tank at
30bar. In order to reduce weight, the tank can be made of
carbon fibre.
3. The expansion of this air pushes the piston and creates
movement. The atmospheric temperature is used to reheat the
engine and increase the road coverage.
4. The air condition system can be made use of the expelled cold
air.
We only need a simple piston-cylinder arrangement with an intlet
and an exhaust. But as we know a normal two stroke engine contained
several ports and it also had the spark plug which we didnt require. So,
due to the presence of ports in a two stroke engine, it is difficult to get
required output from the engine. So, several modifications had to be
done on the four stroke engine to suit our purpose.
The modifications comprised of: Providing a suitable connector at the cylinder head.
216

Removing the spark plug from the cylinder head.

Modifying the cam shaft of the engine.
1. COMPRESSED AIR TANK
Compressed air tank is one of the most important part of these
cars. These tanks hold 0.05m3 of air to 30 bars. It is similar to the
tanks used to carry the liquid gas. The tank enjoys the same technology
developed to containing natural gas. These tanks do not explode in case
of accidents since there are no metals in them if made of carbon fibre.
So the selection of material for the storage tank matters much
in safety.
2. ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS
Made: HERO HONDA
Model: CD100
Stroke: 4 stroke
No. of cylinders: Single cylinder
Displacement: 110 cc
3. THE CHASSIS
Based on design principles in aeronautics, engine has put
together highly-resistant, yet light, chassis, zinc rods welded together.
Using these rods enables us to build a more shock-resistant
chassis than regular chassis, allowing quick assembly and a more
secure. This system helps to reduce manufacture time.
4. AIR FILTER
The engine works with air taken from the atmosphere. Air is
compressed by the off-board compressor or at service stations equipped
with a high-pressure compressor. Before compression, the air must be
filtered to get rid of any impurities that could damage the
engine. Carbon filters are used to eliminate dirt, dust, humidity and
other particles which, unfortunately, are found in the air in our cities.
217

5. REFILLING
As these energies are so easy to store Filling stations are
setup as for petrol and diesel. The filling of tank of an air car nearly
takes 3 to 4 minutes for cars. Either, we can set up a filling equipment
too in our house, which is quite cheaper.
6. SPECIAL FEATURES
There is absolutely no fuel required and no combustion in the
engine cylinder.
There is no pollution at all as only air is taken in and air is ejected
out.
No Heat is generated, as there is no combustion.
No engine cooling system is required, like water Pump, radiator,
and water Circulating pipes. It was measured practically that the
engine exhaust is a cooled air; its temperature was measured as low
as 5 degrees Celsius.
No air conditioning system in the car is required if used, the
exhaust chilled and clean air can be recirculated partly in the car to
cool it.
The atmospheric temperature can fall down, as the exhaust is a
clean and chilled air, so the problem of pollution can be
permanently eradicated.
Very less maintenance is required as there wont be any soot
formation.
Very low cost materials can be used, as there is no heat
involvement.
Weight of the engine can be reduced in the absence of cooling
system and because of lightweight material, which will improve the
mileage and efficiency.
In case of leakage or accident, there wont be any fire.
Engine vibrations were very less and sound pollution was also
very low.
Operating cost is ten times less than that of gasoline engine.
7. EMISSION OUTPUT
Since the compressed air is filtered to protect the
compressor machinery, the air discharged has less suspended dust in
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it, though there may be carry-over of lubricants used in the engine. The
car works when gas expands.
ADVANTAGES
Compressed-air vehicles are comparable in many ways
to electric vehicles, but use compressed air to store the energy instead
of batteries. Their potential advantages over other vehicles include:.
Compressed-air technology reduces the cost of vehicle production

by about 20%, because there is no need to build a cooling system,
fuel tank, Ignition Systems or silencers.
The engine can be massively reduced in size.
The engine runs on cold or warm air, so can be made of lower
strength light weight material such as aluminium, plastic, low
friction Teflon or a combination.
Low manufacture and maintenance costs as well as easy
maintenance.
Compressed-air tanks can be disposed of or recycled with less
pollution than batteries.
Compressed-air vehicles are unconstrained by the degradation
problems associated with current battery systems.
The air tank may be refilled more often and in less time than
batteries can be recharged, with re-filling rates comparable to liquid
fuels.
Lighter vehicles cause less damage to roads, resulting in lower
maintenance cost.
The price of filling air powered vehicles is significantly cheaper
than petrol, diesel or biofuel. If electricity is cheap, then compressing

air will also be relatively cheap.
DISADVANTAGES
The principal disadvantage is the indirect use of energy. Energy
is used to compress air, which in turn provides the energy to run the
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motor. Any conversion of energy between forms results in loss. For

conventional combustion motor cars, the energy is lost when oil is
converted to usable fuel including drilling, refinement, labor, storage,
eventually transportation to the end-user. For compressed-air cars,
energy is lost when electrical energy is converted to compressed air.
When air expands, as it would in the engine, it cools dramatically

(Charles's law) and must be heated to ambient temperature using a
heat exchanger similar to the Intercooler used for internal
combustion engines. The heating is necessary in order to obtain a
significant fraction of the theoretical energy output. The heat
exchanger can be problematic. While it performs a similar task to
the Intercooler, the temperature difference between the incoming
air and the working gas is smaller. In heating the stored air, the
device gets very cold and may ice up in cool, moist climates.
Refueling the compressed-air container using a home or low-end
conventional air compressor may take as long as 4 hours, while the
specialized equipment at service stations may fill the tanks in only
3 minutes.
Tanks get very hot when filled rapidly. SCUBA tanks are
sometimes immersed in water to cool them down when they are
being filled. That would not be possible with tanks in a car and thus
it would either take a long time to fill the tanks, or they would have
to take less than a full charge, since heat drives up the pressure.
Early tests have demonstrated the limited storage capacity of the
tanks; the only published test of a vehicle running on compressed
air alone was limited to a range of 7.22 km (4 mi).
A 2005 study demonstrated that cars running on lithium-ion
batteries out-perform
both
compressed-air
and fuel
cell
vehicle more than threefold at same speeds.[10] MDI has recently
claimed that an air car will be able to travel 140 km (87 mi) in
urban driving, and have a range of 80 km (50 mi) with a top speed
220

of 110 km/h (68 mph) on highways, when operating on compressed

air alone.
POSSIBLE IMPROVEMENTS
Compressed-air vehicles operate to a thermodynamic process as
air cools down when expanding and heats up when being compressed.
As it is not possible in practice to use a theoretically ideal process,
losses occur and improvements may involve reducing these, e.g., by
using large heat exchangers in order to use heat from the ambient air
and at the same time provide air cooling in the passenger compartment.
At the other end, the heat produced during compression can be stored
in water systems, physical or chemical systems and reused later.
It may be possible to store compressed air at lower pressure
using an absorption material within the tank. Absorption materials
such as Activated carbon, or a metal organic framework is used to
store compressed natural gas at 500 psi instead of 4500 psi, which
amounts to a large energy saving.
CONCLUSION
Its important to remember that while vehicles running on only
compressed air might seem like a distant dream, but they still have
public interest due to their environmental friendly nature. Efforts
should be to make them light, safe, cost effective and economical for
deriving. The storage of compressed air (initially as well as during
journey) with all benefits like no heating, high energy density and
provisions to make use of cooling produced during adiabatic expansion
during the energy release have to be taken care off in a much more
controlled manner. Electric-powered cars and bikes already available on
the market put a strong competition to compressed air car not only in
terms of cost but also their environment friendly role. The technology
still looks distant but that has not deterred inventors from working on
it.
221

DESIGN OF AN OPTIMISED LOW POWER FULL ADDER

USING DOUBLE GATED MOSFET AT 45nm TECHNOLOGY
T Nithyoosha
M.Rajeswara Rao
P.G Student
VLSI, Department of E.C.E, SIETK
Tirupati
Assistant Professor
Department of E.C.E, SIETK
Tirupati
1. INTRODUCTION
In very large scale integration (VLSI) systems, full adder circuit is used
in arithmetic operations for addition, multipliers and Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU). It is a building block of the application of VLSI, digital
signal processing, image processing and microprocessors. Most of full
adder systems are considered performance of circuits, number of
transistor, speed of circuit, chip area, threshold loss and full swing
output and the most important is power consumption. In the future,
portable devices such as cell phone, laptop computer, tablet etc. need
low power and high speed full adders.
The power consumption for CMOS circuit is given by the following
equation:
Pavg = Pdynamic + Pleak + Pshort-circuit
=CLVddVFclk + IleakVdd +IscVdd
(1)
Lowering the supply voltage would significantly lower the power

consumption of the circuit. This basic concept of would be used to
improve the performance of adder circuit.
2. FULL ADDER
Full adder circuit is designed for addition binary logics. Sum signal
(SUM) and carry out signal (Cout) are the output of I-bit full adder. Both
222

of them are generated by input A, B and CIN, following Boolean

equation as:
SUM = A B Cin
(2)
Cout = AB + A B Cin
(3)
Cin
Cout
Fig.1. Block Diagram of basic full adder circuit

2.1 DOUBLE GATE 14T FULL ADDER CIRCUIT
Double gate MOSFET will be constructed by connecting two transistors
in parallel as a way that their supply and drain are connected together.
Double gate MOSFET can be classified in two types, based on biasing of
gate. Once the front and back gate area unit connected along, initial
kind is achieved and it is referred as three terminal devices. This device
is used for direct replacement of single gate transistor. Second kind is
achieved by independent gate control.
In this section single bit full adder circuit is designed by using double
gate MOSFET for improve the performance of adder in terms of power
and leakage using 14 transistors.
223

Fig.2. Schematic of 4T XOR

This cell is constructed by using the 4T XOR gate. In the 14T full adder
cell two 4T XOR gate are used. Fig3 shows the double gate 14T full adder
circuit .Here 4T XOR is used gate to increase circuit density using this
XOR gate, reduction in size of full adder is achieved and overall leakage
is also reduced. Output waveform of 14T full adder is shown in fig.4
Fig.3. Double gate 14T full adder
224

Fig.4. Output waveform of double gate 14T full adder

2.2 DOUBLE GATE 10T FULL ADDER CIRUIT
In this section one bit full adder circuit is presented by using double gate
transistors for improve the performance of adder in terms of power and
leakage. Fig5 shows the double gate 10T full adder circuit. This cell is
made by using the 4T XOR gate. It is the essential component of full
adder cell and generates the essential addition operation of adder cell. It
behaves like a single half adder cell.
Here 4T XOR gate is used to increase circuit density. Fig.2 shows the
4T XOR gate. Using this XOR gate, reduction in size of full adder is
achieved and overall leakage is also reduced. The schematic of full adder
is shown in fig.5 and output waveform is shown in fig.6.10T double gate
full adder achieves 31.25% reduction in active power and 95% reduction
in leakage current as compared to 14T double gate full adder.
225

Cout
Sum
C
Fig.5. Double gate 10T full adder
Fig.6. Output waveform of double gate 10T full adder

1. DOUBLE GATE MOSFET
The MOS transistor model from COMSOL as a template is used to model
the double gate MOSFET. Double gate transistors are developed to
226

resolve short channel effect problems in actual MOSFET structures. So

that such architectures are directly related to the constant Reduction of
the feature size in microelectronic technology. At the present time, it
seems that double gate devices- going to non-planar transistor.
Architectures- could be a solution for sub-32nm Nodes. In addition, new
design flexibility is allowed when gates are not interconnected. However,
appropriate models must be developed. Threshold voltage (Vth) modeling
of double gate (DG) MOSFETs was performed, for the first time, by
considering barrier lowering in the short channel devices. As the gate
length of DG MOSFETs scales down, the overlapped charge-sharing
length (xh) in the channel which is related to the barrier lowering
becomes very important. A fitting parameter w was introduced
semiempirically with the fin body width and body doping concentration
for higher accuracy. The Vth model predicted well the Vth behavior with
fin body thickness, body doping concentration, and gate length.
Recently, bulk FinFETs have been considering very promising candidate
for next generation memory cell transistors to be applicable to dynamic
random access memory (DRAM) and flash memory. As the gate length of
bulk FinFETs scales down, barrier lowering occurs in spite of low drain
bias (VDS =0.05V) because the depleted charge-sharing length (xh) by
source and drain in short channel is overlapped. To apply the devices to
integrated circuits, it is strongly required to model threshold voltage
(Vth) considering the barrier lowering in short channel. However, the Vth
model has not been developed since the xh modeling in short channel
devices is very complicated with device geometry and doping
concentration. For Vth modeling of the devices, double-gate (DG) nature
is key point and needs to be understood well. In this paper, we propose
Vth model of DG MOSFETs based on the correction of xh considering
barrier lowering, and verify the Vth model by comparing with device
simulation in terms of gate length (Lg), fin width (Wfin) and body
227

doping (Nb). Threshold voltages were extracted by using gm,max for a

given VDS of 0.05 V in this paper.
4. SIMULATION AND RESULT
A single bit full adder circuit based on double gate MOSFET technique is
proposed. It is used for measurement of leakage, power consumption and
delay of the proposed circuit at 45nm technology with different supply
voltage from 0.7v to 1.0v.
4.1. LEAKAGE CURRENT
Leakage current is the current that flows through the protective ground
conductor to ground. In the absence of a grounding connection, it is the
current that could flow from any conductive part or the surface of
non-conductive parts to ground if a conductive path was available (such
as a human body). There are always extraneous currents flowing in the
safety ground conductor. Tunnelling leakage can also occur across
junctions between heavily doped p-type and n-type. The basic equation
of leakage current is shown in Eq.4
Ileak = Isub + Iox
(4)
Where, Isub = sub-threshold leakage current, Iox = gate-oxide leakage

current.
Where, K1 and n are experimentally derived, W = gate width, Vth =

threshold voltage, n = slope shape factor, V = thermal voltage.
Where, K2 and are derived experimentally, Tox = oxide thickness.

Table 1 shows the leakage current of 10T and 14T full adder cell using
double gate MOSFET at different supply voltage. Fig 7 and fig 8 shows
228

the leakage current waveform of double gate 14T and 10T full adder cell
at 0.7V.
Voltage 10T Full Adder (pA) 14T Full Adder (pA)
0.7
3.646
58.2
0.8
3.915
84.6
0.9
5.165
144
1.0
5.401
220
Table 1. Leakage current at difference voltages of 10t
and 14t full adder
Fig.7. Leakage Current Waveform of Double Gate 14T Full

Adder at 0.7V
There are two types of leakage current: ac leakage and dc leakage. Dc
leakage current usually applies only to end-product equipment, not to
power supplies. Ac leakage current is caused by a parallel combination of
capacitance and dc resistance between a voltage source (ac line) and the
grounded conductive parts of the equipment. The leakage caused by the
dc resistance usually is insignificant compared to the ac impedance of
various parallel capacitances.
229

Fig.8. Leakage Current Waveform of Double Gate 10T Full

Adder at 0.7V
4.2 ACTIVE POWER
At the time of operating the power is dissipated by the circuit is known
as active power. Active power includes both static power and dynamic
power of the circuit. The basic equation of active power is shown in Eq.
(7)
Pactive = Pdyanamic + Pstatic
(7)
=Pswitching + Pshort-circuit + Pleakage
Where,
Cl = load capacitance,
fclk = clock frequency,
= switching activity,
Isc = short circuit current,
Ileakage = leakage current,
Vdd = supply voltage
230

Table 2. Active power at difference voltages of 14t full

adder
10T Full
Voltage Adder(W)
0.7
9.34
0.8
15.21
0.9
21.95
1
29.61
14T Full Adder

(W)
13.7
23.56
39.69
61.52
Fig.9. Active Power Waveform of Double Gate 14T Full Adder

at 0.7V
Fig.10. Active Power Waveform of Double Gate 10T Full Adder

at 0.7V
231

Table 2 shows the active power of 10T and 14T full adder cell using
double gate MOSFET at different supply voltage. Fig 9 and fig 10 shows
the active power waveform of double gate 14T and 10T full adder cell at
0.7V.
4.3 DELAY
Propagation delay is required by a digital signal to travel from that input
of the circuit to the output. The propagation delay is inversely
proportional to the speed of the architecture and hence it is important
performance parameter. The basic equation of delay in presence of sleep
transistor is shown in Eq. (9) the propagation delay for an integrated
circuit (IC) logic gate may differ for each of the inputs. If all other factors
are held constant, the average propagation delay in a logic gate IC
increases as the complexity of the internal circuitry increases.
Some IC technologies have inherently longer tpd values than others, and
are considered "slower." Propagation delay is important because it has a
direct effect on the speed at which a digital device, such as a computer,
can operate. This is true of memory chips as well as microprocessors.
Fig.11.Delay Comparison Graph of 10T and 14T Full Adder Circuit.
5. CONCLUSION
232

The analysis carried out while analyzing both l0T and 14T full adders
individually and comparing them on the basis of calculation of active
power, leakage current and delay by varying different parameters. The
outcomes of the simulation show that l0T full adder to be a better option
with improved performance over 14T structure. As compare to 14T
double gate full adder active power of 10T full adder is reduced from
13.7W to 9.34 W at 0.7V. As compare to 14T double gate full adder
Leakage current of 10T full adder is reduced from 58.2pA to 3.646pA at
0.7V.As compare to 10T double gate full adder Delay of 14T double gate
full adder is reduced from 171.3ps to 151ps.
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adder cells in sub-100nm technologies, IEEE Computer Society
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Integrated-Circuit Technology, vol-2, pp. 1155-1158,2001.
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Zhangming Zhu, Yintang Yang, "Novel Low Power Full Adder
Cells in 180nm CMOS Technology", 4th IEEE Conference on
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28 Nov.-1 Dec. 2010.
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233

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235

AN MTCMOS TECHNIQUE FOR OPTIMIZING LOW POWER

FLIP-FLOP DESIGNS
S.Roja
C.Vijaya Bhaskar
P.G Student
VLSI, Department of E.C.E
SIETK, Puttur
Assistant Professor
Department of E.C.E
SIETK, Puttur
I. INTRODUCTION
Power consumption being the major problem in achieving high
performance and it is listed as one of the top three challenges in
electronics industry. The clock system, which consists of the clock
distribution network and flip-flops and latches, is one of the most power
consuming components in a VLSI system. It accounts for 30% to 60% of
the total power dissipation in a system. As a result, reducing the power
consumed by flip-flops will have a deep impact on the total power
consumed. A large portion of the on chip power is consumed by the clock
circuits.
Power consumption is determined by several factors including frequency
, supply voltage V, data activity , capacitance C, leakage, and short
circuit current
P=Pdynamic+Pshort circuit+Pleakage
In the above equation, dynamic power Pdynamic is also called the
switching power,
Pdynamic=CV2.
Pshort circuit is the short circuit power which is caused by the finite rise
and fall time of input signals, resulting in both the pull up network and
pull down network to be ON for a short while
Pshort circuit= Ishort circuitVdd
236

Pleakage is the leakage power. With supply voltage scaling down, the
threshold voltage also decreases to maintain performance. However, this
leads to the exponential growth of the sub threshold leakage current.
Sub threshold leakage is the dominant leakage now.
Pleakage= IleakageVdd.
Flip-Flop is an electronic circuit that stores a logical state of one or more
data input signals in response to a clock pulse. Flip-flops are often used
in computational circuits to operate in selected sequences during
recurring clock intervals to receive and maintain data for a limited time
period sufficient for other circuits within a system to further process
data. At each rising or falling edge of a clock signal, the data stored in a
set of Flip-Flops is readily available so that it can be applied as inputs to
other combinational or sequential circuitry. Such flip-flops that store
data on both the leading edge and the trailing edge of a clock pulse are
referred to as double-edge triggered Flip-Flops otherwise it is called as
single edge triggered Flip-Flops.
In digital CMOS circuits there are three sources of power dissipation,
the first is due to signal transition, the second comes from short circuit
current which flows directly from supply to ground terminal and the last
is due to leakage currents. As technology scales down the short circuit
power becomes comparable to dynamic power dissipation. Furthermore,
the leakage power also becomes highly significant. High leakage current
is becoming a significant contributor to power dissipation of CMOS
circuits as threshold voltage, channel length and gate oxide thickness
are reduced. Consequently, the identification and modeling of different
leakage components is very important for estimation and reduction of
leakage power especially for High-speed and low-power applications.
Multithreshold Voltage Based CMOS (MTCMOS) and voltage scaling
are two of the low power techniques used to reduce power.
237

II. SOURCES OF POWER DISSIPATION

Power dissipation in digital CMOS circuits is caused by four sources as
follows.
Low Power Design Space:
The three degrees of freedom inherent in the low-power design space:
voltage, physical capacitance, and data activity. Optimizing for power
entails an attempt to reduce one or more of these factors.
1) Voltage: Voltage reduction offers the most effective means of
minimizing power consumption the useful range of Vdd to a minimum
of two to three times Vt. One approach to reduce the supply voltage
without loss in throughput is to modify the Vt of the devices. Reducing
the Vt allows the supply voltage to be scaled down without loss in speed.
2) Switching Activity:
If there is no switching in a circuit, then no dynamic power will be
consumed. There are two components to switching activity, fclk which
specifies the average periodicity of data arrivals and E(sw) which
determines how many transitions each arrival will generate
3) Physical Capacitance:
Minimizing capacitances offers another technique for minimizing power
consumption. In order to consider this possibility we must first
understand what factors contribute to the physical capacitance of a
circuit. Power dissipation is dependent on the physical capacitances seen
by individual gates in the circuit.
The leakage current, which is primarily determined by the
fabrication technology, consists of two components
1) Reverse bias current in the parasitic diodes formed between source
and drain diffusions and the bulk region in a MOS transistor.
2) The sub threshold current that arises from the inversion charge
that exists at the gate voltages below the threshold voltage.
238

3) The standby current which is the DC current drawn continuously

from Vdd to ground.
4) The short-circuit current which is due to the DC path between the
supply rails during output transitions.
5) The capacitance current which flows to charge and discharge
capacitive loads during logic changes.
This paper surveys various low power flip-flops is described in Section II.
Section III gives the proposed MTCMOS technique. Section IV
represents MT-CPSFF and section V presents simulation results.
Section VI concludes this paper.
III. LOW POWER FLIP-FLOPS
Some of the different flip-flops are designed for reducing power
consumption. The following are the different low power flip-flops they
are
1) Conditional discharge flip-flop (CDFF)
2) Conditional data mapping flip-flop (CDMFF)
3) Clock pair shared flip-flop (CPSFF)
4) Multi threshold CMOS -Clocked paired shared flip-flop (MT-CMOS
CPSFF)
1) Conditional discharge flip-flop (CDFF):
FIG 3.1: CDFF

239

The schematic diagram of the conditional discharge flip-flop (CDFF),

is shown in Fig. It uses a pulse generator as in, which is suitable for
double-edge sampling. The flip-flop is made up of two stages. Stage one
is responsible for capturing the LOW-to-HIGH transition. If the input D
is HIGH in the sampling window, the internal node X is discharged,
assuming (q,qb)that were initially (LOW, HIGH) for the discharge path
to be enabled. As a result, the output node will be charged to HIGH
through P2 in the second stage. Stage 2 captures the HIGH-to-LOW
input transition. If the input D was LOW during the sampling period,
then the first stage is disabled and node X retains its precharge state.
Whereas, node Y will be HIGH, and the discharge path in the second
stage will be enabled in the sampling period, allowing the output node to
discharge and to correctly capture the input data. CDFF uses 13clocked
transistors resulting in reduction of the power consumption.
2) Conditional data mapping flip-flop (CDFF):
IN Conditional data mapping flip-flop (CDMFF) used only seven clocked
transistors, resulting in about 50% reduction in the number of clocked
transistors; hence CDMFF used less power than CDFF. This shows the
effectiveness of reducing clocked transistor numbers to achieve low
power. The conditional data mapping methodology exploits the property
of the flip-flop, by providing the flip-flop with a stage to map its inputs to
(0, 0) if a redundant event is predicted, such that the outputs will be
unchanged when clock signal is triggered. A conditional data mapper is
deployed in the circuit to map the inputs by using outputs as control
signals.
240

FIG 3.2: CDMFF

3) Clock paired shared flip-flop:
This low power flip flop is the improved version of Conditional Data
Mapping Flip flop (CDMFF). It has totally 19 transistors including 4
clocked transistors as shown in Figure. The N3 and N4 are called
clocked pair which is shared by first and second stage. The floating
problem is avoided by the transistor P1 (always ON) which is used to
charge the internal node X. This flip flop will operate, when clk and
clkdb is at logic 1. When D=1, Q=0, Qb_kpr=1, N5=OFF, N1=ON,
the ground voltage will pass through N3, N4 and N1 then switch on the
P2. That is Q output pulls up through P2. When D=0, Q=1, Qb_kpr=0,
N5= ON, N1= OFF, Y=1, N2= ON, then Q output pulls down to zero
through N2, N3 and N4.
241

The flip flop output is depending upon the previous output Qand Qb_kpr
in addition with clock and data input. So the initial condition should be
like when D=1 the previous state of Q should be 0 and Qb_kpr should
be 1. Similarly when D=0 the previous state of Q should be 1 and
Qb_kpr should be 0. Whenever the D=1 the transistor N5 is idle,
Whenever the D=0 input transmission gate is idle.
In high frequency operation the input transmission gate andN5 will
acquire incorrect initial conditions due to the feedback from the output.
The noise coupling occurred in the Q output due to continuous
switching at high frequency. The glitch will be appearing in the Q
output. It will propagate to the next stage which makes the system more
vulnerable to noise. In order to avoid the above drawbacks and reduce
the power consumption in proposed flip flop, we can make the flip-flop
output as independent of previous state. That is without initial
conditions and removal of noise coupling transistors. In addition double
edge triggering can be applied easily for power reduction to the proposed
flip flop. It will be a less power consumption than other flip flops.
FIG 3.3: CPSFF
242

IV. MTCMOS TECHNIQUE

Multi-Threshold Voltage CMOS (MTCMOS) is one of the highly
accepted circuit technique in the reduction of the leakage current. For
efficient power management in MTCMOS technology, the circuit works
on two modes, one being the "active" and the other "sleep" operational
modes. The conventional circuit works on single threshold voltage (Vt)
while the circuit employing the MTCMOS technique works on two
different threshold voltage switches are Low Vt and High Vt. The circuit
comprises of two different set of transistors- one which works on High Vt
are termed as "sleep" transistors and the transistors which works on Low
Vt comprises the logical circuit. The sleep transistors are used to achieve
high performance by reducing the leakage current while the Low Vt
transistors enhance the circuits speed performance.
The power gating technique using MTCMOS is shown in Fig. The
diagram consists of two sleep transistors S1 and S2 with higher Vt. The
logic circuit between the S1 and S2 is not directly connected to real
supply lines Vdd and Gnd, but in turn it is connected to virtual power
supply lines Vddv and Gndv and has low Vt. Both the sleep transistors
are given complementary inputs S and SBAR. The above circuit operates
in two modes active mode and standby mode.
In active mode, S=0 and SBAR=1 such that S1 and S2 are ON and
virtual supply lines Vddv and Gndv work as real supply lines therefore
the logic circuit operates normally and at a higher speed. In sleep mode,
S=1 and SBAR=0 such that S1 And S2 are OFF and this will cause
virtual power supply lines to float and large leakage current present in
circuit is suppressed by sleep transistors S1 and S2 resulting in lower
leakage current and thus reducing power consumption.
243

FIG 4.1:MTCMOS TECHNIQUE

V.PROPOSED LOW POWER FLIP-FLOP DESIGNS USING
MT-CMOS
To reduce standby leakage power consumption and to ensure efficient
implementation of sequential elements, we propose clocked pair shared
flip-flop using MTCMOS technique. We are designing this circuit
keeping the number of clocked transistors same as in the actual circuit.
The schematic of MT-CPSFF is shown in Fig.5.1
Fig.5.1 Schematic of Proposed CPSFF using MTCMOS

244

In this proposed Clocked Pair Shared Flip Flop, a high threshold voltage
NMOS transistor is provided with a sleep signal S, which is high in the
active mode and low during the standby mode.Here, the first and the
second stage shares the same clocked pair (M5 and M6). Furthermore,
the pMOS M1 is always turned on and is connected to the power supply
Vdd, thus charging the internal node X all the time. This reduces the
floating of node X and enhances the noise robustness.
The flip flop works, when both clk and clkdb are at logic 1. Pseudo
nMOS and conditional mapping technique both are combined using the
above scheme. The nMOS M3 is controlled by a feedback signal. For
input D=1and S=1,Q will be high, switching ON the transistor M8, and
turning OFF M3 thus parrying redundant switching activity and flow of
shortcircuit current at the node X. When D transits to 1 the output Q is
pulled up by pMOS M2 whereas M4 is used to pull down Q when D=0
and Y=1 at the arrival of clock pulse. When the input D transits from 0-1
the short-circuit occurs for once even though M1 is always ON, thus
disconnecting the discharge path and turning off M3 after two gates
delay by feedback signal. There will be no short-circuit even if the input
D stays high as M3 disconnects the discharge path. The output of the flip
flop depends upon the state previously acquired by Q and QB along with
the clock and the data signal inputs provided.
T-FLIP-FLOP MTCMOS TECHNIQUE
The below diagram which shows the extension of the MT-CPSFF.T
flip-flop which uses for the reducing switching activity and also power
consumption. This is the another proposed MTCMOS technique, The
schematic of MT-CPSFF is shown in Fig.5.2
245

Fig.5.2 Schematic of Proposed T- CPSFF using MTCMOS

VI.SIMULATION RESULTS
The simulation results for all existing and proposed flip-flops were
obtained in a 90nm CMOS technology at room temperature using
Tanner EDA Tools over various supply voltages and frequencies. Table I
show power comparison results for the CDFF, CDMFF, CPSFF and the
proposed MT-CPSFF for 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 supply voltage (Vdd) over
750MHz and 500MHz clock frequencies. Table I show that CDFF has
38.39% less power consumption than conventional DEFF at 750MHz
clock frequency and 1.5Vdd.
The simulation results for all existing and proposed flip-flops were
obtained in a 90nm CMOS technology at room temperature using
Tanner EDA Tools 13.0 over varioussupply voltages and frequencies.
Table I show power comparison results for the CDFF, CDMFF, CPSFF
and the proposed MT-CPSFF for 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 supply voltage (Vdd)
over 750MHz and 500MHz clock frequencies. Table I show that CDFF
has 38.39% less power consumption.
Similarly at 500MHz and 3Vdd CDFF consumes 74.02% less power than
conventional DEFF. With the reduction in the number of clocked
transistor in the CDMFF as compared to CDFF, the power consumption
by CDMFF at 750MHz and at1.5Vdd is 81.02% less as compared to the
246

CDFF. Albeit CDMFF reduces the power consumption to a considerable

amount, but it is susceptible to redundant clocking in addition to a
floating node. The CPSFF overcomes this drawback by reducing the
number of clocking transistors. For 500 MHz and at 3Vdd CPSFF
consumes 53.80% less power than CDMFF. Similarly at 750MHz and
1.5Vdd CPSFF consumes 9.74% less power as compared to CDMFF. The
comparison shows that reducing the clocked transistors has a major
effect on reducing the total power consumption of the design circuit.
The proposed MT-CPSFF which makes use of MTCMOS technique
shows higher performance as well as smaller Stand by leakage current.
The low Vt MOSFETs enhances the speed, while the higher Vt
MOSFETs reduces the standby leakage current. Table I show that for
MT-CPSFF at 500MHz and 3Vdd, the proposed circuit consumes 66.3%
less power as compared to conventional CPSFF. Similarly at 750MHz
and1.5Vdd MTCPSFF consumes 15.2% less power than conventional
cpsff.
Fig:6.1 Output wave form for D-ff

247

Fig: 6.2Output waveform for T-ff

DESIGN
NAME
CDFF
CDMFF
CPSFF
MT-CPSFF
MT-CPSFF
AREA
26
SWIT
ICHIN
G
TRANS
ISTOR
13
20
17
21
27
7
4
4
4
FREQUENCY
500MHZ
700MHZ
POWER CONSUMPTION
1.5
9.7
1.9
1.3
1.2
1.1
SUPPLY VOLTAGE
3
1.5
3V
54.8
14.6
82.0
49.6
2.7
53.7
22.9
2.5
32.8
7.7
2.12
11.6
7.5
2.00
10.5
VII CONCLUSION
In this paper, a new design for D and T flip-flop is introduced to reduce
internal switching activity of nodes and stand by leakage power; along
with this variety of design techniques for low power clocking system are
reviewed. This proposed flip-flop reduces local clock transistor number
and power consumption as well. The proposed MT-CPSFF outperforms
previously existing CDFF, CDMFF and CPSFF in terms of power and
good output response by approximately 20% to 85%. Furthermore,
248

several low power techniques, including low swing and double edge
clocking, can be explored to incorporate into the new flip-flop to build
system.
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250

SECURITY AND PRIVACY ENHANCEMENT USING JAMMER

IN DOWNLINK CELLULAR NETWORKS
S.Shafil Mohammad
P.G Student
SIETK, Tirupati
T.Prasad
Assistant Professor
Department of E.C.E
SIETK, Tirupati
1. INTRODUCTION
Wireless communication is vulnerable to eavesdropping due to the
broadcast nature of wireless medium. In broadcast channel where one
transmitter disperses the information to the multiple users, the
importance of security becomes more emphasized. Wyner introduced the
information theoretic view of the physical-layer security in [1]. From
this perspective, the effective transmission with the multiple antennas
and the cooperative jammer (CJ) to improve the security were studied in
[2][5].
Recently, with the ever-increasing demand of broadcast services (e.g.
downlink communication in cellular networks and wireless local
networks (WLAN)), the concern on broadcast channel with the
confidential messages has been growing. Specially in multiuser system,
since all users within the communication range can overhear the
wireless signal, there occurs a possibility that the licensed users might
be the maliciouseavesdroppers1.Thus, we should counteract two sorts of
eavesdroppers such as internal and external. If they are from
legitimate user set of the transmitter, we call them internal
eavesdroppers and otherwise external eavesdroppers. Authors of [6] and
[7] investigated the secure transmission against a single external
eavesdropper. For coping with the internal eavesdroppers, [8] proposed
251

the transmission technique for the base station (BS) via semi definite
programming (SDP).
In this paper2, we aim at designing the optimal transmission in
downlink cellular network against the multiple
internal
eavesdroppers. In our scenario, BS desires to send the private message to
one of K mobile users (MUs) while keeping the privacy from the K-1
remaining MUs, i.e. internal eavesdroppers. For the secrecy
enhancement of the intended user, we design a novel secure
transmission which jointly optimizes both BS and CJ for the
multiple-antenna link. This joint cooperation has the robustness for the
case where BSs are in the severe fading conditions or where the
eavesdropper is close to BSs or MUs. Additionally, the employment of CJ
can lessen the complexity burden compared to the beam forming
solution solely at BS with no help of CJ such as [8]3.Unlike the studies
enlisting the aid of optimization software tools for the transmission
design in multiuser setting [8], [10][12], our strategy is also grounded
on an explicit parametrization for an arbitrary number of users and
antennas with the constructed programming problem.
2. SYSTEM MODEL
The system model under consideration is illustrated in Fig.1. The
cellular network consists of a base station (BS), K mobile users (MUs)
and a single cooperative jammer (CJ).
All users can have two types of data traffic such as private and open, but
in this paper we suppose that each user has only
252

Fig.1 System Model

private message transmitted from the BS. The BS wants to securely
transmit the private message to each user over the same spectral band
simultaneously. However, such public dispersion unavoidably brings the
information leakage to the unintended users over the associated
cross-channels. We assume that the remaining users except the desired
recipient are considered
the potential eavesdroppers and we refer to
them as the as internal eavesdroppers. In this work, a CJ creating the
artificial noise toward the multiple eavesdroppers is applied to improve
the secrecy of a desired point-to-point link. In doing so, we can obtain the
strength on security level in the channel condition vulnerable to
eavesdropping comparing to the system only controlling the signal
direction by beam forming at BS. Also,with the help of CJ, BS can
lighten the complexity cost for the secrecy enhancement. To accomplish
this mission, we propose the joint transmission technique for both BS
and CJ under transmit power constraint. We assume that BS and CJ
possess Nb and Nc transmit antennas, respectively, while all MUs are
single-antenna nodes. The transmission is composed of scalar coding
253

followed by beam forming and all propagation channels are supposed to

be frequency-flat.
With these assumptions, the received signal at MUk can be modeled as
the symbols transmitted by BS and CJ, hk and gk are the

(complex-valued) Nb1 channel-vector between BS and MUk and Nc
1 channel-vector between CJ and MUk, and wb and wc are the transmit
beam forming vectors used by BS and CJ, respectively. The variable nk
models the complex Gaussian noise with zero mean and variance 2 k.
We assume that BS and CJ have full channel state information (CSI).
The objective of the transmit beamformers wb and wc is to convey the
symbol sb in a secure way.
3.MODELING ASSUMPTIONS:
3.1 Sensor Network Model
We consider a wireless sensor network deployed over a large area and
operating under a single-carrier slotted Aloha type random access
protocol. We assume symmetric trans-mission and reception in the sense
that a node i can receive a signal from node j if and only if node j can
receive a signal from. Time is divided into time slots and the slot size is
equal to the size of a packet. All nodes are assumed to be synchronized
when transmitting with respect to time slot boundaries. Each node
transmits at a fixed power level P with an omni directional antenna and
its transmission range R and sensing range Rs are circular with sharp
boundary.
Transmission and sensing ranges are defined by two thresh- olds of
received signal strength. A node within transmission range of node i can
correctly decode transmitted messages from i, while a node within
sensing range can just sense activity due to higher signal strength than
254

noise, but cannot decode the transmitted message. Typically, Rs is a

small multiple of R, ranging from 2 to 3.
Anode within distance R of anode i(excluding node i itself)is called a
neighbor of i. The neighborhood of i, N i is the set of all neighbors of i
with ni j Nij being the size of is neighborhood. Transmissions from
node i are received by all its neighbors. The sensor network is
represented by an undirected graph. where S is the set of sensor nodes
and E is the set of edges where edge denotes that sensor i and j are
within transmission range of each other. Sensor nodes are uniformly
distributed in an area,with spatial density nodes per unit area and the
topology is static, i.e., we assume no mobility. Each node has an initial
amount of energy E. We do not consider the energy consumed in
reception. Each node is equipped with a single transceiver, so that it
cannot transmit and receive simultaneously. All nodes are assumed to be
continuously backlogged, so that there are always packets in each nodes
buffer in each slot. Packets can be generated by higher layers of a node,
or they may come from other nodes and need to be forwarded or they
may be previously sent and collided packets to be retransmitted.
A transmission on edge is successful if and only if no node in N j [f]
jgnf ig transmits during that transmission. In this work, we consider the
class of slotted Aloha type random access protocols that are
characterized by a common channel access probability for all network
nodes in each slot. This provides us with a straightforward means to
quantify the network effort to withstand and confront the attack by
regulating the amount of transmitted traffic and essentially exposing
the attacker to the detection system, as will become clear in the sequel.
Provided that it remains silent in a slot, a receiver node j experiences
collision if at least two nodes in its neighborhood transmit
simultaneously, regardless of whether the transmitted packets are
destined for node j or for other nodes.
255

Thus, the probability of collision at node j in a slot is:
If node j attempts to transmit at a slot while it receives a

message, a collision occurs as well. In that case, the receiver is not in
position to tell whether the collision is due to its own transmission or
whether it would occur anyway. In the sequel, we will term collision
an event addressing the case of multiple simultaneous transmissions
received by (not necessarily intended to) a node and no transmission
attempt by that node. Note that, if we include the possibility that the
receiver also attempts to access the channel, the probability of
collision is the same as the one above with nj substituted by nj 1.
Whenever a collision occurs at a receiver, the packet is retransmitted
in the next slot if the transmitter accesses the channel again. If a
node does not have any neighbors (i.e., it is nj 0), then this node
does not receive any packets and does not experience collisions.
3.2Attacker Model:
We consider one attacker, the jammer, in the sensor network
area. The jammer is neither authenticated nor associated with the
network. The objective of the jammer is to corrupt legitimate
transmissions of sensor nodes by causing intentional packet
collisions at receivers. Intentional collision leads to retransmission,
which is translated into additional energy consumption for a certain
amount of attainable throughput or equivalently reduced
throughput for a given amount of consumed energy. In this paper,
we do not consider the attacker that is capable of node capture.
The jammer may use its sensing ability in order to sense ongoing
activity in the network. Clearly, sensing ongoing network activity
prior to jamming is beneficial for the attacker in the sense that its
energy resources are not aimlessly consumed and the jammer is not
256

needlessly exposed to the network. The jammer transmits a small

packet which collides with legitimate transmitted packets at their
intended receivers.
Fig .2.Illustration of Jamming attack

As argued in, a beacon packet of a few bits suffices to disrupt a
transmitted packet in the network. The jammer is assumed to have
energy resources denoted by Em, yet the corresponding energy
constraint in the optimization problems of the next section may be
redundant if the jammer adheres to the policy above.
The jammer uses an omni directional antenna with circular sensing
range Rms and adaptable transmission range Rm that is realized by
controlling
transmission
power
Pm
as
illustrated
inFig.1.Thejammeralsocontrolstheprobabilityq of jamming the area
within its transmission range in a slot, thus, controlling the
aggressiveness of the attack.
The attack space is, therefore, specified by set P- 0;1, where P is
the discrete set of employed power levels. The attacker attempts to
strike a balance between short-and long-term benefits, as a more
aggressive attack increases instantaneous benefit but exposes the
257

attacker to the detection system, while a milder attack may prolong

detection time.
If the jammer senses the channel prior to deciding whether to jam or
not, collision occurs at node j if the jammer jams and at least one
neighbor transmits. Thus, conditioned on existence of a jammer, the
probability of collision at node j is
On the other hand, if jamming occurs without prior channel sensing,

the probability of collision is
Thus, the probability of collision is the same regardless of channel

sensing prior to jamming. This implies that jamming can be viewed as a
multiple access situation between a network of legitimate nodes, each
with access probability and the jammer with access probability q.
Nevertheless, by using sensing, the adversary does not was energy on
empty slots and conserves energy by a factor of 1where denotes the
number of legitimate nodes in the jammers sensing range. For large 1.
Namely, for a den sensor network, It is very likely that some
transmission will always occur in the network and, therefore, it does not
really make a difference whether the attacker will sense the channel or
not. In the sequel, we will not consider the energy saving facto We will
subsequently assume that the adversary possesses different amounts of
knowledge about the network, ranging from full knowledge about
network parameters such as access probability and the neighborhood of
a monitor node to no knowledge at all. Networks differing levels of
knowledge about an attacker will be considered as well.
258

3.3 Attack Detection Model:

The network employs a mechanism for monitoring network status and
detecting potential malicious activity.
The monitoring mechanism consists of:
1)Determination of a subset of nodes M that act as monitors.
2) Employment of a detection algorithm at each monitor node.
The assignment of the role of monitor to anode is affected by potential
existing energy consumption and node computational complexity
limitations, and by detection performance specifications. In this work,
we consider a fixed set M, and formulate optimization problems for one
or several monitor nodes. We fix attention to a specific monitor node and
the detection scheme that it employs.
First, we need to define the quantity to be observed at each monitor.
In our case, the readily available metric is the probability of collision
that a monitor node experiences, namely the percentage of packets that
are erroneously received.
During normal network operation and in the absence of a jammer, we
consider a large enough training period in which the monitor node
learns the percentage of collisions it experiences as the long-term limit of
the ratio of number of slots where there was collision over total number
of slots of the training period. Now let the network operate in the open
after the training period has elapsed and fix attention to a time window
much smaller than the training period.
An increased percentage of collisions in the time window compared to
the learned long-term ratio may be an indication of an ongoing jamming
attack that causes additional collisions. However, it may happen as well
that the network operates normally and there is just a temporary
irregular increase in the percentage of collisions compared to the learned
ratio for that specific interval.
259

A detection algorithm is part of the detection module at a monitor

node; it takes as input observation samples obtained by the monitor
node (i.e., collision/not collision) and decides whether there is an attack
or not.
On one hand, the observation window should be small enough, such
that the attack is detected in a timely manner and appropriate
countermeasures are initiated.
On the other hand, this window should be sufficiently large, such that
the chance of a false alarm notification is reduced.
The sequential nature of observations at consecutive time slots
motivates the use of sequential detection techniques.
A sequential decision rule consists of:
1) A stopping time, indicating when to stop taking observations.
2) Afinal decision rule that decides between the two hypotheses.
A sequential decision rule is efficient if it can provide reliable decision
as fast as possible. The probability of false alarm PFA and probability of
missed detection PM constitute inherent trade-offs in a detection
scheme in the sense that a faster decision unavoidably leads to higher
values of these probabilities while lower values are attained at the
expense of detection delay.Forgiven values of PFA and PM, the detection
test that minimizes the average number of required observations (and
thus average delay) to reach a decision among all sequential and non
sequential tests for which PFA and PM do not exceed the predefined
values above is Walds Sequential Probability Ratio Test (SPRT).
When SPRT is used for sequential testing between two hypotheses
concerning two probability distributions, SPRT is optimal in that sense
as well.
260

3.4 Notification Delay

Following detection of an attack, the network needs to be notified in
order to launch appropriate counter measures. The transfer of the
notification message out of the jammed area is performed with multiple
routing from the monitor node to a node out of the jammed region.
The same random access protocol with channel access probability is
employed by a node to forward the message to the next node. Having
assumed a single-channel sensor network, we implicitly exclude the
existence of a control channel that is used for signaling attack
notification messages.
Hence, the transfer of the notification message out of the jammed will
take place in the same channel and will still under go jamming. Clearly,
the time that is needed for the notification message to be passed out of
the jammed area depends on the jamming strategy as well as the
network channel access probability. For that reason, we use the sum of
detection and notification delay as a metric that captures the objective of
the attacker and the network. It is understood that if there exists a
control channel for signaling notification messages that is not jammed,
then only the detection delay is needed as a performance objective. If
this control channel is jammed, then one needs to consider the
notification time but also assess the cost incurred by jamming an
additional channel. We discuss briefly this issue in the last section as
part of future work.
We now compute the average time needed for the notification message
to be carried out of the jammed area.
The probability of successful channel access for a node i along the
route of the notification message in the presence of jamming is
.
261

Hence, the ex-pected number of transmission attempts before

successful transmission, which also denotes expected delay for node i
before successful transmission is slots. In a single-channel network, the
adversary can cause additional disruption to the network by jamming
the alert message even after being detected. In order to find the average
delay for transmitting an alert out of the jammed region, let us first
denote the average number of hops to deliver the alarm out of jammed
area Am by H.
Clearly, the expected notification delay depends on the expected
number of hops it takes for the notification message to leave the jammed
area which in turn depends on the position of the monitor node. We
assume dense sensor deployment and, thus, roughly approximate the
route followed by the notification message with an almost straight line.
This means that H Rm=2p, namely, H is equal to the average distance
of a monitor from the boundary of the jammed area (Rm=2) divided by
the node transmission range R.
We adhere to this approximation since the exact expression for the
distribution of H depends on knowledge about the network topology and
the location of the monitor. Such knowledge is rather unrealistic to
assume for the attacker and even for the network itself.
The average time needed for the alarm to propagate out of the
jamming area, also referred to as notification delay, is
262

4.BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Fig.3.Block diagram of Mobile jamming circuit.

with the help of this Speaker,Keypad and Mick are blocked.
5. RANDOM MODEL WITH ONE TRANSMITTER AND ONE
JAMMER:
We rst consider one transmitter node (node 1) and one jammer node
(node 2) at a single channel access point as shown in Figure 2. Packets
arrive randomly at node 1s queue with rate (packets per time slot) and
they are transmitted over a single channel. Node 2 does not have its own
trafc and jams node 1s transmissions. We assume that each (packet or
jamming signal) transmission consumes one unit of energy. We consider
a synchronous slotted system, in which each packet transmission (or
jamming attempt) takes one time slot. Hence, the jammer cannot wait to
detect the start of a transmission before jamming. Later in Section VI,
we will consider the effects of channel sensing and allow the jammer to
detect any transmission before starting a denial of service attack.
Fig.4.Single Channel Access point With one Transmitter and

one Jammer
263

From the above Fig4.Single channel Access point with one transmitter
and one jammer is used for the prototype model.
6.CONCLUSIONS
We have considered the secure communication in the K user downlink
cellular system. For the secrecy improvement
of the intended user, we develop the joint transmission strategy with the
assistance of CJ based on the framework of power gain region. The
numerical results verify the performance improvement of the proposed
scheme.
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arXiv:1004.4492, Oct.
265

SECURE DATA DISSEMINATION BASED ON MERKLE HASH

TREE FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS
Udatha Hariprasad
K Riyazuddin
M.Tech Student
Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering
Annamacharya Institute of
Technology and Sciences, Rajampet
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics &
Communication Engineering
Technology and Sciences, Rajampet
I. INTRODUCTION
Inside multi-hop Instant sensor sites (WSNs) happen to be

attracting great curiosity about many applications linked to monitoring
in addition to control associated with environmental as well as physical
circumstances, such as industry monitoring and military operations.
After a WSN will be deployed inside field, it can be necessary in order
to update the particular installed applications or stashed parameters
inside sensor nodes. This is achieved simply by dissemination services
which ensure new applications or parameter values for being
propagated during the entire WSN making sure that all nodes use a
consistent duplicate. Normally, a brand new program is on the order
associated with kilobytes though a parameter is simply few bytes
extended. Due to such a vast imbalance between their sizes, the look
considerations in their dissemination protocols will vary.
Code dissemination (also known as data dissemination as well as
reprogramming) protocols are created to correctly distribute extended
messages in to a network, empowering complete system
reprogramming.
On
the
other
hand,
data
breakthrough
and
dissemination protocols are used to deliver short emails, such as several

two-byte configuration parameters, in just a WSN. Common makes use
of this type of protocols incorporate injecting little programs,
266

commands, queries, in addition to configuration details. Recently,

several files discovery in addition to dissemination protocols happen to
be proposed. And this includes, Drip, DIP in addition to DHV are
renowned and included in Tiny OS distributions. However, to the best
of our knowledge, just about all existing files discovery in addition to
dissemination protocols only target reliable files transmission, but
provide no security procedure. Certainly, this is really a critical issue
which should be addressed. In any other case, adversaries might, for
example, distribute viral or phony data in order to cripple a new WSN
deployed inside battlefield.
In this kind of proposed system we initial investigate the
particular security difficulties in files discovery in addition to
dissemination process of WSNs and explain that the possible lack of
authentication on the disseminated files introduces a new vulnerability
for the update associated with arbitrary files in WSNs. We then create a
secure, light and portable, and Denial-of-Assistance (DoS)-resistant
files discovery in addition to dissemination protocol named Se-Drip for
WSNs, that is a secure extension of Spill. To gain DoS-attack resilience
and permit immediate verification of just about any received packets,
Se-Drip is based on a signed Merkle hash sapling. This way the bottom
station of your WSN must sign only the root of this kind of tree.
Furthermore, Se-Drip can easily tolerate the particular compromise
associated with some sensor nodes. For boosting the stability and
effectiveness, some extra mechanisms such as message unique puzzle
tactic are incorporated in the design associated with SeDrip. Most of us
also implement the recommended protocol inside networks associated
with MicaZ in addition to TelosB motes, respectively. Experimental
benefits demonstrate their high efficiency in practice. To the best of our
knowledge, that is also the 1st implemented secure data breakthrough
and dissemination protocol for WSNs.
267

II. PREVIOUS WORK
Among these protocols, Deluge is included in the Tiny OS

distributions. However, since the design of Deluge did not take security
into consideration, there have been several extensions to Deluge to
provide security protection for code dissemination. Among them, Seluge
enjoys both strong security and high efficiency. However, all these code
dissemination protocols are based on the centralized approach which
assumes the existence of a base station and only the base station has
the authority to reprogram sensor nodes. As shown in Figure below,
when the base station wants to disseminate a new code image, it
broadcasts the signed code image and each sensor node only accepts
code images signed by it. Unfortunately, there are WSNs having no
base station at all. Examples of such networks include a military WSN
in a battlefield to monitor enemy activity (e.g., troop movements), a
WSN deployed along an international border to monitor weapons
smuggling or human trafficking, and a WSN situated in a remote area
of a national park monitoring illegal activities (e.g., firearm discharge,
illicit crop cultivation). Having a base station in these WSNs introduces
a single point of failure and a very attractive attack target. Obviously,
the centralized approach is not applicable to such WSNs.
Trust Model
The network owner delegates his/her code dissemination privilege to
the network users who are willing to register. We assume the special
modules (e.g., authentication module for each new program image
proposed in this paper, the user access log module) reside in the boot
loader section of the program flash on each sensor node which cannot
be overwritten by anyone except the network owner. To achieve this
goal, some existing approaches can be employed such as hardwarebased approaches (e.g., security chips) and software based approaches
(e.g., program code analysis).
268

Threat Model We assume that an adversary can launch both outsider

and insider attacks. In outsider attacks, the adversary does not control
any valid nodes in the WSN. The adversary may eavesdrop, copy or
replay the transmitted messages in the WSN. He/she may also inject
false messages or forge non-existing links in the network by launching
a wormhole attack.With insider attacks, the adversary can compromise
some users (or sensor nodes) and then inject forged code dissemination
packets, or exploit specific weakness of the secure protocol
architecture.[1]
Experience with wireless sensor network deployments across
application domains has shown that sensor node tasks typically change
over time, for instance, to vary sensed parameters, node duty cycles, or
support debugging. Such reprogramming is accomplished through
wireless communication using reprogrammable devices. The goal of
network reprogramming is to not only reprogram individual sensors
but to also ensure that all network sensors agree on the task to be
performed. Network reprogramming is typically implemented on top of
data dissemination protocols. For reprogramming, the data can be
configuration parameters, code capsules, or binary images. We will
refer to this data as a code item. A node must detect if there is a
different code item in the network, identify if it is newer, and update its
code with minimal reprogramming cost, in terms of convergence speed
and energy.
Early attempts tried to adapt epidemic algorithms to disseminate
code updates during specific reprogramming periods. But there is no
way for new nodes to discover past updates. If a node is not updated
during the reprogramming period, it will never get updated. To discover
if a node needs an update, a natural approach is to query or advertise
its information periodically.
269

The network as a whole may transmit an excessive and unnecessary

number of query and advertisement messages. To address this problem,
Levis et al developed the Trickle protocol to allow nodes to suppress
unnecessary transmissions. In Trickle, a node periodically broadcasts
its versions but politely keeps quiet and increases the period if it hears
several messages containing the same information as it has. When a
difference is detected, the node resets the period to the lowest preset
interval. Trickle scales well with the number of nodes and has
successfully reduced the number of messages in the network.
Bit-level identification: Previous CCMPs have transmitted the
complete version number for a code item. We observe that it may not
always be necessary to do so. We treat the version number as a bit
array, with the versions of all the code items representing a two
dimensional bit array. DHV uses bit slicing to quickly zero in on the out
of date code segment, resulting in fewer bits transmitted in the
network.
Statelessness: Keeping state in the network, particularly with
mobility, is not scalable. DHV messages do not contain any state and
usually small in size. Preference of a large message over multiple small
messages: To reduce energy consumption, it is better to transmit as
much information possible in a single maximum length message rather
than transmit multiple small messages. Sensor nodes turn off the radio
when they are idle to conserve energy. Radio start-up and turn-off
times (300 microseconds) are much longer than the time used to
transmit one byte (30 microseconds). A long packet may affect the
collision rate and packet loss. However, that effect only becomes
noticeable under bursty data traffic conditions. [3]
This idea seems quite attractive at first. However, it has several
shortcomings. This work points to these shortcomings and proposes
methods to overcome them. Our description is based mostly on TESLA,
270

although the improvements apply to the other schemes as well. We

sketch some of these points:
1. In TESLA the receiver has to buffer packets, until the sender
discloses the corresponding key, and until the receiver authenticates
the packets. This may delay delivering the information to the
application, may cause storage problems, and also generates
vulnerability to denial-of-service (DoS) attacks on the receiver (by
flooding it with bogus packets). We propose a method that allows
receivers to authenticate most packets immediately upon arrival, thus
reducing the need for buffering at the receiver side and in particular
reduces the susceptibility to this type of DoS attacks. This
improvement comes at the price of one extra hash per packet, plus
some buffering at the sender side. We believe that buffering at the
sender side is often more reasonable and acceptable than buffering at
the receiver side. In particular, it is not susceptible to this type of DoS
attacks. We also propose other methods to alleviate this type of DoS
attacks. These methods work even when the receiver buffers packets as
in TESLA.
2. When operating in an environment with heterogenous network
delay times for different receivers, TESLA authenticates each packet
using multiple keys, where the different keys have different disclosure
delay times. This results in larger overhead, both in processing time
and in bandwidth. We propose a method for achieving the same
functionality (i.e., different receivers can authenticate the packets at
different delays) with a more moderate increase in the overhead per
packet.
3. In TESLA the sender needs to perform authenticated time
synchronization individually with each receiver. This may not scale
well, especially in cases where many receivers wish to join the multicast
group and synchronize with the sender at the same time. This is so,
271

since each synchronization involves a costly public-key operation. We

propose a method that uses only a single public-key operation per timeunit, regardless of the number of time synchronizations performed
during this time unit. This reduces the cost of synchronizing with a
receiver to practically the cost of setting up a simple, unauthenticated
connection.
We also explore time synchronization issues in greater depth and
describe direct and indirect time synchronization. For the former
method, the receiver synchronizes its time directly with the sender, in
the latter method both the sender and receiver synchronize their time
with a time synchronization server. For both cases, we give a detailed
analysis on how to choose the key disclosure delay, a crucial parameter
for TESLA.
TESLA assumes that all members have joined the group and have
synchronized with the sender before any transmission starts. In reality,
receivers may wish to join after the transmission has started;
furthermore, receivers may wish to receive the transmission
immediately, and perform the time synchronization only later. We
propose methods that enable both functionalities. That is, our methods
allow a receiver to join in on the fly to an ongoing session; they also
allow receivers to synchronize at a later time and authenticate packets
only then. [4]
III. PROPOSED SYSTEM
A. Initialization
Compared with the traditional approaches, elliptic curve

cryptography (ECC) is a better approach to public-key cryptography in
terms of key size, computational efficiency, and communication
efficiency. However, while ECC is feasible on resource-limited sensor
motes, heavily involving ECC-based authentication is still not practical.
SeDrip combines ECC public key algorithm and Merkle hash tree to
272

avoid frequent public key operations and achieve strong robustness

against various malicious attacks. Also, SeDrip inherits robustness to
packet loss from underlying Trickle algorithm, because Trickle uses
periodic retransmissions to ensure eventual delivery of the message to
every node in the network.
SeDrip consists of three phases: system initialization, packet preprocessing, and packet verification. The system initialization phase is
carried out before network deployment. In this phase, the base station
creates its public and private keys, and loads the public parameters on
each sensor node. Then, before disseminating data, the base station
executes the packet preprocessing phase in which packets and their
corresponding Merkle hash tree are constructed from data items.
Finally, in the packet verification phase, a node verifies each received
packet. If the result is positive, it updates the data according to the
received packet.
In SeDrip, we extend the 3-tuple (key, version, data) of Drip into a 4tuple (round, key, version, data) to represent a data item, where round
refers to which round of data dissemination this data item belongs to
(the higher the round, the newer the data dissemination), and the other
three elements bear the same meaning as existing protocols. Same as
the Drip implementation, key and version are 2 bytes and 4 bytes long,
respectively. For the round field, it can be just as short as 4 bits because
we can allow a wrap around in the number space to take place. This is
possible based on two characteristics of the dissemination process. First,
the configuration of a WSN is not expected to change frequently and
hence the dissemination rate would be low. Second, only a small
amount of data is disseminated in each round, so the time required to
complete one round of dissemination should be very short. As a result,
each sensor node would not experience any ambiguity in determining
which round number is the latest even if there is a wrap around in a
round number.
273

B. Packet Pre-processing Phase
After system initialization, if the base station wants to disseminate n

data items: di = {round, keyi, versioni, datai}, i = 1, 2, . . ., n, it uses
the Merkle hash tree method to construct the packets of the respective
data as follows. Merkle hash tree is a tree of hashes, where the leaves in
the tree are hashes of the authentic packets Pi, i = 1, 2, . . ., n. Here the
hash function is calculated over packet header and data item di(=
{round, keyi, versioni, datai}). Nodes further up in the tree are the
hashes of their respective children. More exactly, the base station
computes ei = H(Pi)(i = 1, 2, 3, 4), and builds a binary tree by
computing internal nodes from adjacent children nodes. Each internal
node of the tree is the hash value of the two children nodes.
Subsequently, the base station constructs n packets based on this
Merkle hash tree. For packet Pi, it consists of the packet header, the
data item di and the values in its authentication path (i.e., the siblings
of the nodes in the path from Pi to the root) in the Merkle hash tree.
C. Packet Verification Phase
Upon receiving a packet (from any one-hop neighboring node or the

base station), each sensor node, say Si, first checks the key field of the
packet: If this is a signature packet P0, node Si runs the following
operations: If this is a new round (i.e., the round included in this packet
is newer than that of its stored < round, root >), node Si uses the
public key PK of the base station to run an ECDSA verify operation to
authenticate the received signature packet. If this verification passes,
node Si accepts the root of the Merkle hash tree and then updates its
stored < round, root > by the corresponding values in packet P0;
otherwise, node Si simply drops the signature packet P0. If node Si has
recently heard an identical signature packet (i.e., the round included in
this packet is same as that of its stored < round, root >), it increases
274

the broadcast interval of this packet through the Trickle algorithm,

thereby limiting energy costs when a network is consistent.
If this is an old round (i.e., the round included in this packet is older
than that of its stored < round, root >. That is, the signature packet
distributed by its one-hop neighboring node is old), node Si broadcasts
its stored signature packet.
IV. RESULTS
The concept of this paper is implemented and different results are

shown below, the proposed paper is implemented in NS 2.34 on a Linux
Fedora 10. The propose papers concepts shows efficient results and has
been efficiently tested on different Datasets. The below figures shows
the real time results compared.
Fig. 1 Packet Delivery Fraction Vs Pause Time
Fig. 2 Packet Delivery Fraction Vs Pause Time
275

Fig. 3 Average End to End Delay Vs Pause Time
Fig. 4 Average End to End Delay Vs Pause Time
Fig. 5 Routing Overhead Vs Pause Time
Fig. 6 Routing Overhead Vs Pause Time
276

V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have now identified the particular security

vulnerabilities throughout data breakthrough and dissemination of
WSNs. We and then developed a lightweight method named Se-Drip to
allow efficient authentication on the disseminated information items by
enjoying efficient Merkle woods algorithm. Se-Drip was designed to
work from the computation, ram and electricity limits of inexpensive
sensor motes. In addition to analyzing the particular security of Se-Drip,
this paper has reported the particular evaluation link between Se-Drip
in the experimental multilevel of resource limited sensor nodes, which
demonstrate that Se-Drip can be efficient as well as feasible used.
References:
1. D. He, C. Chen, S. Chan, and J. Bu, DiCode: DoS-resistant and
distributed code dissemination in wireless sensor networks,
IEEE Trans. Wireless Commun., vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 19461956,
May 2012.
2. K. Lin and P. Levis, Data discovery and dissemination with
DIP, in Proc. 2008 ACM/IEEE IPSN, pp. 433444.
3. T. Dang, N. Bulusu, W. Feng, and S. Park, DHV: a code
consistency maintenance protocol for multi-hop wireless sensor
networks, in Proc. 2009 EWSN, pp. 327342.
4. A. Perrig, R. Canetti, D. Song, and J. Tygar, Effcient and
secure source authentication for multicast, in Proc. 2001 NDSS,
pp. 3546.
5. P. Levis, N. Patel, D. Culler, and S. Shenker, Trickle: a selfregulating algorithm for code maintenance and propagation in
wireless sensor networks, in Proc. 2004 NSDI, pp. 1528.
277

6. S. Hyun, P. Ning, A. Liu, and W. Du, Seluge: secure and

DoSresistant code dissemination in wireless sensor networks,
in Proc. 2008 ACM/IEEE IPSN, pp. 445456.
7. A. Liu and P. Ning, TinyECC: a configurable library for elliptic
curve cryptography in wireless sensor networks, in Proc. 2008
ACM/IEEE IPSN, pp. 245256.
8. J. Lee, K. Kapitanova, and S. Son, The price of security in
wireless sensor networks, Comput. Netw., vol. 54, no. 17, pp.
29672978, Dec. 2010..
278

ENHANCEMENT SCHEME LOW POWER PULSE TRIGGERED

FLIPFLOP WITH CONDITIONAL PULSE
S.Sruthi
P.G Student
SIETK, Tirupati
V.Viswanath
Assistant Professor
Department of E.C.E, SIETK
Tirupat
1. I NTRODUCTION
Flip-ops (FFs) are the basic storage elements used extensively in all
kinds of digital designs. In particular, digital designs nowadays often
adopt intensive pipelining techniques and employ many FF-rich
modules. It is also estimated that the power consumption of the clock
system, which consists of clock distribution networks and storage
elements, is as high as 20%45% of the total system power [1]. Pulsetriggered FF (P-FF) has been considered a popular alternative to the
conventional masterslave-based FF in the applications of high-speed
operations [2][5]. Besides the speed advantage, its circuit simplicity is
also benecial to lowering the power consumption of the clock tree
system. A P-FF consists of a pulse generator for generating strobe
signals and a latch for data storage. Since triggering pulses generated
on the transition edges of the clock signal are very narrow in pulse
width, the latch acts like an edge-triggered FF. The circuit complexity
of a P-FF is simplied since only one latch, as opposed to two used in
conventional masterslave conguration, is needed. P-FFs also allow
time borrowing across clock cycle boundaries and feature a zero or even
negative setup time. P-FFs are thus less sensitive to clock jitter.
Despite these advantages, pulse generation circuitry requires delicate
pulsewidth control in the face of process variation and the conguration
of pulse clock distribution network [4]. Depending on the method of
279

pulse generation, P-FF designs can be classied as implicit or explicit

[6]. In an implicit-type P-FF, the pulse generator is a built-in logic of
the latch design, and no explicit pulse signals are generated. In an
explicit-type P-FF, the designs of pulse generator and latch are
separate. Implicit pulse generation is often considered to be more power
efcient than explicit pulse generation. This is because the former
merely controls the discharging path while the latter needs to
physically generate a pulse train. Implicit-type designs, however, face a
lengthened discharging path in latch design, which leads to inferior
timing characteristics. The situation deteriorates further when lowpower techniques such as conditional capture, conditional precharge,
conditional discharge, or conditional data mapping are applied [7][10].
As a consequence, the transistors of pulse generation logic are often
enlarged to assure that the generated pulses are sufficiently wide to
trigger the data capturing of the latch. Explicit-type P-FF designs face a
similar pulsewidth control issue, but the problem is further complicated
in the presence of a large capacitive load, e.g., when one pulse generator
is shared among several latches. In this paper, we will present a novel
low-power implicit-type P-FF design featuring a conditional pulseenhancement scheme. Three additional transistors are employed to
support this feature. In spite of a slight increase in total transistor
count, transistors of the pulse generation logic benet from signicant
size reductions and the overall layout area is even slightly reduced.
This gives rise to competitive power and power-delay product
performances against other P-FF designs.
280

Fig :Conventional Pulse-Triggered FF designs (a) ip-DCO (b)

MHLLF (c) SCCER
2. PROPOSED IMPLICIT-TYPE P-FF DESIGN WITH PULSE
CONTROL SCHEME
A. Conventional Implicit-Type P-FF Designs
Some conventional implicit-type P-FF designs, which are used as the
reference designs in later performance comparisons, are rst reviewed.
A state-of-the-art P-FF design, named ip-DCO, is given in Fig. 1(a) [6].
It contains an AND logic-based pulse generator and a semi-dynamic
structured latch design. Inverters I5 and I6 are used to latch data and
inverters I7 and I8 are used to hold the internal node . The pulse
generator takes complementary and delay skewed clock signals to
generate a transparent window equal in size to the delay by inverters
I1-I3. Two practical problems exist in this design. First, during the
rising edge, nMOS transistors N2 and N3 are turned on. If data
remains high, node will be discharged on every rising edge of the clock.
This leads to a large switching power. The other problem is that node
controls two larger MOS transistors (P2 and N5). The large capacitive
load to node causes speed and power performance degradation. Fig. 1(b)
shows an improved P-FF design, named MHLLF, by employing a static
latch structure presented in [11]. Node
is no longer precharged
periodically by the clock signal. A weak pull-up transistor P1 controlled
281

by the FF output signal Q is used to maintain the node level at high

when Q is zero. This design eliminates the unnecessary discharging
problem at node . However, it encounters a longer Data-to-Q (D-to-Q)
delay during 0 to 1 transitions because node is not pre-discharged.
Larger transistors N3 and N4 are required to enhance the discharging
capability. Another drawback of this design is that node becomes
oating when output Q and input Data both equal to 1. Extra DC
power emerges if node X is drifted from an intact 1. Fig. 1(c) shows a
rened low power P-FF design named SCCER using a conditional
discharged technique [9], [12]. In this design, the keeper logic (back-toback inverters I7 and I8 in Fig. 1(a)) is replaced by a weak pull up
transistor P1 in conjunction with an inverter I2 to reduce the load
capacitance of node
[12]. The discharge path contains nMOS
transistors N2 and N1 connected in series. In order to eliminate
superuous switching at node, an extra nMOS transistor N3 is
employed. Since N3 is controlled by Q_fdbk, no discharge occurs if
input data remains high. The worst case timing of this design occurs
when input data is 1 and node
is discharged through four
transistors in series, i.e., N1 through N4, while combating with the pull
up transistor P1. A powerful pull-down circuitry is thus needed to
ensure node discharge path contains nMOS transistors N2 and N1
connected in series. In order to eliminate superuous switching at node
, an extra nMOS transistor N3 is employed. Since N3 is controlled by
Q_fdbk, no discharge occurs if input data remains high. The worst case
timing of this design occurs when input data is 1 and node is
discharged through four transistors in series, i.e., N1 through N4, while
combating with the pull up transistor P1. A powerful pull-down
circuitry is thus needed to ensure node can be properly discharged. This
implies wider N1 and N2 transistors and a longer delay from the delay
inverter I1 to widen the discharge pulse width.
282

B. Proposed P-FF Design

The proposed design, as shown in Fig. 2, adopts two measures to
overcome the problems associated with existing P-FF designs. The rst
one is reducing the number of nMOS transistors stacked in the
discharging path. The second one is supporting a mechanism to
conditionally enhance the pull down strength when input data is 1.
Refer to Fig. 2, the upper part latch design is similar to the one
employed in SCCER design [12]. As opposed to the transistor stacking
design in Fig. 1(a) and (c), transistor N2 is removed from the
discharging path. Transistor N2, in conjunction with an additional
transistor N3, forms a two-input pass transistor logic (PTL)-based AND
gate [13], [14] to control the discharge of transistor N1. Since the two
inputs to the AND logic are mostly complementary (except during the
transition edges of the clock), the output node is kept at zero most of
the time. When both input signals equal to 0 (during the falling edges
of the clock), temporary oating at node is basically harmless. At the
rising edges of the clock, both transistors N2 and N3 are turned on and
collaborate to pass a weak logic high to node , which then turns on
transistor N1 by a time span dened by the delay inverter I1. The
switching power at node can be reduced due to a diminished voltage
swing. Unlike the MHLLF design [11], where the discharge control
signal is driven by a single transistor, parallel conduction of two nMOS
transistors (N2 and N3) speeds up the
283

Fig : Schematic of the proposed PFF design

operations of the pulse generation. With this designmeasure, the
number of stacked transistors along the discharging path is reduced
and the sizes of transistors N1-N5 can be reduced also. In this design,
the longest discharging path is formed when input data is 1 while the
Qbar output is 1. To enhance the discharging under this condition,
transistor P3 is added. Transistor P3 is normally turned off because
node is pulled high most of the time. It steps in when node is
discharged to mod(Vtp) below the VDD. This provides additional boost to
node Z(from VDD VTH to VDD). The generated pulse is taller, which
enhances the pull-down strength of transistor N1. After the rising edge
of the clock, the delay inverter I1 drives node Z back to zero through
transistor N3 to shut down the discharging path. The voltage level of
Node
rises and turns off transistor P3 eventually. With
theinterventionofP3,the width of the generated discharging pulse is
stretched out. This means to create a pulse with sufcient width for
correct data capturing, a bulky delay inverter design, which constitutes
most of the power consumption in pulse generation logic, is no longer
needed. It should be noted that this conditional pulse enhancement
284

technique takes effects only when the FF output is subject to a data

change from 0 to 1. The leads to a better power performance than those
schemes using an indiscriminate pulsewidth enhancement approach.
Another benet of this conditional pulse enhancement scheme is the
reduction in leakage power due to shrunken transistors in the critical
discharging path and in the delay inverter.
3. SIMULATION RESULTS
To demonstrate the superiority of the proposed design, postlayout
simulations on various P-FF designs were conducted to obtain their
Performance gures. These designs include the three P-FF designs
shown in Fig. 1 (ip-DCO [6], MHLLF [11], SCCER [12]), another P-FF
design called conditional capture FF (CCFF) [7], and two other nonpulse-triggered FF designs, i.e., a sense-amplier-based FF (SAFF) [2],
and a conventional transmission gate-based FF (TGFF). The target
technology is the UMC 90-nm CMOS process. The operating condition
used in simulations is 500 MHz/1.0 V. Since pulsewidth design is
crucial to the correctness of data capturing as well as the power
consumption, the pulse generator logic in all designs are rst sized to
function properly across process variation. All designs are further
optimized subject to the tradeoff between power and D-to-Q delay, i.e.,
minimizing the product of the two terms. Fig. 3 shows the simulation
setup model. To mimic the signal rise and fall time delays, input signals
are generated through buffers. Considering the loading effect of the FF
to the previous stage and the clock tree, the power consumptions of the
clock and data buffers are also included. The output of the FF is loaded
with a 20-fF capacitor. An extra capacitance of 3fF is also placed after
the clock buffer. To illustrate the merits of the presented work, Fig. 4
shows the simulation waveforms of the proposed P-FF design against
the MHLLF design.
285

Fig: Simulation Setup model

In the proposed design, pulses of node
are generated on every rising
edge of the clock. Due to the extra voltage boost from transistor P3,
pulses generated to capture input data 1 are signicantly enhanced in
their heights and widths compared with the pulses generated for
capturing data 0 (0.84 V versus 0.65 V in height and 141ps versus 84
ps in width). In the MHLL design, there is no such differentiation in
their pulse generation. In addition, no signal degradation occurs in the
internal node of the proposed design. In contrast, the internal node in
MHLLF in MHLLF design is degraded when Q equals to 0 and data
equals to 1. Node Q thus deviates slightly from an intact value 0
and causes a DC power consumption at the output stage. From Fig. 4,
the height of its pulses at node Z is around 0.68 V. Furthermore, node
is oating when clock equals 0 and its value drifts gradually. To
elaborate the power consumption behavior of these FF designs, ve test
patterns, each exhibiting a different data switching probability, are
applied. Five of them are deterministic patterns with 0% (all-zero or allone), 25%, 50%, and 100% data transition probabilities, respectively.
The power consumption results are summarized in Table I.
286

287

Due to a shorter discharging path and the employment of a conditional

pulse enhancement scheme, the power consumption of the proposed
design is the lowest in all test patterns. Take the test pattern with 50%
data transition probability as an example, the power saving of proposed
design ranges from 38.4% (against the ip-DCO design) to 5.6%
(against the TGFF design). This savings is even more pronounced when
operating at lower data switching activities, where the power
consumption of pulse generation circuitry dominates. Because of a
redundant switching power consumption problem at an internal node,
the ip-DCO design has the largest power consumption when data
switching activity is 0% (all 1). Fig. 5 shows the curves of power-delayproduct (delay from D to Q ) versus setup time (for 50% data switching
activity). The values of the proposed design are the smallest in all
designs when the setup times are greater than 60 ps. Its minimum
value occurs when the setup time is
to delay is 116.9ps.
53.9ps and the corresponding
The CCFF design is ranked in the second place in this evaluation with
its optimal setup time as 67ps. The setup time of the conventional
TGFF design is always positive and has the smallest PDPDQ
performance of each design under different data switching activities.
The proposed design takes the lead in all types of data switching
activity. The SCCER and the CCFF designs almost tie in the second
place. Fig. 6(b) shows the PDPDQ performance of these designs at
different process corners under the condition of 50% data switching
activity. The performance edge of the proposed design is maintained as
well. Notably, the MHLLF design has the worst PDPDQ performance
especially at the performance especially at the SS process corner due to
a large
D-to-Q delay and the poor driving capability of its pulse
generation circuit.
288

Table I also summarizes some important performance indexes of these

P-FF designs. These include transistor count, layout area, setup time,
hold time, min D-to-Q delay, optimal PDP, and the clock tree power.
Although the transistor count of the proposed design is not the lowest
one, its actual layout area is the smaller than all but the TGFF design.
The MHLLF design exhibits the largest layout area because of an
oversized pulse generation circuit. Following the measurement methods
in [15], curves of -to- delay versus setup time and -to- delay versus
hold time are simulated rst. Setup time is dened as the point in the
curve where D-to-Q delay is the minimum. Hold time is measured at
the point where the slope of the curve equals 1. The proposed design
features the shortest minimum D-to-Q delay. Its hold time is longer
than other designs because the transistor (P3) for the pulse
enhancement requires a prolonged availability of data input. The power
drawn from the clock tree is calculated to evaluate the impact of FF
loading on the clock jitter. Although the proposed FF design requires
clock signal connected to the drain of transistor N2, the drawn current
is not signicant. Due to complementary switching behavior of N2 and
N3, there exists no signal path from the entry of the clock signal to
either The clock tree is only liable for charging/discharging node Z. The
optimal PDP value of the proposed design is also signicantly better
than other designs. The simulation results show that the clock tree
power of the proposed design is close to those of the two leading designs
(MHLFF and CCFF) and outperforms ip-DCO, SCCER, TGFF, and
SAFF, where clock signals connected to gates of the transistors only.
The setup time is measured as the point where the minimum PDP
value occurs. The setup times of these designs vary from 67 to 47 ps.
Note that although the optimal setup time of the proposed design is
53.9ps, its PDP value is lowest in all designs for any setup time greater
than 60ps. The D-to-Q delay and the hold time are calculated subject
to the optimal setup time. The D-to-Q delay of the proposed design is
second to the SCCER design only and outperforms the conventional
289

TGFF design by a margin of 44.7%. The hold time requirement seems

to be slightly larger due to a negative setup time. This number reduces
as the setup time moves toward a positive value. Table II gives the
leakage power consumption comparison of these FF designs in a
standby mode (clock signal is gated). For a fair comparison, we assume
the output Q as 0 when input data is 1 to exclude the extra power
consumption coming from the discharging of the internal node. For
different clock and input data combinations, the proposed design enjoys
the minimum leakage power consumption, which is mainly attributed
to the reduction in the transistor sizes along the discharging path. The
SAFF design experiences the worst leakage power consumption when
clock equals 0 because its two precharge pMOS transistors are always
turned on. Compared to the conventional TGFF design, the average
leakage power is reduced by a factor of 3.52. Finally, to show the
robustness of the proposed design against the process variations, Table
III compiles the changes in the width and the height of the generated
discharge pulses under different process corners. Although signicant
uctuations in pulsewidth and height are observed, the unique
conditional pulse-enhancement scheme works well in all cases.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, we devise a novel low-power pulse-triggered FF design by
employing two new design measures. The rst one successfully reduces
the number of transistors stacked along the discharging path by
incorporating a PTL-based AND logic. The second one supports
conditional enhancement to the height and width of the discharging
pulse so that the size of the transistors in the pulse generation circuit
can be kept minimum. Simulation results indicate that the proposed
design excels rival designs in performance indexes such as power,
D-
to-Q delay, and PDP. Coupled with these design merits is a longer holdtime requirement inherent in pulse-triggered FF designs. However,
hold-time violations are much easier to x in circuit design compared
290

with the failures in speed or power.

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292

SIGNIFICANCE OF STATOR WINDING INSULATION

SYSTEMS OF LOW-VOLTAGE INDUCTION MACHINES
AIMING ON TURN INSULATION PROBLEMS :
TESTING AND MONITORING
A. Deeti Sreekanth
Fellow, IEEE
INTRODUCTION
Turn insulation failures are seen in the stator coils as melted copper
conductors and hole in the main insulation due to earth fault.
Induction motors have been widely used in many industrial
applications, because of simplicity of control[1]. Owners of electrical
machines expect a high reliability and a long lifetime of its equipment.
This can only be achieved by a consistent quality assurance throughout
the whole product life cycle on both, the product- and process level[2].
The process level includes research and development, continuous
design improvement, quality control during production/commissioning
and online/off line testing in service. In the beginning, natural products
such as silk, wool, cellulose and flax together with natural varnishes
and petroleum derivatives were used for insulation. Due to
optimization, these materials were displaced or materials like asbestos,
quartz or other minerals have been added. The main reasons of
winding insulation deterioration as described in [2] and [3] are thermal,
electrical, mechanical, or environmental stress. Moreover, the class of
insulation and the application of the motor have a strong influence on
the condition and aging of the insulation system. Many approaches
have been proposed to detect the faults and even the early deterioration
of the primary insulation system (phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase)
and the secondary insulation system (turn toturn). The testing and
293

monitoring methods can be generally divided into two different

categories. The first one is offline testing [2], [4], [11][26], which
requires the motor to be removed from service, while the second one is
online monitoring [2], [7], [27][35], which can be performed while the
machine is operating. An important aspect of each method is whether it
is invasive or noninvasive to the machines normal operation.
Nonintrusive methods are always preferred because they only use
voltage and current measurements from the motor terminals and do
not require additional sensors. Most of the insulation system faults are
caused by the deterioration and failure of the turn-to-turn insulation
[4], [5]. Therefore, the monitoring of the turn-to-turn insulations
condition is of special interest. For this reason, the main focus of this
surveyin contrast to other surveys related to motor diagnostics [8]
[9]is on methods that can be used to detect faults or deterioration in
the turn-to-turn insulation of low-voltage machines. Some popular
methods related to medium- and high-voltage machines are also briefly
mentioned. The recent technology advances in sensors, integrated
circuits, digital signal processing, and communications enabled
engineers to develop more advanced methods to test and monitor the
conditions of the machine [4]. The most common methods to test and
monitor the ground-wall and phase-to-phase insulation are also
included in this survey. First, the insulationfailure mechanisms are
analyzed briefly. Then, several offline tests are introduced. Finally, a
general approach of developing online methods is discussed, and
conclusions are drawn considering the need for future development in
this area.
II. STATOR FAULTS AND THEIR ROOT CAUSE
As mentioned earlier, the main cause for stator failures can be divided
into four groups [2], [3] thermal, electrical, mechanical, and
environmental stress. Before describing the different causes for the
294

breakdown of the insulation system, a brief overview over the possible

nature of the fault and a way to analyze it is given.
A.Analysis and Nature of the Stator Insulation Failure:
Analyzing the mode and pattern of the fault helps to find its cause. As
there are different failure modes and patterns associated with stator
insulation failures [10]. The most severe failure mode is a phase-toground fault. Other mode are turn-to-turn, coil-to-coil, phase-to-phase
short-circuits, or an open-circuit of the stator windings. Those faults
can occur in a single phase, can be symmetrical, nonsymmetrical with
grounding, or nonsymmetrical excluding grounding. A great percentage
of the insulation failures start with a turn-to-turn insulation problem
and subsequently develop into more severe insulation faults. In a turnto-turn fault, two or more turns of a coil are short-circuited.
The current in the shorted turns will be considerably higher than the
operating current and therefore increases the windings temperature to
a level where severe damage or even the cessation of the insulation is
the result.
One of the faults developing from a turn-to-turn fault might be a coilto-coil short circuit, where coils from the same phase get shorted, or a
phase-to-phase short circuit, where two or more of the different phases
get shorted. These faults again can develop into phase-to-ground faults,
which can cause large damage to the motor. A different kind of fault is
the open-circuit of a stator winding. As the short-circuit faults, the
open-circuit introduces a strong asymmetry and, thus, malfunction of
the motor. Compared to the short-circuit faults, this kind of fault rarely
occurs. Aside from analyzing the mode and pattern of the failure, the
examination of the appearance of the motor is helpful to identify the
cause of the fault. This includes aspects like the cleanness of the motor,
signs of moisture, minor inspection, moderate and major inspections ,
and the condition of the rotor. The operating conditions under which
295

the motor fails, as well as the general operating conditions, should also
be taken into consideration. Furthermore, the maintenance history can
be consulted to determine the problems that lead to failure.
Considering all these aspects, a method can be developed in order to
analyze and classify insulation failures [10].
B. Root Causes for the Failures of the Stator Insulation System:
Aging Mechanisms: Insulation in service is exposed to high
temperature, high voltage, vibration, and other mechanical forces as
well as some unfavorable environmental conditions. These various
factors act together and individually to wear out or age the insulation.
1) Thermal Stress: One of the thermal stresses insulation is subject to
is the thermal aging process. An increase in temperature accelerates
the aging process and thus reduces the lifetime of the insulation
significantly. Under normal operating conditions, the aging process
itself does not cause a failure but makes the insulation more susceptible
to other stresses, which then produce the actual failure. In order to
ensure a longer lifetime and reduce the temperature. influence of the
aging process, one can either work at low operating temperatures or
use an insulation of higher quality, i.e., use a higher insulation class.
Another thermal stress that has a negative effect on the insulation
lifetime is thermal overloading, which occurs due to voltage variations,
unbalanced phase voltages, cycling, overloading, obstructed ventilation,
or ambient temperature. For example, even a small increase in the
voltage unbalance has an enormous effect on the winding temperature.
It should be ensured that the flow of air through the motor is not
obstructed since the heat cannot be dissipated otherwise and that the
winding temperature will increase. If this is not possible, however, this
should be taken into account by upgrading the insulation system or
restricting the winding.
296

Thermal Aging: Thermal cycling, especially with respect to the main

field windings of peaking units, can lead to significant
physical
deformation of the associated coils.

In this thermal aging insulation are catalouged
categories as core
Core Insulation:
insulation
and
in to two different
stator/rotor
insulation.
Inadequate cooling, General over- heating ,Localized over- Heating,

Burnout at High Temperature
Stator/Rotor Insulation:
Continous High Temp, Differntial Expansion, Thermal Cycling, Girth
Cracking, Scarf- Joint, Loosening of End winding, Loosening of coils in
slots.
2) Electrical Stress: There are different reasons why electrical stresses

lead to failure of the stator insulation. These can usually be broken
down into problems with the dielectric material, the phenomena of
tracking and corona and the transient voltages, that a machine is
exposed to the type of dielectric material that is used for phase-toground, phase-to-phase, and turn-to-turn insulation, as well as the
297

voltage stresses applied to the insulating materials, influences the

lifetime of the insulation significantly. Thus, the materials for the
insulation have to be chosen adequately in order to assure flawless
operation and desired design life.
Tracking and corona are phenomena that only occur at operating
voltages above 600 V and 5 kV, respectively. The negative influence of
transient voltage conditions on the winding life has been observed in
recent years. These transients, which either cause depreciation of the
insulation or even turn-toturn or turn-to-ground failures, can be
caused by line-to-line, line-to-ground, or multiphase line-to-ground
faults in the supply; repetitive restriking; current limiting fuses; rapid
bus transfer; opening and closing of the circuit breakers; capacitor
switching(power factor improvement); insulation failure in the power
system; or lightning strike. Variable frequency drives are subject to
permanent voltage transients. In particular, during the starting and
stopping process, high-voltage transients can occur.
Electrical Aging: Loose stator winding will vibrate within the stator
slots. Fretting against the stator
core iron, corona suppression
materials will abrade, increasing PD activity.
298

Core Insulation: Under-Excitation, Over Excitation, Manfacturing

Defects, Ground Fault in core slots.
Stator Insulation: Electrical Discharges, Surface Tracking, Moisture
Absorption, System Surge voltages, Unbalanced Supply Voltages
Rotor Insulation:
Transient Over-Voltages , Static Excitation
Transients , Surface Tracking , Moisture Absorption.

3) Mechanical Stress: The main causes for insulation failure due to
mechanical stresses are coil movement and strikes from the rotor. The
force on the winding coils is proportional to the square of the motor
current and reaches its maximum value during the startup of the
motor. This force causes the coils to move and vibrate. The movement
of the coils again can cause severe damage to the coil insulation or the
conductor. There are different reasons that will cause the rotor to
strike the stator. The most common are bearing failures, shaft
deflection, and rotor-to-stator misalignment. Sometimes, the contact is
only made during the start, but it can also happen that there will be a
contact made at full speed of the motor. Both contacts can result in a
grounded coil.There are other mechanical stresses, which the windings
are exposed to, like loose rotor balancing weights, loose rotor fan
blades, loose nuts or bolts striking the motor, or foreign particles that
enter the motor.
Mechanical Aging:
Core Insulation: Core Looseness & Fretting , Back Iron Over-Heating
Stator Insulation:120 Hz Bar vibration Forces, Electromagnetic
Forces on End windings, Abrasive Materials.
Rotor Insulation: Centrifugal Forces , Abrasive materials, Operation
on Turning Gear.
4) Environmental Stress: Stresses stemming from contamination, high
humidity, aggressive chemicals, radiation in nuclear plants, or the salt
level in seashore applications can be categorized as environmental or
299

ambient stress [2]. For example, the presence of foreign material by

contamination can lead to reduction in the heat dissipation, increasing
the thermal deterioration. A thin layer of conducting material on the
surface of the insulation is another possible result of contamination.
Surface currents and electrical tracking can occur due to this layer
applying additional electrical stress. Aggressive chemicals can degrade
the insulation and make it more vulnerable to mechanical stresses. If
possible, the motor should be kept clean and dry internally, as well as
externally, to avoid the influence of moisture, chemicals, and foreign
particles on the insulation condition. Radiation is a stress that only
occurs in nuclear power plants or nuclear-powered ships. The aging
process is comparable to thermal aging.
Environmental Aging: Oil is both a solvent as well as a lubricant.

Internal oil contamination can breakdown insulation, and loosen the
frictional-force blocks, ties, and packing throughout a generator.
Environmental Aging:
Core Insulation: Water Absorption., Chemical contamination.
Stator/Rotor Insulation: Water Absorption., Chemical
Contamination.
300

III. OFFLINE TESTING

The condition of the stator winding is critical for the overall motor
wellness. To ensure the perfect operation of a motor system, various
offline tests can be executed. These tests allow the user to assess the
condition of the motor under test. Offline methods are normally more
direct and accurate. The user does not need to be an expert of motor
drives to perform the tests. However, most of these tests can only be
applied to motors that are disconnected from service i.e, offline tests
are done during a shutdown . This is one of the main drawbacks
compared to the online-monitoring methods. An advantage to online
monitoring is that meaningful tests can be performed after production
of the motor and that a test device can be used for several different
machines, which saves costs. The offline tests are summarized in Table
I, [2], [4], [11][16]. Evaluating the table, it becomes obvious that there
are not many offline techniques available to diagnose insulation are
the surge test and the offline partial discharge (PD) test. Since the PD
test is not applicable to low-voltage machines, it is not further described
here. Common methods used to test the phase-to-ground insulation [2],
[11][13] are the insulation resistance (IR) test, the polarization index
test, the dc and ac high potential test, and the dissipation factor test.
Recently, a new method was developed to apply some of those offline
tests (IR, dissipation factor, and capacitance tests) to inverter-fed
machines while they are not operating [14], [15]. Since the tests can be
conducted on a frequent basis without using additional equipment,
ground-wall insulation problems can be diagnosed at an early stage.
A. Surge Tests
If the turn insulation fails in a form-wound stator winding, the motor
will likely fail in a few minutes. About 80% of all electrical failures in
the stator originate from a weak turn-to-turn insulation [5].Thus the
turn insulation is critical to the life of a motor. By applying a high
301

voltage between the turns, the surge test is able to overcome this
limitation and thus this test is an overvoltage test for the turn
insulation, and may fail the insulation, requiring by passing of the
failed coil, replacement or rewind . Low voltage tests on form-wound
stators, such as inductance or inductive impedance tests, can detect if
the turn insulation is shorted, but not if it is weakened. Only the surge
voltage test is able to directly find stator windings with deteriorated
turn insulation. The test is valid for any random wound or multi-turn
form wound stator, and the test method for form wound stators is
described in IEEE 522.
The surge test duplicates the voltage surge created by switching on the
motor. The surge test is a destructive go-no go test. If the turn
insulation fails, then the assumption is that the stator would have
failed in service due to motor switch-on, PWM inverter voltage surges
or transients caused by power system faults. If the winding does not
puncture, then the assumption is that the turn insulation will survive
any likely surge occurring in service over the next few years.
The first generation of surge test sets was called surge comparison
testers. They consisted of two energy storage capacitors, which were
connected to two phases. The waveform from each phase is monitored
on an analog oscilloscope. The assumption is that the waveform is
identical for the two phases. As the voltage is increased, if one of the
waveforms changes (increases in frequency) then turn to turn puncture
occurred in the phase that changed. This approach has lost favor now
since it is possible for two phases to have slightly different inductances
due to different circuit ring bus lengths, mid-winding equalizer
connections or even due to rotor position (since it affects the
permeability). Modern surge testers use a digitizer to capture the surge
voltage waveform on a phase, as the voltage is gradually raised. Digital
analysis then provides an alarm when the waveform changes at a high
voltage, due to a turn fault [6]. The test voltages are described in IEEE
302

522.
There have been a lot of controversies about the risk of surge testing
[21][23]. A comprehensive study about this issue disproves the
statement that surge testing significantly reduces the lifetime of a
machine [45], [46]. The effect of the surge rise time is also a topic that
has been widely discussed [24]
B. Signature Analysis After Switch-Off
A technique that uses motor, the signature analysis of the terminal
voltage immediately after switch-off to diagnose turn faults, is
introduced in [15]. The advantage, compared to online techniques using
current signature analysis, is that the voltage unbalance of the source
does not influence the result since the supply is off. The faulty machine
model used for simulation is also included in the paper.
IV. ONLINE MONITORING
On-line monitoring performed during normal operation of the motor
.Various monitoring methods have been developed using different
physical quantities to detect the health condition of the stator
insulation system [2], [3]. These methods utilize different motor
parameters like magnetic flux, temperature, stator current, or input
power for the monitoring purpose. The induction motor model with a
turn-to-turn fault, introduced in [36][40], is required for some of the
methods. Online condition monitoring is usually preferred in the
applications, which have a continuous process, such as petro/chem,
water treatment, material handling, etc. The major advantage is that
the machine does not have to be taken out of service. As a result, the
health condition while the motor is operating can be assessed.
Predictive maintenance is made easier because the machine is under
constant monitoring, an incipient failure can immediately be detected,
and actions can be scheduled to avoid more severe process downtime.
303

Method
Reference
Insulation
Resistance
(IR)/
Mega ohm
[2]
[11]-[15]
Winding
resistance/DC
conductivity
Test
Polarization
index (PI)
[2], [8], [11]
(DC HIPOT)
DC High
potential test
[6]
[11]-[13]
(AC HIPOT)
AC High
potential
Test
[2]
[12],[13]
[2]
[11]-[13]
Growler
SurgeTest
[2],[4],[11]
[16]
Signature
Analysis of
Terminal
voltage after
switch-off
Partial
Discharge
[16]
Dissipation
factor
[2],[1]
[2],[14],[15]
Insulation
tested &
Diagnostic
value
Finds
contamination
and defects in
phase-to-ground
insulation.
Detects shorted
turns, no
predictive value
Positive Features
Negative
Features
Easy to perform,
applicable to all
windings except for
rotor of a squirrel
cage IM
Easy to perform
Results in strong
temperature
dependent
Finds
contamination
and defects in
phase to-ground
insulation
Finds
contamination
and defects in
phase to-ground
insulation
Easy to perform,
Less sensitive to
temperature than
IR-test
----
Easy to perform, if
test doesnt fail the
insulation is likely
to work flawlessly
until the next
maintenance
periodmore
predictive character
than PI and IR
More effective than
DC Highpot
In case of failure,
repair is required
( destructive )
Applicable to both
low voltage and
High voltage
machines
It is only a offline
test that measures
the integrity of the
turn insulation
Signature analysis
without influence of
supply voltage
unbalance
Specifically applied
to armature and
rotors
Good practical
results
Not applicable to
low voltage
machines,
difficulty in
interpretation of
the data.
Measurements on a
regular basis
Finds
contamination
and defects in
phase to-ground
insulation
Detects shorted
coils, no
predictive value
Detects
worsening of the
turn-to-turn
insulation.
Detects turn to
turn insulation
Detects
deterioration of
the
turn-toturn and phaseto-ground
insulation
Detects
deterioration of
304
Able to determine
the cause of
Only detects faults.
Not as so easy to
perform like DC
Highpot.
Test can be
destructive
Test can only be

conducted directly
after swith-off.

Inductive
Impedance
[2]
the
phase-toground and
phase-to-phase
insulation
Detects shorted
turns, no
predictive value
deterioration
required in order
to trend the data
over time.
----
Not as easy to
perform as the
winding Resistance
Test
TABLE I
DIFFERENT METHODS TO TEST THE STATOR INSULATION SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
A disadvantage is that the online-monitoring techniques often require

the installation of additional equipment, which has to be installed on
every machine. Compared to the offline tests, it is more difficult or even
impossible to detect some failure processes [6]. However, many
sensorless and nonintrusive methods have been recently developed
using the electrical signatures, e.g., current and voltage, such that the
monitoring algorithm can reside in the motor control center or even
inside of motor control devices, such as the drives [58]. Therefore, the
online monitoring can become nonintrusive without the need of
additional sensors and installations. The online-monitoring techniques
described in the survey are summarized in Table II [27][35].
A. HF Impedance/Turn-to-Turn Capacitance
A nonintrusive condition monitoring system using the highfrequency
(HF) response of the motor is introduced in [34]. It is able to observe
the aging and, thus, the deterioration of the turn-to-turn insulation by
detecting small changes in the stator windings turn-to-turn
capacitance. It is shown that the turn-to-turn capacitance of the stator
winding and, thus, its impedance spectrum are changing under the
influence of different aging processes. Since it is not possible to use an
impedance analyzer for the purpose of an online test, it is suggested to
inject a small HF signal into the stator winding. Its frequency has to be
close to the series resonance frequency of the system. The flux of the
305

machine caused by the injected HF signal can be measured by a

magnetic probe in the vicinity of the machine. The change in the phase
lag between the injected signal and the measured flux will be used as an
indicator of a change in the resonance frequency and, thus, in the turnto-turn capacitance, which is caused by the deterioration of the
insulation. If there is some prior knowledge or data of the system
available, it can even be deduced how likely a failure of the insulation
system is in the near future. A similar technique is introduced in two
different patents [35], [36]. Two different methods to determine the
insulation condition and how close it is to failure are listed. The first
one requires the comparison of the impedance response to a response
that is recorded after the fabrication of the motor, which can be called
its birth certificate. Another method is to calculate the power that is
dissipated in the insulation by either measuring current or voltage
across the winding and using the broadband impedance response. This
power is then compared to a target value which can be determined by
historical data from similar motors.
In contrast to the claim in [34], the use of an impedance meter is
suggested in [35]. However, in [36], the measurement of the broadband
impedance is accomplished by measuring voltage and current at the
machines terminals and by using Ohms law.
B. Sequence Components
Several methods based on the sequence components of the machines
impedance, currents, or voltages have been developed for the online
detection of turn-to-turn faults in the stator insulation system [34].
One of the drawbacks of the methods utilizing sequence components is
that only a fault, but not the change of the overall condition and thus
the deterioration of the insulation system, is monitored.
1) Negative-Sequence Current: The monitoring of the negative
sequence current for fault detection is the subject of many papers
306

[31],[34]. If there is an asymmetry introduced by a turn-to-turn fault,

the negative-sequence current will change and can thus be used as an
indicator for a fault.
Method
Reference
Insulation
tested &
Diagnostic
value
Detects turn-toturn faults
Negative
sequence
current
[31],[34]
Sequence
Impedance
Matrix
[51]-[52]
Zero sequence
Voltage
[49]
Pendulous
oscillation
phenomenon
Airgap Flux
signature,
Axial leakage
Flux
Current
signature
analysis
Vibration
signature
analysis
[50]
[54]
[55]-[56]
[57]-[58]
Positive Features
Negative
Features
Non-invasive,
methods available to
take non-idealities
in to account
Non-invasive,
take non-idealities
in to account
Non-invasive,
take non-idealities
in to account
Non-idealities that
complicate fault
detection
Non-invasive, able to
compensate for nonidealities.
Non-idealities that
complicate fault
detection, neutral
of the machine has
to be accessible
---Invasive, results
strongly depend on
the load.
Non-invasive,
interpretation of
results subjective.
----
Online partial
discharge
[7],[41]-[48]
Good practical
results
Ozone
[6]
By-product of PD
High
Frequency
Impedance
[34]-[36]
Detects
deterioration of
the turn-to-turn
insulation
Capable of
monitoring the
deterioration of
turn-to-turn
insulation.
307
Non-idealities that
complicate fault
detection
Further research
advised to
generalize results.
Non-invasive,
Further research
advised to
generalize results.
Difficulty in
interpretation of
the data, not
applicable to low
voltage machines,
additional
equipment
required.
Invasive (gas
analysis tube or
electronic
instrument).
Invasive (search
coil), not tested
widely yet.

Temperature
monitoring
[6],[24],[27][35]
Detects
deterioration in
phase-to-ground
and faults in
turn-to-turn
insulation
Non-invasive,
capable of
determining the
cause of
deterioration.
Leakage
currents
[32],[33]
Non-invasive,
capable of
determining the
cause of
deterioration.
Condition
Monitors and
Tagging
compounds
[6],[24]
Detects
deterioration in
phase-to-ground
and phase-tophase insulation
Detects faults
and problems
with phase-toground and
turn-to-turn
insulation
----
Invasive if sensors
are required, a lot
of data and
additional
information like
ambient
temperature
required.
----
Invasive
(equipment for
detection of
particles required
and chemicals have
to be applied to
machine)
TABLE II
DIFFERENT METHODS TO TEST THE STATOR INSULATION SYSTEM OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
The major problem with this method is that not only a turn-to-turn
fault contributes to the negative-sequence component of the current
but also supply voltage imbalances, motor and load inherent
asymmetries, and measurement errors have an effect on this quantity.
The methods suggested in [35] account for those nonidealities by using
the negative-sequence voltage and impedance and a database. Another
way to consider the nonidealities is the use of artificial neural networks
(ANNs). A method to determine the negative-sequence current due to a
turn fault with the help of those ANNs is proposed in [40]. The neural
network is trained offline over the entire range of operating conditions.
Thus, the ANN learns to estimate the negative-sequence current of the
healthy machine considering all sources of asymmetry except for the
asymmetry due to a turn fault. During the monitoring process, the
ANN estimates the negative-sequence current based on the training
under healthy condition. This value is compared to the measured
negative-sequence current.
308

The deviation of the measured value from the estimated value is an

indicator of a turn fault and even indicates the severity of the fault.
Another approach using negative-sequence current and an
ANN to detect the fault, which is implemented in a LABVIEW
environment, is proposed in [30]. The injection of an HF signal
superposed to the fundamental excitation in inverter-fed machines has
been suggested and examined in [31]. By using reference frame theory
and digital filters, the authors show that the negative-sequence
component does not depend on the frequency of the injected signal.
Thus, it is possible to use a frequency that is substantially higher than
the one of the fundamental excitation. The application of an HF signal
also minimizes the influence on the machines operation. To
compensate for nonidealities, a commissioning process during the first
operation of the machine is suggested.
2) Sequence Impedance Matrix: The calculation of the sequence
impedance matrix under healthy conditions is the basis of an approach
that is presented in [51],[52]. A library of the sequence impedance
matrix as a function of the motor speed for a healthy machine is used
during the monitoring process. The method is not sensitive to
construction imperfections and supply unbalances, since they have
been taken into account during the construction of the library. Another
robust method with high sensitivity using the sequence component
impedance matrix is introduced in [52]. It uses an off-diagonal term of
the sequence component impedance matrix and is immune against
supply voltage unbalance, the slip-dependent influence of inherent
motor asymmetry, and measurement errors.
3) Zero Sequence Voltage: A method utilizing the zero sequence
voltage is proposed in [53]. The algebraic sum of the line-neutral
voltages is used as an indicator for a turn fault. Ideally, this sum should
be zero. The sensitivity is improved by filtering the voltage sum to get
309

rid of higher order harmonics. It is pointed out that the method is not
sensitive to supply or load unbalances. In order to take inherent
machine imbalances into account, different procedures are suggested.
The main drawback of this procedure is that the neutral of the machine
has to be accessible.
C. Signature Analysis:
1) Current Signature Analysis: Current Signature Analysis (CSA)
monitoring has revolutionized the detection of broken rotor bars and
cracked short circuit rings in squirrel cage induction motor rotors [4].
CSA can also find problems with rotor balance that lead to rotor
eccentricity. In CSA, the current on one of the power cables feeding the
motor is analyzed for its frequency content. Specific frequencies in the
current indicate the presence of defective rotor windings during normal
operation of the motor. Broken rotor bars by CSA can sometimes be
detected by bearing vibration analysis. Motor current signature
analysis is a popular method to detect broken rotor bars and airgap
eccentricity [55]. In [56], it has been shown that it is also possible to
use this technique to detect turn faults. This approach is based on the
fact that the magnitude of the stator current harmonics changes after a
turn fault developed. The method for detecting a turn fault seems to be
subjective though. The various approaches use different frequency
harmonics to detect a fault. For example, in [55], it is suggested to
observe the change in the third harmonic and some other frequency
components. Unfortunately, the sensitivity of those components under
loaded conditions is not very high, and they are also sensitive to
inherent motor asymmetry and supply unbalance.
2) Axial Leakage Flux: If an induction machine is in perfectly
balanced condition, there should be no axial leakage flux present. Due
to production imperfection, there is always a small asymmetry in the
motor that causes an axial leakage flux. Since a turn fault also creates
310

some asymmetry in the machine and thus some axial leakage flux, the
monitoring of this flux can be used for detecting turn faults. This
technique has been the topic of several publications [54]. The
theoretical and practical analyses carried out show that certain
frequency components of the axial leakage flux are sensitive to
interturn short circuits. One of the main disadvantages of this method
is the strong dependence on the load driven by the motor. The highest
sensitivity can be reached under fullload conditions. Another drawback
is that a search coil to detect the axial flux has to be installed. Another
publication [54] not only detects turn-to-turn faults but also uses the
axial leakage flux to find broken rotor bars and end rings.
3) Vibration Signature Analysis:
Another quantity whose signature analysis can be used to get
information about the condition of the insulation system is the
electrically excited vibration. This topic has been examined in [58]. The
results show that deteriorated and faulted windings can be identified. It
is indicated that the method is good to provide additional information
supplementary to other monitoring techniques. Further research has to
be made in order to gain full access to the potential of this method. An
obvious disadvantage is the required installation of vibration sensors.
D. Temperature Monitoring
The constant monitoring of the temperature and trending over time
can be used by maintenance personnel to draw conclusions about the
insulation condition [2]. In many motors, the temperature is monitored
and the motor is turned off if a certain temperature is exceeded.
Temperature sensors can be embedded within the stator windings, the
stator core, or frame or even be part of the cooling system. There are
different types of temperature sensors employed like resistance
temperature detectors or thermocouples. Recently, there has also been
a lot of work done on temperature estimation techniques [28]-[31],
311

which are nonintrusive and, thus, do not require the installation of

temperature sensors. The ability to measure even small excursions in
temperature enables the detection of possible problems in the
insulation at an early stage and can thus be used to plan maintenance
before a major breakdown occurs [24].
E. PD
A popular, reliable, and very frequently used method for finding
problems with the insulation system of medium- and high-voltage
machines is the PD method [2], [3], [41][44] that can be applied online
as well as offline. Unfortunately, it requires the installation of costly
additional equipment. For various reasons, the method has not been
widely applied to low-voltage machines yet. However, the occurrence of
PD in low-voltage motors under application of voltage surges has been
subject to several investigations [45], [46], and the possible use of the
PD method for low-voltage motors has been recently reported in [47]
and [48]. Since the voltage level in low-voltage mains-fed machines is
too low to induce PDs, the method is only applied to inverter-fed
machines that are subject to repetitive voltage surges. The main
problem in this application is that the PDs are overlapped by the
voltage surges and thus are difficult to detect. Different methods are
suggested, which all entail large complexity and cost. For example, the
detection using optical sensors is suggested. However, this method does
not seem to be very useful for the application in motors since the
windings are at least partially invisible (hidden) and some discharges
will therefore be hidden from the optical sensor. The cost and
complexity of this or other methods seem to be too high to justify the
use on comparatively cheap low-voltage motors on a big scale. A byproduct of the PD that can also be used for monitoring the insulation
condition is ozone [2].
312

V. CONCLUSION
The main objective of this paper is to evaluate existing offline and
online-monitoring methods for the stator winding insulation of lowvoltage induction machines in order to give engineers a broad overview
over recent developments in this area, to show the capability and
boundaries of those methods, and to point out possible directions for
future research activities. A comprehensive literature survey on the
existing methods for low-voltage induction motor winding insulation
condition monitoring and fault detection has been presented, and it has
been identified that turn-to-turn faults count most for induction motor
winding insulation faults [4], [5]. Various online methods have been
developed that are capable of identifying a turn fault even in the
presence of nonidealities. The offline surge test is not only able to
identify a fault but also capable of revealing a weakness in the turn
insulation prior to a fault. Despite all progress made in the field of
monitoring motor drive systems, there is still no online-monitoring
method widely applied in industries and accepted in the diagnosis
community, which is capable of monitoring the deterioration of the
turn-toturn insulation of low-voltage machines. Thus, based on the
survey results, the authors suggest the development of an onlinemonitoring method applicable to low-voltage machines, which is
capable of diagnosing the deterioration of the turn-to-turn insulation
prior to a fault and is also reasonable from a cost standpoint.
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317

DEGRADED DOCUMENT IMAGE ENHANCING IN SPATIAL

DOMAIN USING ADAPTIVE CONTRASTING AND
THRESHOLDING
I.
Dr. P V Ramaraju
G.Nagaraju
Professor
Department of ECE
SRKR Engg. College
Bhimavaram, India.
Asst.Professor,
Department of ECE
SRKR Engg. College
Bhimavaram, India.
V.Rajasekhar
M.Tech Student
Department of ECE
SRKR Engg. College
Bhimavaram, India.
INTRODUCTION
Robust binarization gives the possibility of a correct extraction
of the sketched line drawing or text from its background. For the
binarization of images many algorithms have been implemented.
Thresholding is a sufficiently accurate and high processing speed
segmentation approach to monochrome image. This paper describes a
modified logical thresholding method for binarization of seriously
degraded and very poor quality gray-scale document images.
In general there are two types of image thresholding techniques
available: global and local. In the global thresholding technique a gray
level image is converted into a binary image based on an image
intensity value called global threshold which is fixed in the whole image
domain whereas in local thresholding technique, threshold value can
vary from one pixel location to next. Thus, global thresholding converts
an input image I to a binary image G as follows G(i, j) = 1 for I (i, j)
T, or, G(i, j) = 0 for I (i, j) < T, where T is the threshold, G (i, j) =
1 for foreground and G (i, j) = 0 for background.
Whereas, for a local threshold, the threshold T is a function over
the image domain, i.e.,T= T(x, y). In addition, if in constructing the
threshold value/surface the algorithm adapts itself to the image
intensity values, then it is called dynamic or adaptive threshold.
318

In a general setting, thresholding can be expressed as a test

operation that tests against a function T of the form [1]:
T=
T[x , y, h, I ] , where, I is the input image and h denotes some local

property of this point for example, the average gray level of a
neighborhood centered on (x, y).
Threshold selection depends on the information available in the
gray level histogram of the image. We know that an image function I(x,
y) can be expressed as the product of a reflectance function and an
illumination function based on a simple image formation model. If the
illumination component of the image is uniform then the gray level
histogram of the image is clearly bimodal, because the gray levels of
object pixels are significantly different from the gray levels of the
background. It indicates that one mode is populated from object pixels
and the other mode is populated from background pixels.
Then objects could be easily partitioned by placing a single
global threshold at the neck or valley at the histogram. However, in
reality bimodality in histograms does not occur very often.
Consequently, a fixed threshold level based on the information of the
gray level histogram will fail totally to separate objects from the
background. In this scenario we turn our attention to adaptive local
threshold surface where threshold value changes over the image
domain to fit the spatially changing background and lighting
conditions.
Over the years many threshold selection methods have been
proposed. Otsu has suggested a global image thresholding technique
where the optimal global threshold value is ascertained by maximizing
the between-class variance with an exhaustive search [2]. Sahoo et al.
[3] claim that Otsus method is suitable for real world applications with
regard to uniformity and shape measures. Though Otsus method is one
of the most popular methods for global thresholding, it does not work
319

well for many real world images where a significant overlap exists in
the gray level histogram between the pixel intensity values of the
objects and the background due to un-even and poor illumination.
As many degraded documents do not have a clear bimodal
pattern, global thresholding [4][7] is usually not a suitable approach
for the degraded document binarization. Adaptive thresholding [8]
[14], which estimates a local threshold for each document image pixel,
is often a better approach to deal with different variations within
degraded document images. For example, the early window-based
adaptive thresholding techniques [12], [13] estimate the local threshold
by using the mean and the standard variation of image pixels within a
local neighborhood window.
The local image contrast and the local image gradient are very useful
features for segmenting the text from the document background
because the document text usually has certain image contrast to the
neighboring document background.
The image gradient is defined as follows
1
G(x,y)=fmax(x, y) fmin(x,y )
The Local contrast is defined as follows
D ( x, y )
f
f
max
max
( x, y)
( x, y)
min
min
( x, y)
( x, y)
Where is a positive but infinitely small number that is added in case

the local maximum is equal to 0.
II.
PROPOSED METHOD
This section describes the proposed document image

binarization techniques. Given a degraded document image, an
adaptive contrast map is first constructed. The text is then segmented
320

based on the local threshold that is estimated from the detected text
stroke edge pixels. Some post processing is further applied to improve
the document binarization quality.
A. Contrast Image Construction
The image contrast in Equation 2 has one typical limitation that
it may not handle document images with the bright text properly. This
is because a weak contrast will be calculated for stroke edges of the
bright text where the denominator in Equation 2 will be large but the
numerator will be small. To overcome this over-normalization problem,
we combine the local image contrast with the local image gradient and
derive an adaptive local image contrast as follows
Da ( x, y) D(x, y) (1 )( fmax (x, y) fmin ( x, y)) 3
Where
D(x,
y)
denotes the local contrast in Equation 2 and (fmax(x, y) fmin(x,y )) refers

to the local image gradient that is normalized to [0, 1]. The local
windows size is set to 3 empirically. is the weight between local
contrast and local gradient that is controlled based on the document
image statistical information. Ideally, the image contrast will be
assigned with a high weight (i.e. large ) when the document image has
significant intensity variation. So that the proposed binarization
technique depends more on the local image contrast that can capture
the intensity variation well and hence produce good results. Otherwise,
the local image gradient will be assigned with a high weight.
We model the mapping from document image intensity variation to by
a power function as follows
= (Std/128)
Where Std denotes the document image intensity standard

deviation, and is a pre-defined parameter. The power function has a
nice property in that it monotonically and smoothly increases from 0 to
321

1 and its shape can be easily controlled by different . can be selected

from [0,], where the power function becomes a linear function when
= 1. Therefore, the local image gradient will play the major role in
Equation 3 when is large and the local image contrast will play the
major role when is small. The setting of parameter will be discussed
in the section of parameter selection.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2
(a)
(b)
322

(c)
Fig. 3. Contrast Images constructed using (a) local image gradient, (b)
local image contrast [15], and (c) our proposed method for the original
sample document images which are shown in Fig. 1 and 2, respectively.
Fig. 3 shows the contrast map of the sample document images in Fig. 1
and 2 that are created by using local image gradient, local image
contrast [15] and our proposed method in Equation 3, respectively.
B. Local Threshold Estimation
The text can then be extracted from the document background
pixels once the high contrast stroke edge pixels are detected properly.
Two characteristics can be observed from different kinds of document
images [15]: First, the text pixels are close to the detected text stroke
edge pixels. Second, there is a distinct intensity difference between the
high contrast stroke edge pixels and the surrounding background
pixels. The document image text can thus be extracted based on the
detected text stroke edge pixels as follows
Ne N min&& I ( x , y ) Emean Estd / 2
R ( x , y ) 1..
5
0..otherwise
Where Emean and Estd are the mean and the standard deviation of
the image intensity of the detected high contrast image pixels (within
the original document image) within the neighborhood window that can
be evaluated as follows
E mean
I ( x, y ) * (1 E ( x, y ))
neighbor
Ne
323

E std
(( I ( x , y ) Emean ) * (1 E ( x , y ))) 2
neighbor
The size of the neighborhood window W can be set based on the

stroke width of the document image under study.
C. Post-Processing
Once the initial binarization result is derived from Equation 5
as described in previous subsections, the binarization result can be
further improved by incorporating certain domain knowledge as
described in Algorithm 1. First, the isolated foreground pixels that do
not connect with other foreground pixels are filtered out to make the
edge pixel set precisely. Second, the neighborhood pixel pair that lies on
symmetric sides of a text stroke edge pixel should belong to different
classes (i.e., either the document background or the foreground text).
One pixel of the pixel pair is therefore labeled to the other category if
both of the two pixels belong to the same class. Finally, some singlepixel artifacts along the text stroke boundaries are filtered out by using
several logical operators as described in[16].
Algorithm 1 Post-Processing Procedure
Require: The Input grayscale Document Image I, Initial Binary
Result B and Corresponding Binary Text Stroke Edge Image Edge
Ensure: The Final Binary Result Bf
1: Obtain the connect components of the stroke edge pixels in Edge.
2: Take out those pixels that do not connect with other pixels.
3: For removing isolated pixels, we need to check connectivity.
4: for Each remaining edge pixels (i, j ): do
5: Get its neighborhood pairs:
(i 1, j) & (i + 1, j); (i, j 1) &(i, j + 1)
324

6: if The pixels in the pairs belong to the same class (both text or
background) then
7: Classify the foreground and background pixels based on pixel values.
8: end if
9: end for
10: Remove single-pixel artifacts [16] along the text stroke boundaries
after the document thresholding.
11: Store the new binary result to Bf .
D. Parameter Selection
In the first experiment, we apply different to obtain different
power functions and test their performance. is close to 1 when is
small and the local image contrast Da dominates the adaptive image
contrast Da in Equation 3. On the other hand, Da is mainly influenced
by local image gradient when is large. At the same time, the variation
of for different document images increases when is close to 1. Under
such circumstance, the power function becomes more sensitive to the
global image intensity variation and appropriate weights can be
assigned to images with different characteristics.
The proposed method can assign more suitable to different images
when is closer to 1. Parameter should therefore be set around 1
when the adaptability of the proposed technique is maximized and
better and more robust binarization results can be derived from
different kinds of degraded document images.
III. RESULTS
This section evaluates the results for proposed document image
binarization techniques. Given a degraded document image, an
adaptive contrast map is first constructed. The text is then segmented
based on the local threshold that is estimated from the detected text
325

stroke edge pixels. Some post-processing is further applied to improve

the document binarization quality.
Example 1
Fig.4 input degraded document image having ink bleeding through

effect
Fig.5 Contrast image constructed based on proposed adaptive local

contrast map
Fig.6 Binarized resultant image constructed based on proposed local

thresholding and post processing.
326

Example 2
Fig.7 input degraded document image having ink bleeding through

effect
Fig.8 Contrast image constructed based on proposed adaptive local

contrast map
Fig.9 Binarized resultant image constructed based on proposed local

thresholding and post processing.
327

IV. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT

BINARIZATION METHODS
In this experiment, we quantitatively compare our proposed
method with Otsus method (OTSU) [2], Sauvolas method (SAUV)
[12], Niblacks method (NIBL) [13], Bernsens method (BERN) [8],
Gatos et al.s method (GATO) [17], and LMM method (LMM [15], BE
[16]). These are composed of the same series of document images that
suffer from several common document degradations such as smear,
smudge, bleed-through and low contrast.
Example 1
Fig. 10. Binarization results of the sample document image in Fig. 1(b)
produced by different methods. (a) OTSU [2]. (b) SAUV [12]. (c) NIBL
328

[13]. (d) BERN [8]. (e) GATO [17]. (f) LMM [15]. (g) BE [16]. (h)
Proposed.
Example 2
Fig. 11. Binarization results of the sample document image (PR 06) in
DIBCO 2011 dataset produced by different methods. (a) Input Image.
(b) OTSU [2]. (c) SAUV [12]. (d) NIBL [13]. (e) BERN [8]. (f) GATO
[17]. (g) LMM [15]. (h) BE [16]. (i) LELO [18]. (j) SNUS. (k) HOWE
[19]. (l) Proposed.
V.
CONCLUSION
This paper presents a simple and robust method of enhancing

degraded document images. The method proposed in this paper
constitutes binarization that is tolerant to different types of document
degradation such as non-uniform illumination, ink bleeding through
and document smear. This image binarization is based on local
thresholding along with adaptive contrast mapping. The proposed
method has been tested over various noise affected document images
and is binarized efficaciously. But we observed that the performance on
Bickley diary dataset needs to be improved, we will explore it in future.
329

References
1. R. C. Gonzalez and R. E. Woods, Digital Image Processing,
Pearson prentice Hall, 2005.
2. N. Otsu, A threshold selection method from gray level
histogram, IEEE Transactions on System Man Cybernatics,
Vol. SMC-9, No.1, pp. 62-66, 1979.
3. P.K. Sahoo, S. Soltani, A.K.C. Wong, and Y. Chen, A survey of
thresholding techniques, Computer Vision Graphics Image
Processing, Vol. 41, 1988, pp. 233 260.
4. A. Brink, Thresholding of digital images using two-dimensional
entropies, Pattern Recognit., vol. 25, no. 8, pp. 803808, 1992.
5. J. Kittler and J. Illingworth, On threshold selection using
clustering criteria, IEEE Trans. Syst., Man, Cybern., vol. 15,
no. 5, pp. 652655, Sep.Oct. 1985.
6. N. Otsu, A threshold selection method from gray level
histogram, IEEE Trans. Syst., Man, Cybern., vol. 19, no. 1, pp.
6266, Jan. 1979.
7. N. Papamarkos and B. Gatos, A new approach for
multithreshold selection, Comput. Vis. Graph. Image Process.,
vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 357370, 1994.
8. J. Bernsen, Dynamic thresholding of gray-level images, in
Proc. Int. Conf. Pattern Recognit., Oct. 1986, pp. 12511255.
9. L. Eikvil, T. Taxt, and K. Moen, A fast adaptive method for
binarization of document images, in Proc. Int. Conf. Document
Anal. Recognit., Sep. 1991, pp. 435443.
10. I.-K. Kim, D.-W. Jung, and R.-H. Park, Document image
binarization based on topographic analysis using a water flow
model, Pattern Recognit., vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 265277, 2002.
330

11. J. Parker, C. Jennings, and A. Salkauskas, Thresholding using

an illumination model, in Proc. Int. Conf. Doc. Anal. Recognit.,
Oct. 1993, pp. 270273.
12. J. Sauvola and M. Pietikainen, Adaptive document image
binarization, Pattern Recognit., vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 225236,
2000.
13. W. Niblack, An Introduction to Digital Image Processing.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986.
14. J.-D. Yang, Y.-S. Chen, and W.-H. Hsu, Adaptive thresholding
algorithm and its hardware implementation, Pattern Recognit.
Lett., vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 141150, 1994.
15. B. Su, S. Lu, and C. L. Tan, Binarization of historical
handwritten document images using local maximum and
minimum filter, in Proc. Int. Workshop Document Anal. Syst.,
Jun. 2010, pp. 159166.
16. S. Lu, B. Su, and C. L. Tan, Document image binarization
using background estimation and stroke edges, Int. J.
Document Anal. Recognit., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 303314, Dec. 2010.
17. B. Gatos, I. Pratikakis, and S. Perantonis, Adaptive degraded
document image binarization, Pattern Recognit., vol. 39, no. 3,
pp. 317327, 2006.
18. T. Lelore and F. Bouchara, Super resolved binarization of text
based on the fair algorithm, in Proc. Int. Conf. Document Anal.
Recognit., Sep. 2011, pp. 839843.
19. N. Howe, A Laplacian energy for document binarization, in
Proc. Int. Conf. Doc. Anal. Recognit., Sep. 2011, pp. 610.
331

POWER CAPTURE SAFE TEST PATTERN DETERMINATION

FOR AT-SPEED SCAN BASED TESTING
P.Praveen Kumar
(Decs) Student
B.Naresh Babu
Assistant Professor
N.Pushpalatha
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE, AITS

Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Tirupati
I INTRODUCTION
SCAN-BASED testing is the most widely used design for test
(DFT) methodology due to its simple structure, high fault coverage, and
strong diagnostic support. However, the test power of scan tests may be
significantly higher than normal functional power because circuits may
en ter non-functional states during testing. The test power required to
load or unload test data with shift clock control is called shift power,
and the power required to capture test responses with an at-speed clock
rate is called capture power. Excessive shift power can lead to high
temperatures that can damage the circuit under test (CUT) and may
reduce the circuits reliability. Excessive capture power induced by test
patterns may lead to large current demand and induce a supply voltage
drop, known as the IR-drop problem. This would cause a normal circuit
to slow down and eventually fail the test, thereby inducing unnecessary
yield loss.
To estimate shift power and capture power, several metrics have
been proposed.
1. The circuit level simulation metric
a. The most accurate one.
b. Time consuming and memory intensive.
332

2. Most previous works use simpler metrics. The toggle count metric
considers the state changes of nodes (FFs or gates) and the weighted
switching activity (WSA) metric considers both node state changes
and fanouts of nodes. Metrics that consider paths are also proposed.
3. The critical capture transition (CCT) metric assesses launch
switching activities around critical paths, and the critical area
targeted (CAT) metric estimates launch switching activities caused
by test patterns around the longest sensitized path. In this paper, we
will employ the WSA metric as it is highly correlated to the real
capture power and has been used in most related work to determine
power-safe test patterns.
4. The capture-power-safe patterns: To address the capture-safe-power
problem, numerous methods have been proposed.
a) The hardware-based methods attempt to reduce test power by
modifying the circuit/clock in test structures or by adding some
additional hardware to the CUT.
I. In scan chain segmentation methods are proposed to reduce both
shift and capture power.
II. In a partial launch on- capture (LOC) scheme is proposed to reduce
the capture power, which allows only partial scan cells to be
activated during the capture cycle.
Advantages:
1. Some clock gating schemes have also been proposed to limit the
test power consumption.
2. They effectively reduce test power.
Disadvantages:
1. They may increase circuit area
333

2. Degrade circuit performance

3. They may be incompatible with existing design flows
b) software-based methods attempt to generate power safe test
patterns that will not consume excess power during testing by
modifying the traditional automatic test pattern generation (ATPG)
procedure or by modifying predetermined test sets. These methods
are generally based on the X-filling technique to assign fixed logic
values to dont care bits (X-bits) in test patterns to minimize test
power dissipation.
c) Instead of modifying the ATPG procedure, some post-ATPG
methods modify a given test set by using X-filling to reduce as much
test power as possible [7], [10], [16] or to satisfy the power
constraints [6], [21], [26]. Butler et al. [16] propose a method, named
adjacency fill, which assigns deterministic values to the X-bits in line
with the adjacent bit values to reduce shift power.
d) Another method to reduce the capture power is to use the circuits
steady states to fill X-bits [7]. This method, called ACF in [7], first
fills X-bit randomly. Then, it applies a number of functional clock
cycles starting from the scan-in state of a test.
e)
Vector to obtain the final states and uses these states to fill the Xbits to get more realistic patterns. Although both the Preferred Fill
and the ACF methods can quickly assign the X-bits in PPI, they
cannot ensure capture power safety because they do not consider
the power constraint of the circuit. Another problem with the
above two methods is that they try to assign values to all X-bits in
all test patterns to reduce test power as much as possible. However,
not all of the test patterns are power-risky [19].
334

I. Devanathan et al.and Wu et al. modified the PODEM-based ATPG

procedure by adding some power constraints to the back trace and
dynamic compaction processes to directly generate power-safe test
sets.
II. In a low-capture power (LCP) X-filling method is proposed and
incorporated into the dynamic compaction process of the test
generation flow to reduce the capture power.
III. Although these methods can achieve a large reduction in capture
power, they often increase the test data volume in comparison with
that produced by conventional at-speed scan test methods due to
the fact that during the dynamic compaction process, many X-bits
that can be assigned to detect more faults are reserved to reduce
capture power.
II METHODS TO REDUCE CAPTURE POWER
1. Instead of modifying the ATPG procedure, some post-ATPG
methods modify a given test set by using X-filling to reduce as
much test power as possible or to satisfy the power constraints.
a) Adjacency fill assigns deterministic values to the X-bits in line
with the adjacent bit values to reduce shift power.
eg,-given the test pattern (1, X, X, 1, 0), the X-bits in this
pattern are filled as (1, 1, 1, 1, 0).
b) The circuits steady states to fill X-bits (ACF), this method first
fills X-bit randomly. Then, it applies a number of functional
clock cycles starting from the scan-in state of a test vector to
obtain the final states and uses these states to fill the X-bits to
get more realistic patterns.
335

Disadvantages:
1. Although both the Preferred Fill and the ACF methods can
quickly assign the X-bits in PPI, they cannot ensure capture
power safety because they do not consider the power constraint
of the circuit.
2. They try to assign values to all X-bits in all test patterns to reduce
test power as much as possible.
Fig.1: At-speed scan testing with LOC scheme.

336

III PROPOSED METHOD

This method modifies only power-safe patterns to address the
issue of the capture power. The rationale behind this strategy is the
patterns that can detect more faults normally have larger switching
activity and lower X-bit ratios, and the number of detected faults
decreases drastically with increasing X-bit ratio. Hence, filling X-bits in
power-risky patterns may not be efficient as they tend to have lower Xbit ratios. In contrast, power-safe patterns usually have higher X-bit
ratios and many unused X-bits. Therefore, using the X-bits in power
safe patterns to detect faults within the power constraints may be more
efficient than using those in power-risky patterns.
Hence, this paper proposes a novel test pattern determination
procedure to determine a power safe test set with the LOC clocking
scheme.
The proposed procedure contains two processes
1. Test pattern refinement
2. Low-power test pattern regeneration
Given a pregenerated compacted partially-specified test set without any
power constraints, the power-risky patterns are all dropped. This will
make faults that were detected only by the power risky patterns
become undetected. The test pattern refinement process then tries to
properly fill the X-bits in the power safe patterns such that the powerrisky faults can be detected with the power constraint still being
satisfied. If some power risky faults remain undetected after this
process, the low-power test pattern regeneration process is employed to
generate more power-safe test patterns for these faults.
337

CAPTURE-POWER-SAFE TEST PATTERN DETERMINATION

This section first uses a simple example to illustrate the main idea of
the proposed procedure. Then, it describes the overall flow and its
details.
1) Main Idea
The main idea of this paper is to utilize the X-bits in power-safe
patterns to detect as many faults that are previously detected only
by power-risky patterns as possible. If there are still undetected
faults, then a low-power pattern generation process is used to
generate patterns to detect the remaining faults.
2) Overall Flow of Proposed Procedure

Based on the main idea, a technique is proposed to determine a
test set such that the power constraint is satisfied and the test data
inflation is minimized
338

3) Algorithm for Test Pattern Refinement Process

1. The goal of the test pattern refinement process is to utilize the
X-bits in power-safe patterns to to utilize the X-bits in powersafe patterns to This process ends when there are no remaining
faults
In Fr or all the power-safe patterns in Ts have been refined.
4) Algorithm for Low Power Test Generation Process
The low-power test generation process attempts to generate a
new power-safe test set to detect all the undetected faults and
minimize the test data inflation at the same time. In order to
achieve this goal, this process uses a dynamic data compression
flow [20]
IV CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
This
paper
proposed
novel
capture-power-safe
test
pattern
determination procedure to address the capture power problem.

Unlike previous methods, the test pattern refinement processing the
339

proposed procedure refines power-safe patterns to detect the powerrisky faults and discards the power-risky patterns to ensure the capture
power safety. The capture power of newly generated patterns is also
guaranteed to be under the power constraints. The experimental
results show that more than 75% of power-risky faults can be detected
by refining the power safe patterns, and that the required test data
volumes can be reduced by 12.76% on average under the appropriate
power constraints without fault coverage loss.
References:
1. N. Ahmed, M. Tehranipoor, and V. Jayaram, Transition delay
fault testpattern generation considering supply voltage noise in
a SOC design,in Proc. Design Autom. Conf., 2007, pp. 533538
2. Y. Bonhomme, P. Girard, L. Guiller, C. Landrault, and S.
Pravossoudovitch,A gated clock scheme for low power scan
testing of logicICs or embedded cores, in Proc. Asian Test
Symp., 2001, pp. 253258.
3. K. Enokimoto, X. Wen, Y. Yamato, K. Miyase, H. Sone, S.
Kajihara,M. Aso, and H. Furukawa, CAT: A critical-areatargeted test setmodification scheme for reducing launch
switching activity in at-speedscan testing, in Proc. Asian Test
Symp., 2009, pp. 99104
4. T.-C. Huang and K.-J. Lee, A token scan architecture for low
powertesting, in Proc. Int. Test Conf., 2001, pp. 660669.
5. K.-J. Lee, S.-J. Hsu, and C.-M. Ho, Test power reduction with
multiplecapture orders, in Proc. Asian Test Symp., 2004, pp.
2631.
6.
J. Li, Q. Xu, Y. Hu, and X. Li, X-Filling for simultaneous shiftandcapture-power reduction in at-speed scan-based testing,
340

IEEE Trans.Very Large Scale Integr. Syst., vol. 18, no. 7, pp.
10811092, Jul.2010.
7. E. K. Moghaddam, J. Rajski, S. M. Reddy, and M. Kassab, Atspeedscan test with low switching activity, in Proc. VLSI Test
Symp., 2010,pp. 177182.
8. K. Miyase and S. Kajihara, XID: Dont care identification of
testpatterns for combinational circuits, IEEE Trans. Comput.
Aided DesignIntegr. Circuits Syst., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 321326,
Feb. 2004.
9. I. Pomeranz and S. M. Reddy, Switching activity as a test
compactionheuristic for transition faults, IEEE Trans. Very
Large Scale Integr. Syst.,vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 13571361, Sep. 2010.
10. S. Remersaro, X. Lin, Z. Zhang, S. M. Reddy, I. Pomeranz, andJ.
Rajski, Preferred fill: A scalable method to reduce capture
powerfor scan based designs, in Proc. Int. Test Conf., 2006, pp.
110.
341

VERSATILE BICYCLE (AN AMPHIBIOUS VEHICLE)

Shyam.C
Santhosh.P
IV yr, Mechanical Department

Veltech Multitech Dr.RR & Dr.SR
Engineering College

Engineering College
Saravana Muthu.K
S.Lakshmanan, M.E.

Engineering College
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Department
Engineering College
OBJECTIVE OF OUR PROJECT

The main objective of the project is to modify a normal bicycle so that,
it can be used both on land and water. Its made sure that the
modifications do not cause any unease to the rider and the comfort of
riding on land is not reduced.
VERSATILE BICYCLE
Versatile bicycle in swimming pool (fig. 1)

342

Versatile bicycle on land mode (fig. 2)
Versatile bicycle on land mode (fig. 3)
343

3. MATERIALS USED
Material
Specifications
No.
Bicycle
standard
Thermocol
density of 20 kg/m3 ,200 mm 4

thickness
M.S.Sheet
3mm thickness
M.S.Sheet
6 mm thickness
M.S.Sheet
1 mm thickness
Iron rod
Tempered, 6mm dia
Lorry hinges
Standard
Chain drive
Standard
Sprocket
Standard
Hub
Single side threaded
Hub
Double side threaded
4. THERMOCOL
Thermocol is one of the major raw materials of our project. Four blocks
of thermocol are used to create buoyancy force that makes the cycle to
float in water. The thermocol blocks are cut in aerodynamics shape to
provide better displacement in water.
Before cutting
After cutting
Fig. 4.1
Fig. 4.2
344

5. THE L - CLAMPS
The L-clamps are made of mild steel of thickness 3mm and 6 mm. The
clamp is foldable and can be folded while operating the bicycle on the
land. The folding is done by fixing hinges. The thermocol blocks can be
fitted and locked by using bold and nuts. The thermocol can be
attached or detached according to the riders wish. The supporting rod
should be fitted while moving in water.
3-D MODEL OF L-CLAMPS (fig.5)

6. PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL
(For L-Clamps, adjusting plate, paddles)
1. Possess good ductility and can be bent easily.
2. Possess good machinability.
3. Has good tensile strength.
4. Possess excellent weld ability.
5. Good toughness and hardness.
7. PROPERTIES OF TEMPERED STEEL
(Used for supporting rods)
1. Very high tensile strength.
345

2. Excellent toughness and hardness.

3. Ductility is reduced.
4. Machinability is reduced.
8. PADDLES
The rotating type paddles is used to give displacement in water. Its
made of sheet metal of 1 mm thickness. The paddles are nothing but
blades that rotate by peddling action. The paddle blades are welded to a
hollow pipe which is welded to a hub. The hub is welded with the
sprocket and chain drive connects the paddle sprocket with the rear
double threaded hub sprocket. Thus the paddles rotate by the chain
drive power transmission. There are 6 blades in total which acts as two
paddles in the versatile bicycle.
3-D MODEL OF PADDLES (fig.6)
PADDLES IN VERSATILE BICYCLE (fig.7)

346

9. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
Average speed in water : 4 to 5 km/hr
Average speed on land
: 15 to 20 km/hr
Time for fitting the

thermocol blocks
: 2 to 3 mins
Time for dismantling

the thermocol blocks
: 1 to 2 mins
3-D MODEL OF VERSATILE BICYCLE (fig.8)

10. BUOYANCY FORCE
Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight
of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with
depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus a column of
fluid, or an object submerged in the fluid, experiences greater pressure
at the bottom of the column than at the top. This difference in pressure
results in a net force that tends to accelerate an object upwards. The
magnitude of that force is proportional to the difference in the pressure
between the top and the bottom of the column, and is also equivalent to
the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the column, i.e. the
347

displaced fluid. For this reason, an object whose density is greater than
that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink. If the object is
either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a
boat), the force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a
reference frame which either has a gravitational field or is accelerating
due to a force other than gravity defining a "downward" direction. In a
situation of fluid statics, the net upward buoyancy force is equal to the
magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body.
11. PROPERTIES OF EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE
(THERMOCOL)
Typical Properties:
Density Range
15-30 Kg/m3
Thermal conductivity at 10 mean 0.028-0.031 K

temperature
cal m/hr. m c
Compressive Strength
0.8-1.6 Kg/cm
Cross breaking Strength
1.4-2.0 Kg/cm
Tensile Strength
3-6 kg/cm
Application Range
-200 +80 deg

C
Water absorption by % Volume

0.5%
for 7 days in water
Self ignition point
300 C
Melting Range
100-200C
12.WORKING OF VERSATILE BICYCLE
In versatile bicycle, thermocol blocks are used to create buoyancy force.
There are 4 blocks of even volume to give balance in the water .The
thermocols are attachable and detachable in the L-clamps and the Lclamps itself is foldable.
348

The movement in the water is given through rotating paddles that are
fixed at the back of the versatile bicycle. These paddles are connected to
the rear wheel of the bicycle through chain drive. Double threaded hub
has been used to put on two sprockets. In one sprocket, the normal
chain is connected to the pedals and in another sprocket, the chain
drive that rotate the paddles are connected. Thus, the movement is
given. These paddles can be adjusted according to the weight of the
rider when inside the water. There is an adjustable rod that increases
or decreases the altitude of the position of the paddles. The paddles
should be half inside and half outside the water to maximum
displacement.
13. ADVANTAGES OF VERSATILE BICYCLE
Single vehicle is used instead of two vehicles while crossing
water bodies.
Reasonable speed on water is achieved.
No major unease or discomfort to rider while riding on land.
The thermocol blocks are detachable, hence weight is reduced
while riding on land.
There is no sucking of water by thermocol as its of high density
quality.
In overall, the vehicle is very robust and can be used in any
conditions.
As the vehicle is cycle, its pollution free and environmental
friendly.
No extra fuel or energy required.
As the factor of safety given is 2, the chances of drowning is
zero.
14. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Density of water
1 g/cm3
Density of thermocol
= 20 kg/m3 =>
Density of thermocol > density of water

Thus thermocol floats in water.
349
0.02g/cm3

Material
Weight
Bicycle
25 kg
Rider
75 kgs
Total
100 kgs (app. mass)
Applied load = 100 x 9.8 Newtons = 980
Newtons
Required factor of safety is 2.

Factor of safety = allowable load/applied load
2= allowable load / ( 100 x 9.8)
Allowable load = 2 x 100 x 9.8 Newton
Allowable mass = 200 kg or 200000 grams
1 cm3 of thermocol can bear (1- 0.02) grams of mass.
= 0.98 grams of mass
So for bearing 200000 grams of mass, we need 200000/0.98 cm3 of
thermocol.
= 204081 cm3 of thermocol required.
No. of blocks needed = 4
So , volume of 1 block = 204081/4 = 51020 cm3.
Standard thickness of thermocol blocks = 20 cm
Volume of 1 thermocol block = surface area x thickness
51020 = required surface area x 20
Required surface area = 51020/20 = 2551 cm2.
The thermocol blocks are cut in aerodynamic shape as per design
requirement shown (surface are > 2551 cm2) in fig
350

Final dimensions of the thermocol block
Final dimensions of thermocol (Fig. 9)

The above dimensions are chosen to get the required surface area, thus
to satisfy the design.
Surface area = [(50 x 36)+(0.5 x (12+50) x 25 )]
= 2575 cm2 (> 2551 cm2)
Volume of 1 block = 2575 x 20
= 51500 cm3 (> 51020 cm3)
Thus the design of thermocol blocks are satisfied.
15.1. TEST DRIVE IN WATER
Test drive in water (Fig. 10)

351

15.2. TEST DRIVE ON LAND
Test drive on land (Fig.11)

16. APPLICATIONS OF VERSATILE BICYCLE
Used to cross rivers, ponds, lakes in villages.
Can be used as main mode of transport in states like Kerala,

Goa etc. where crossing of back waters is very much necessary
task.
Can be used in flood prone states like Bihar, West Bengal,

Orissa etc. as a medium of transport for evacuation process.
Can be used as a medium of transport in areas like Velachery,

Madipakkam, Adambakkam, Korattur, Annanur etc. where
short term flooding occurs during monsoon season.
Can be used as a water sport in tourist spots like Ooty,

Kodaikanal etc. along with boating.
Can be used for small scale fishing process in lakes and ponds.
Can be used by children for having fun in water ride and also
serves as normal bicycle.
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17. LIMITATIONS OF VERSATILE BICYCLE

Though the versatile bicycle reaches a reasonable speed in
water, its lower than hi-tech amphibious vehicles that runs on

fuel.
The stylish shape of the bicycle is slightly altered.
Doubles cannot be ridden in versatile bicycle as the clamps are
fixed.
18. COST OF FABRICATION
S.NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
COMPONENTS
BICYCLE (used)
THERMOOL
M.S.SHEET
MISCELLENEOUS
(HUBS,SPROCKETS,CHAINS ETC)
FABRICATION
(LABOR,TRANSPORTATIONS ETC)
TOTAL
COST
2000
1000
1000
1000
2000
7000
19. COMMERCIALIZATION OF OUR PRODUCT

Our product has not yet hit the market so far. So it will be a brand new
innovation .It has a great potential market in states like Kerala, Goa
where crossing of back water is a unavoidable task and in flood prone
states like Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu etc. Once it
launches in market, our product will become a basic need in each and
every house. As our product has a lot of major applications, it has a
great potential to be commercialized in the market successfully. And
more over the usage of bicycle is getting very low as the exposure to
motor bikes is very high among children in India. Children are losing
interest in bicycle and the bicycle manufacturers ought to do something
innovative to keep the bicycle alive for at least next few decades. So our
innovation will help in attracting the young people towards using
bicycle and boost up the bicycle market by introducing an extra wow
factor in the normal bicycle.
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20. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN VERSATILE
BICYCLE
To replace the thermocol material with inflatables filled with air

of that shape.
Making the whole L-clamp easily detachable and attachable.
To replace the paddles with propellers for giving high

displacement in water.
To improve the aesthetics of the bicycle to make it more

marketable.
To use aluminum hollow pipes instead of mild steel to decrease

the weight.
To increase the velocity of the bicycle in water.
To improve the aesthetics and ergonomics of the versatile

bicycle.
To make the whole water mode attachments like L-Clamps ,

thermocols ,paddles attachable and detachable in any standard
bicycle.
References
1. Fluid Mechanics by R.K. Purohit
2. Fluid Mechanics By Victor Streetor , Benjemin Wylie and
K.W.Bedford
3. Introduction to Polymer Chemistry by Charles E. Carraher,
Jr.
4. An Introduction to fluid dynamics by Batchelor
5. An Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics : The
Finite Volume Method (English) 2nd Edition byVersteeg.
354

ANALYTICAL STUDY OF GENERAL FAILURE IN

PROMINENT COMPONENTS
I.
Balaji V.R
Under Graduate Student
SSN College of Engineering
Kalavakkan,Tamilnadu,India
Amitesh Jain
A.Kirthivasan
D.Ananthapadmanaban
Associate Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
SSN College of Engineering,
Kalavakkam, Tamilnadu, India
Introduction
The defects in quality, design, process or part application are the

underlying cause of a failure. The human errors are considered, when
failure depends on the user of the product or process. The failure
analysis includes the area of creep, fatigue, structural resonance, crack
initiation, crack propagation, spalling and pitting, fretting and wear,
component failure. The components are subjected to failure analysis
before and after manufacturing. Even though the various tests are
conducted, failure happens at one stage.
The mechanism of failure can be attributed to multiple factors which
simultaneously plays an influential role. These include corrosion,
abnormal electric current welding of contacts, returns spring fatigue
failure, unintended failure, dust accumulation and blockage of
mechanism, etc.
The strategy for safety is to make various test before the product
comes into the usage. The investigation of failure is vividly illustrated
in the pioneering efforts of the consideration of physical evidence and
355

the use of engineering and scientific principles and analytical tools.

Often, the reason why one performs a failure analysis is to
characterize the causes of failure with the overall objective to avoid
repetition of similar failures. However, analysis of the physical
evidence alone may not be adequate to reach this goal. The scope of a
failure analysis can, but does not necessarily, lead to a correctable root
cause of failure. Many times, a failure analysis incorrectly ends at the
identification of the failure mechanism.
A material or component shows gradual deformation or creep when
subjected to sustained loading especially at elevated temperatures. It
occurs even if the applied stresses are below the proportional limit. It
occurs in both metals and non-metals.
Similarly when a component is subjected repeated continuous load, it
tends to gradually deteriorate resulting in fatigue failure. Fatigue
occurs in three stages namely crack initiation, crack propagation and
unstable rapid growth.
Fatigue failure may also occur due propagation of the cracks
originating from the surface of the component. They are of two types
namely spalling and pitting. It occurs due to sub surface tensile and
shear stresses that exceed materials fatigue limits. Gears and bearings
are usually subjected to such stresses. When surfaces of two
components mate each other they are subjected to normal pressure and
tangential oscillatory motion fretting failure occurs. The surface
undergoes failure due to fatigue, high normal forces or wear and failure
can be accelerated in the presence of chemical attack.
II.
Failure analysis-History and Inception
The importance and value of failure analysis to safety, reliability,

performance, and economy are well documented.
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For example, the importance of investigating failures is vividly

illustrated in the pioneering efforts of the Wright Brothers in
developing self-propelled flight. In fact, while Wilbur was traveling in
France in 1908, Orville was conducting flight tests for the U.S. Army
Signal Corps and was injured when his Wright Flyer crashed (Fig. 1).
His passenger sustained fatal injuries [1]. Upon receiving word of the
mishap, Wilbur immediately ordered the delivery of the failed flyer to
France so that he could conduct a thorough investigation. This was
decades before the formal discipline called failure analysis was
introduced.
Unfortunately, there are many dramatic examples of catastrophic
failures that result in injury, loss of life, and damage to property. For
example, a molasses tank failed in Boston in 1919, and another
molasses tank failed in Bellview, NJ, in 1973 [2]. Were the causes
identified in 1919? Were lessons learned as a result of the accident?
Were corrective actions developed and implemented to prevent
recurrence?
Fig.1 Crash of the Wright Flyer, 1908. Courtesy of the National Air and
Space Museum,Smithsonian Institution Photo A-42555-A[1]
Conversely, failures can also lead to improvements in engineering
practices. The spectacular failures of the Liberty ships during World
War II were studied extensively in subsequent decades, and the
outcome of these efforts was a significantly more thorough
357

understanding of the phenomenon of fracture, culminating in part with

the development of the engineering discipline of fracture mechanics [3].
Through these and other efforts, insights into the cause and prevention
of failures continue to evolve.
Space shuttle, Columbia orbitter failed upon its re-entry
into the earths atmosphere. Earlier it was believed that failure was
caused by foam piece which got dislodged from external tank during
takeoff and struck the leading edge of the left wing. This damaged the
latter made of carbon-carbon composites thereby providing a breach in
the shuttle leading to catastrophic failure [4].
The foam tiles on analysis show signs of erosion due to high
temperatures exceeding 2000K during re-entry which is sufficient
enough to melt aluminium. Hence it is quite apparent that Aluminium
Sandwich Panel Skins below the tiles were protected during re-entry.
Hence an analysis was carried out on the Aluminium Sandwich Panel
Skin recovered from the debris field. They were 0.6mm thick sheets
made up of 2000-series Aluminium alloy.
A micrograph of sample taken few millimetres behind fracture
surface reveals that it was subjected to much higher temperatures than
area directly beneath the tile. From these images it is clear that second
phase particles present in the microstructure composed of copper,
manganese and iron melted and subsequently wetted the grain
boundaries upon exposure to high temperature causing significant
weakening of grain boundaries, ultimately resulting in intergranular
failure.
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Fig.2 Light optical microscopy micrograph of panel skin section at

fracture surface. Notice that liquation isobserved across entire
micrograph. A crack along a grain boundary is also present. [4]
The Sandwich Panel was locally heated to cause liquation only near
the fracture surface whereas aluminium microstructure directly
beneath an insulating tile shows no sign of liquation. This lead to
formation of local hotspots where there was no thermal protection due
to loss of insulation resulting from the accident. These localised
hotspots lead to the failure of the aluminium sandwich panel and hence
failure of the space shuttle.
III.
Recent trends and advancements
Modern automobiles increasingly utilize high-strength low-weight

alloys for better fuel efficiency. Aluminium alloys seem to serve the
purpose owing to its high strength to weight ratio. Several major
automobile components such as engine blocks, pistons, intake manifold,
carburettors and brake parts make use of aluminium castings. Since
aluminium alloys such as Al-356 is extensively used, a study to realize
the reason for their mechanical failure is necessary.
S. Nasrazadani and L. Reyes investigated a clutch pedal lever made of
permanent mould cast Al 356-T6 aluminium by way of metallography,
SEM, hardness testing and visual inspection [5]. They concluded that the
parts in clutch assembly must be designed with thicker sections to
resist the applied stress. Fatigue and brittle failure occurs due to
359

presence of dendrite phases and micro-porosity and it can be avoided by

production of heat treated Al 356-T6.
Fig. 3 Image of the fractured part showing two visible cracks[5]

Y. Huang and Y. Zhu[6] metallurgically examined the section of a
fractured spindle from an axle housing of a truck. It was found that
after about 8,000 miles of service the axle fractured at the friction weld
interface. Metallographic and SEM examinations at the fractured site
revealed the existence of micro-porosity and formation of ferrite layer.
This had reduced the impact strength of the weld resulting in overload
fracture. Due to air exposure at the molten layer interface, a band of
oxides was formed and the solidification of liquid film leads to microshrinkage.
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Fig. 5 The assembly fractured along the weld interface (a ferrite band
with oxides), etched, 2% natal[6]
A lap welded steel joint had failed when it was operated under very
high speeds[7]. This joint was fabricated by a laser beam welding using
high energy coherent optical source of heat at low pressure. The steel
sheets used for this purpose was 0.5 mm thick. The components of the
debris was put into failure analysis for metallurgical investigation. The
sheet and plate used to form this joint were analysed for their chemical
composition.
Fig.4 Oxidation product visible at the grain boundary (arrows) with

other oxidized grain boundaries (encircled) [7]
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The results showed that both were made of the same steel grade
X2NiCoMo18-8-5. The samples were cut from both defected and nondefected regions and were analysed using optical microscopy. From the
analysis it was observed that welding bead had serious problems due to
the oxidation of the plate. The surface of metal plate was deposited by
oxidation products due to under machining of the plate, before welding.
Hence during welding, the oxidation products get entrapped within
weld bead or may appear on the surface of the weld. This weakens the
weld thereby causing failure.
IV.
Root-Cause Analysis
Failure analysis is considered to be the examination of the

characteristics and causes of equipment or component failure[8]. In most
cases this involves the consideration of physical evidence and the use of
engineering and scientific principles and analytical tools. Often, the
reason why one performs a failure analysis is to characterize the causes
of failure with the overall objective to avoid repeat of similar failures.
However, analysis of the physical evidence alone may not be adequate
to reach this goal. The scope of a failure analysis can, but does not
necessarily, lead to a correctable root cause of failure. Many times, a
failure analysis incorrectly ends at the identification of the failure
mechanism and perhaps causal influences. The principles of root-cause
analysis (RCA) may be applied to ensure that the root cause is
understood and appropriate corrective actions may be identified. An
RCA exercise may simply be a momentary mental exercise or an
extensive logistical charting analysis.
Many volumes have been written on the process and methods of RCA.
The concept of RCA does not apply to failures alone, but is applied in
response to an undesirable event or condition (Fig. 4). Root-cause
analysis is intended to identify the fundamental cause(s) that if
corrected will prevent recurrence.
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Fig. 6 Root-cause analogy [8]

V.
Recent Case History
Building in Chennai under construction crashed recently (2014) when

there was rain for about 1 or 2 hours. Most probably the soil itself must
have been loose around that area, Chennai being home to clayey soil[9].
Another reason could be-lack of proper curing of foundation. In earlier
days, foundations used to be cured for close to 3 weeks. These days, it is
not certain whether proper procedures are followed. Most often, there
is a combination of factors involved each of which contributes to the
ultimate failure. So, it is suggested that at each stage, mandatory
checks be followed so that even if a structure fails, one can exactly
pinpoint what went wrong and at which stage it went wrong.
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Fig.7 The Hindu 11 floor building collapse at Bai kadai junction

Moulivakkam,near Porur on Sunday.in Chennai-TN.India[9]
VI. Conclusions
Various procedures followed during failure analysis have been
documented in this paper. Root cause analysis has been discussed.
Starting from the history of failure analysis some case studies have
been presented. It can be concluded that failure analysis is a very vast
field of research and any analysis can give the possible cause of failure
only.Sometimes there may be a a combination of factors for a material
or component to fail.
References
1. P.L. Jakab, Visions of a Flying Machine: The Wright Brothers and
the Process of Invention, Smithsonian Institution, 1990, p 226
2. R.W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics
Engineering Materials, John Wiley & Sons, 1976, p 229230
of
3. D.J. Wulpi, Understanding How Components Fail, 2nd ed., ASM

International, 1999
4. Metals Handbook,American Society of Metals,Volume 5,Failure
Analysis and prevention.
364

5. S. Nasrazadani L. Reyes ,Failure Analysis of Al 356-T6 Clutch

Lever, Failure Analysis of Al 356-T6 Clutch Lever
6. Y. Huang and Y. Zhu, Failure Analysis of Friction Weld (FRW) in
Truck Axle Application, Submitted: 17 September 2007 / in revised
form: 16 November 2007 / Published online: 20 December 2007_
ASM International 2007
7. A. Nusair Khan W. Mohammad I. Salam..: Failure Analysis of
Laser Weld Joint of X2NiCoMo18-8-5 Steel.
8.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_cause_analysis
9. http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/ap-cm-announcesexgratia-for-telugu-victims-in-chennai-buildingcollapse/article6159984.ece
365

A NOVEL APPROACH TO ASSESS THE QUALITY OF TONE

MAPPED IMAGES
P.Manjulamma
B.Sreenivasan
M.Tech (DECS) Student

Technology and Sciences
Tirupati, India
Assistant Professor
Technology and Sciences
Tirupati, India
N.Pushpalatha
Assistant Professor
Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Sciences
Tirupati, India
I. INTRODUCTION
There has been a growing interest in recent years in high
dynamic range (HDR) images, where the range of intensity levels could
be on the order of 10,000 to 1. This allows for accurate representations
of the luminance variations in real scenes, ranging from direct sunlight
to faint starlight [1]. With recent advances in imaging and computer
graphics technologies, HDR images are becoming more widely
available. A common problem that is often encountered in practice is
how to visualize HDR images on standard display devices that are
designed to display low dynamic range (LDR) images. To overcome this
problem, an increasing number of tone mapping operators (TMOs) that
convert HDR to LDR images have been developed, for examples [2][5].
Because of the reduction in dynamic range, tone mapping procedures
inevitably cause information loss. With multiple TMOs available, one
would ask which TMO faithfully preserves the structural information
in the original HDR images, and which TMO produces natural-looking
366

realistic LDR images. TMO assessment in the past mostly relied on

human subjective evaluations. In [6], perceptual evaluations of 6 TMOs
were conducted with regard to similarity and preferences.
An overview and a subjective comparison of 8 TMOs were
reported in [7]. HDR capable monitor was employed in to compare 6
TMOs in a subjective experiment using a paired comparison method.
In, 14 subjects were asked to rate 2 architectural interior scenes
produced by 7 TMOs based on basic image attributes as well as the
naturalness of the LDR images. A more comprehensive subjective
evaluation was carried out in where tone mapped images generated by
14 TMOs were shown to 2 groups of 10 human observers to rate LDR
images, concerning overall quality, brightness, contrast, detail
reproduction and color. In subjects were asked to choose the best LDRs
derived from 2 TMOs with different parameter settings to optimally
tune the algorithms. The value of subjective testing cannot be
overestimated. However, they have fundamental limitations. First, it is
expensive and time consuming. Second, it is difficult to be incorporated
into an optimization framework to automatically improve TMOs and
adjust their parameter settings. Furthermore, important image
structures contained in HDR images may be missing in tone mapped
images, but human observers may not be aware of their existence. In
this sense, subjective evaluation should not be regarded as a golden
standard for the quality of tone mapped images. Typical objective image
quality assessment (IQA) approaches assume the reference and test
images to have the same dynamic range [12], and thus cannot be
directly applied to evaluate tone mapped images. Only a few objective
assessment methods have been proposed for HDR images.
The HDR visible differences predictor (HDR-VDP) is a human
visual system (HVS) based fidelity metric that aims to distinguish
between visible (supra threshold) and invisible (sub threshold)
distortions. The metric reflects the perception of distortions in terms of
367

detection probability. Since HDR-VDP is designed to predict the

visibility of differences between two HDR images of the same dynamic
range, it is not applicable to compare an HDR image with an LDR
image. A dynamic range independent approach was proposed in [14],
which improves upon HDR-VDP and produces three types of quality
maps that indicate the loss of visible features, the amplification of
invisible features, and reversal of contrast polarity, respectively. These
quality maps show good correlations with subjective classifications of
image degradation types including blur, sharpening, contrast reversal,
and no distortion. However, it does not provide a single quality score
for an entire image, making it impossible to be validated with
subjective evaluations of overall image quality. The purpose of the
current work is to develop an objective
IQA model for tone mapped LDR images using their corresponding
HDR images as references. Our work is inspired by the success of two
design principles in IQA literature. The first is the structural similarity
(SSIM) approach [15] and its multi-scale derivations [16], [17], which
asserts that the main purpose of vision is to extract structural
information from the visual scene and thus structural fidelity is a good
predictor of perceptual quality. The second is the natural scene
statistics (NSS) approach, which maintains that the visual system is
highly adapted to the natural visual environment and uses the
departure from natural image statistics as a measure of perceptual
quality [18]. Here we propose a method that combines a multi-scale
structural fidelity measure and a statistical naturalness measure,
leading to Tone Mapped image Quality Index (TMQI). Moreover, we
demonstrate that TMQI can be employed for optimizing parameters in
TMOs and for adaptively fusing multiple tone mapped images.
II. LITERATURE SURVEY
A. High-Dynamic-Range Image (HDR)
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High-Dynamic-Range Imaging (HDRI or HDR) is a set of techniques

used in imaging and photography to reproduce a greater dynamic
range of luminosity than possible using standard digital imaging or
photographic techniques. HDR images can represent more accurately
the range of intensity levels found in real scenes, from direct sunlight
to faint starlight, and is often captured by way of a plurality of
differently exposed pictures of the same subject matter. Non-HDR
cameras take photographs with a limited exposure range, resulting in
the loss of detail in bright or dark areas. HDR compensates for this loss
of detail by capturing multiple photographs at different exposure levels
and combining them to produce a photograph representative of a
broader tonal range. The two primary types of HDR images
are computer renderings and images resulting from merging multiple
low-dynamic-range
(LDR) or
standard-dynamic-range
(SDR)
photographs. HDR images can also be acquired using special image
sensors, like oversampled binary image sensor. Tone mapping methods,
which reduce overall contrast to facilitate display of HDR images on
devices with lower dynamic range, can be applied to produce images
with preserved or exaggerated local contrast for artistic effect. HDR
stands for High Dynamic Range. For those who arent so acquainted
with this high-tech shutterbug lingo, dynamic range is basically just the
difference between the lightest light and darkest dark you can capture
in a photo. Once your subject exceeds the cameras dynamic range, the
highlights tend to wash out to white, or the darks simply become big
black blobs. Its notoriously difficult to snap a photo that captures both
ends of this spectrum, but with modern shooting techniques and
advanced post-processing software, photographers have devised ways to
make it happen. This is basically what HDR is: a specific style of photo
with an unusually high dynamic range that couldnt otherwise be
achieved in a single photograph.
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Youve probably seen these types of images scattered across

the Web. Depending on how theyre processed, HDR photos can be
anything from stunningly accurate reproductions of what your eyes see
to mind-blowing surreal works of art that transform reality into a highdef dreamscape. Here are a few examples from HDR. At the most basic
level, an HDR photo is really just two (or three, or nine) photos taken
at different exposure levels and then mashed together with software to
create a better picture. Its a bit more complicated than that, but not
much more thats basically the gist of it. Ideally, the photographer
takes a range of bracketed photos that is, photos of the same subject
taken with varying shutter speed/aperture combinations in order to
produce a set of images with varying luminosity and depth of field.
Then, with the help of advanced post-processing software, the
photographer is able to blend the photos together and create a single
image comprised of the most focused, well-lit, and colorful parts of the
scene.
B. Tone Mapping
Tone
mapping is
a
technique
used
in image
processing and computer graphics to map one set of colors to another in
order to approximate the appearance of high dynamic range images in a
medium
that
has
a
more
limited dynamic
range. Printouts, CRT or LCD monitors, and projectors all have a limited dynamic
range that is inadequate to reproduce the full range of light intensities
present in natural scenes. Tone mapping addresses the problem of
strong contrast reduction from the scene radiance to the displayable
range while preserving the image details and color appearance
important to appreciate the original scene content.
C. Purpose and Methods
The goals of tone mapping can be differently stated depending
on the particular application. In some cases producing just aesthetically
370

pleasing images is the main goal, while other applications might

emphasize reproducing as many image details as possible, or
maximizing the image contrast. The goal in realistic rendering
applications might be to obtain a perceptual match between a real
scene and a displayed image even though the display device is not able
to reproduce the full range of luminance values.
Another approach to tone mapping of HDR images is inspired by
the anchoring theory of lightness perception. This theory explains
many characteristics of the human visual system such as lightness
constancy and its failures (as in the checker shadow illusion), which are
important in the perception of images. The key concept of this tone
mapping method (Lightness Perception in Tone Reproduction) is a
decomposition of an HDR image into areas (frameworks) of consistent
illumination and the local calculation of the lightness values. The net
lightness of an image is calculated by merging of the frameworks
proportionally to their strength. Particularly important is the
anchoringrelating of the luminance to a known luminance, namely
estimating which luminance value is perceived as white in the scene.
This approach to tone mapping does not affect the local contrast and
preserves the natural colors of an HDR image due to the linear
handling of luminance.
One simple form of tone mapping takes a standard image (not
HDR the dynamic range already compressed) and applies unsharp
masking with a large radius, which increases local contrast rather than
sharpening.
However, HDR tone mapping, usually using local operators, has
become increasingly popular amongst digital photographers as a postprocessing technique, where several exposures at different shutter
speeds are combined to produce an HDR image and a tone mapping
operator is then applied to the result. There are now many examples of
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locally tone mapped digital images, inaccurately known as "HDR

photographs", on the internet, and these are of varying quality. This
popularity is partly driven by the distinctive appearance of locally tone
mapped images, which many people find attractive, and partly by a
desire to capture high-contrast scenes that are hard or impossible to
photograph in a single exposure, and may not render attractively even
when they can be captured. Although digital sensors actually capture a
higher dynamic range than film, they completely lose detail in extreme
highlights, clipping them to pure white, producing an unattractive
result when compared with negative film, which tends to retain colour
and some detail in highlights.
In some cases local tone mapping is used even though the
dynamic range of the source image could be captured on the target
media, either to produce the distinctive appearance of a locally tone
mapped image, or to produce an image closer to the photographer's
artistic vision of the scene by removing sharp contrasts, which often
look unattractive. In some cases, tone mapped images are produced
from a single exposure which is then manipulated with conventional
processing tools to produce the inputs to the HDR image generation
process. This avoids the artifacts that can appear when different
exposures are combined, due to moving objects in the scene or camera
shake. However, when tone mapping is applied to a single exposure in
this way, the intermediate image has only normal dynamic range, and
the amount of shadow or highlight detail that can be rendered is only
that which was captured in the original exposure.
III.
PERCEPTUAL
IMAGE
QUALITY
ASSESSMENT
METRIC-STRUCTURAL SIMILARITY (SSIM)

This paper is related to structural similarity index (SSIM) which
represents perceptual image quality based on the structural
information. SSIM is an objective image quality metric and is superior
372

to traditional quantitative measures such as MSE and PSNR. This

project demonstrates the SSIM based image quality assessment and
illustrates its validity in terms of human visual perception. It will be
very helpful to understand SSIM and its applications by reviewing the
paper listed below.
The structural similarity (SSIM) method is a recently proposed
approach for image quality assessment. It is widely believed the
statistical properties of the natural visual environment play a
fundamental role in the evolution, development and adaptation of the
human visual system. An important observation about natural image
signal samples is that they are highly structured. By structured
signal, mean that the signal sample exhibit strong dependencies
amongst themselves, especially when they are spatially proximate.
These dependencies carry important information about the structure of
the objects in visual scene. The principal hypothesis of structural
similarity based image quality assessment is that the HVS is highly
adapted to extract structure information in the visual field, and
therefore a measurement of structure similarity or distortion should
provide a good approximation to perceived image quality. The SSIM
index is a method for measuring the similarity between two images.
The SSIM index is a full reference metric, in other words, the measure
event of image quality is based on an initial uncompressed or distortion
free image as reference. The SSIM is designed to improve on traditional
metrics like PSNR and MSE, which have proved to be inconsistent with
human eye perception.
The first approach is called the error sensitivity approach. In
that approach the test images data is considered as the sum of the
reference image and an error signal. It is assumed that the loss of
perceptual quality is directly related to the visibility of the error signal.
In most of HVS- based image quality assessment models attempt to
weigh and combine different aspect of the error signal according to
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their respective visual sensitivities, which are usually determined by

psychophysical measurement. And the problem with this approach is
that larger visible differences may not necessarily imply lower
perceptual quality.
In the second approach the observation process efficiently
extract and make the use of information represented in the natural
scene, whose statistical properties are believed to play a fundamental
role in the development of the HVS. So, the example of the second
approach is the structural similarity based image quality assessment
method, which is based on observation that natural images are highly
structured, meaning that the signal samples have strong
dependencies among themselves. These dependencies carry important
information about the structure of the objects in the visual scene.
Figure: 1 Structural Similarity (SSIM) Measurement System [6]

IV. QUALITY ASSESSMENT METHOD
Due to the reduction in dynamic range, TMOs cannot preserve
all information in HDR images, and human observers of the LDR
versions of these images may not be aware of this. Therefore, structural
fidelity plays an important role in assessing the quality of tone-mapped
images [19]. On the other hand, structural fidelity alone does not
suffice to provide an overall quality evaluation. A good quality tone
mapped image should achieve a good compromise between structural
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fidelity preservation and statistical naturalness, which are sometimes

competing factors.
A. STRUCTURAL FIDELITY
The SSIM approach provides a useful design philosophy as well
as a practical method for measuring structural fidelities between
images [20]. The original SSIM algorithm is applied locally and
contains three comparison components luminance, contrast and
structure. Since TMOs are meant to change local intensity and
contrast, direct comparisons of local and contrast are inappropriate. Let
x and y be two local image patches extracted from the HDR and the
tone-mapped LDR images, respectively. We define our local structural
fidelity measure as
where x , y and xy are the local standard deviations and cross

correlation between the two corresponding patches in HDR and LDR
images, respectively, and C1 and C2 are positive stabilizing constants.
Compared with the SSIM definition [15], the luminance comparison
component is missing, and the structure comparison component (the
second term in (1)) is exactly the same. The first term in (1) compares
signal strength and is modified from that of the SSIM definition based
on two intuitive considerations. First, the difference of signal strength
between HDR and LDR image patches should not be penalized when
their signal strengths are both significant (above visibility threshold) or
both insignificant (below visibility threshold). Second, the algorithm
should penalize the cases that the signal strength is significant in one
of the image patches but insignificant in the other. This is different
from the corresponding term in the original SSIM definition where any
change in signal strength is penalized.
375

To distinguish between significant and insignificant signal

strength, we pass the local standard deviation through a nonlinear
mapping, which results in the ` value employed in (1). The nonlinear
mapping should be designed so that significant signal strength is
mapped to 1 and insignificant signal strength to 0, with a smooth
transition in-between. Therefore, the nonlinear mapping is related to
the visual sensitivity of contrast, which has been an extensively studied
subject in the literature of visual psychophysics [21]. Practically, the
HVS does not have a fixed threshold of contrast detection, but typically
follows a gradual increasing probability in observing contrast
variations. Psychometric functions describing the detection probability
of signal strength have been employed to model the data taken from
psychophysical experiments. Generally, the psychometric function
resembles a sigmoid shape [22], [23] and the sensory threshold is
usually defined at the level of 50% of detection probability. A commonly
adopted psychometric function is known as Galtons ogive [21], which
takes the form of a cumulative normal distribution function given by
where p is the detection probability density, s is the amplitude of

the sinusoidal stimulus, s is the modulation threshold, and s is the
standard deviation of the normal distribution that controls the slope of
detection probability variation. It was found that the ratio
k =s/s
is roughly a constant, known as Croziers law . Typical values of k
ranges between 2.3 and 4, and k = 3 makes the probability of false
alarm considerably small [21]. The reciprocal of the modulation
threshold s is often used to quantify visual contrast sensitivity, which
is a function of spatial frequency, namely the contrast sensitivity
376

function (CSF) [21]. A CSF formula that fits well with data collected in
various psychological experiments is given by [25]
A( f ) 2.6[0.0192 + 0.114 f ] exp[(0.114 f )1.1]
where f denotes spatial frequency. This function is normalized
to have peak value 1, and thus only provides relative sensitivity across
the frequency spectrum. In practice, it needs to be scaled by a constant
to fit psychological data. In our implementation, we follow Kellys
CSF measurement [26].
Combining this with above, we obtain
s( f ) =1/ A( f ).
This threshold value is calculated based on contrast sensitivity
measurement assuming pure sinusoidal stimulus. To convert it to a
signal strength threshold measured using the standard deviation of the
signal, we need to take into account that signal amplitude scales with
both contrast and mean signal intensity, and there is A 2 factor
between the amplitude and standard deviation of a sinusoidal signal. As
a result, a threshold value defined on signal standard deviation can be
computed as
( f ) = / 2 A( f )
where is the mean intensity value. Based on Croziers law [21], [24],
we have
( f ) = ( f )/ k
We can then define the mapping between and ` as
In (1), `x and `y are the mapped versions of x and y, respectively.

They are bounded between 0 and 1, where 0 and 1 represent completely
377

insignificant and completely significant signal strengths, respectively.

The local structural fidelity measure S
local
is applied to an image using
a sliding window that runs across the image space. This results in a
map that reflects the variation of structural fidelity across space. The
visibility of image details depends on the sampling density of the image,
the distance between the image and the observer, the resolution of the
display, and the perceptual capability of the observers visual system. A
single scale method cannot capture such variations. Following the idea
used in multi-scale [16] and information-weighted SSIM [17], we adopt
a multi-scale approach, where the images are iteratively low-pass
filtered and down sampled to create an image pyramid structure [27],
as illustrated in Fig. 1. The local structural fidelity map is generated at
each scale. Fig. 2 shows two examples of such maps computed at
multiple scales for the LDR images created from two different TMOs. It
is interesting to observe these fidelity maps and examine how they
correlate with perceived image fidelity. For example, the structural
details of the brightest window regions are missing in Image (b), but
are more visible in Image (a). For another example, there are detailed
structures in the top-right dark regions that are not easily discerned in
Image (a), but are better visualized in Image (b). All of these are clearly
reflected in the structural fidelity maps.
At each scale, the map is pooled by averaging to provide a single score:
where xi and yi are the i -th patches in the HDR and LDR images
being compared, respectively, and Nl is the number of patches in the lth scale. In the literature, advanced pooling strategies such as
information content based pooling [17] have been shown to improve the
performance of IQA algorithms.
378

Fig 2. Framework of multiscale structural fidelity assessment

However, in our current experiment, these advanced pooling
methods did not result in notable performance gain in the proposed
structural fidelity measure. The overall structural fidelity is calculated
by combining scale level structural fidelity scores using the method in
[16]
where L is the total number of scales and l is the weight

assigned to the l-th scale. There are several parameters in the
implementation of our structural fidelity model. First, when computing
Slocal, we set C1 = 0.01 and C2 = 10, and we find that the overall
performance of the structural fidelity model is insensitive to these
parameters within an order of magnitude. Second, to create the fidelity
map at each scale, we adopt the same setting as in the SSIM algorithm
[15] by employing a Gaussian sliding window of size 1111 with
standard deviation 1.5. Third, as in [16], we assume a viewing distance
of 32 cycles/degree, which can represent signals up to 16 cycles/degree
of resolution without aliasing, and use 16 cycles/degree as the spatial
frequency parameter when applying the CSF in to the finest scale
measurement, the spatial frequency parameters applied to the
subsequent finer scales are then 8, 4, 2, 1 cycles/degree, respectively.
Fourth, the mean intensity value in (6) is set to be the mean of the
dynamic range of LDR images, i.e., = 128. Fifth, when combining the
379

measures across scales, we set L = 5 and {l} = {0.0448, 0.2856,

0.3001, 0.2363, 0.1333}, which follows the psychophysical experiment
results reported in [16]. Finally, in order to assess the quality of color
images, we first convert them from RGB color space to Yxy space and
then apply the proposed structural fidelity measure on the Y
component only.
B.STATISTICAL NATURALNESS
A high quality tone mapped LDR image should not only
faithfully preserve the structural fidelity of the HDR image, but also
look natural. Nevertheless, naturalness is a subjective quantity that is
difficult to define quantitatively. A large literature has been dedicated
to the statistics of natural images which have important significance to
both image processing applications and the understanding of biological
vision. An interesting study of naturalness in the context of subjective
evaluation of tone mapped images was carried out in which provided
useful information regarding the correlations between image
naturalness and different image attributes such as brightness, contrast,
color reproduction, visibility and reproduction of details. The results
showed that among all attributes being tested, brightness and contrast
have more correlation with perceived naturalness. This motivates us to
build our statistical naturalness model based on these two attributes.
This choice may be oversimplifying in defining the general concept of
statistical image naturalness (and may not generalize to other image
processing applications that uses the concept of naturalness), but it
provides an ideal compromise between the simplicity of our model and
the capability of capturing the most important ingredients of
naturalness that are related to the tone mapping evaluation problem
we are trying to solve, where brightness mapping is an inevitable issue
in all tone mapping operations. It also best complements the structural
fidelity measure described in above, where brightness modeling and
evaluation are missing.
380

Fig 3 Histograms of (a) means (fitted by Gaussian PDF) and (b)

standard deviations (fitted by Beta PDF) of natural images
Our statistical naturalness model is built upon statistics
conducted on about 3,000 8bits/pixel gray-scale images obtained from
that represent many different types of natural scenes. Fig. 3 shows the
histograms of the means and standard deviations of these images,
which are useful measures that reflect the global intensity and contrast
of images. Recent studies suggested that brightness and contrast are
largely independent quantities in terms of both natural image statistics
and biological computation [32]. As a result, their joint probability
density function would be the product of the two. Therefore, we define
our statistical naturalness measure as
N = (1/K) Pm Pd
where K is a normalization factor given by K = max{Pm Pd }.
This constrains the statistical naturalness measure to be bounded
between 0 and 1.
C.QUALITY ASSESSMENT MODEL
Given a tone mapped LDR image, we now have two available
measurements, structural fidelity S and naturalness N, which are given
by above equations respectively. These two quantities can be used
individually or jointly as a 2D vector that characterizes different
aspects of the quality of the LDR image. However, in most applications,
381

users would prefer to have a single quality score of the image.

Therefore, an overall quality evaluation that combines both quantities
is desirable. In particular, we define the following 3-parameter function
to combine the two components
Q = aS + (1 a) N
where 0 < a < 1 determines the relative weights assigned to the
two components, and and defines the sensitivities of the two
components, respectively. Since both S and N are upper-bounded by 1,
this overall quality measure is also Upper-bounded by 1.
V. VALIDATION OF QUALITY ASSESSMENT METHOD
The validation process is conducted by comparing our objective
quality assessment results with subjective data. Two evaluation metrics
are employed which are given as follows.
1) Spearmans rank-order correlation coefficient (SRCC) is
defined as
where di is the difference between the i -th images ranks in

subjective and objective evaluations. SRCC is a nonparametric rankorder based correlation metric, independent of any monotonic
nonlinear mapping between subjective and objective scores.
2) Kendalls rank-order correlation coefficient (KRCC) is
another non-parametric rank correlation metric computed as
where Nc and Nd are the numbers of concordant (of consistent

rank order) and discordant (of inconsistent rank order) pairs in the
data set, respectively.
382

The proposed TMQI is the only objective quality measure being

tested. To the best of our knowledge, almost no other method has been
proposed to compare images with different dynamic ranges. The only
exception is the method proposed in [14], which creates probability
maps to distinguish between visible (supra threshold) and invisible (sub
threshold) degradations. The probability maps are shown to be useful
in classifying image distortion types but are not meant to be pooled to
produce an overall quality score of a tone mapped image. As a result,
direct comparison with the proposed method is not possible.
VI. RESULTS
Fig 4 images generated with different parameter Q, S, & N

values
Fig. 5 Run time versus the number of image pixels of the proposed
algorithm
383

Fig 6. images generated with different parameter Q, S, & N

values
VII. CONCLUSION
An objective model to assess the quality of tone mapped images
is developed by combining a multi-scale structural fidelity measure and
a statistical naturalness measure. The proposed measure not only
provides an overall quality score of an image, but also creates multiscale quality maps that reflect the structural fidelity variations across
scale and space. TMQI is designed to evaluate grayscale images only,
but most HDR images of natural scenes are captured in color. One
simple method to evaluate tone mapped color images is to apply the
TMQI to each color channel independently and then combine them.
Color fidelity and color naturalness measures may be developed to
improve the quality measure. Simple averaging is used in the current
pooling method of the structural fidelity map. Statistical naturalness
measure is based on intensity statistics only. Advanced statistical
models (that reflects the structural regularities in space, scale and
orientation in natural images) may be included to improve the
statistical naturalness measure. Using TMQI as a new optimization
goal, many existing TMOs may be redesigned to achieve better image
quality. Novel TMOs may also be developed by taking advantage of the
construction of the proposed quality assessment approach. Finally, the
current method is applied and tested using natural images only. The
application scope of HDR images and TMOs is beyond natural images.
For example, modern medical imaging devices often capture HDR
medical images that need to be tone-mapped before visualization. The
384

TMQI and optimization methods may be adapted to these extended

applications.
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International Journal of Multidisciplinary

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

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Department of Political Economy

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Vice Chancellor, Patna University

Chair of Philosophy Department

Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater

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Dr. Zoran Vujisi

Department of Social Work

Prof. P.D.Satya Paul

Founder and President

Dr. Momin Mohamed Naser

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Postdoctoral Research Fellow

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S. S. Jalan Girls College

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Department of Journalism & Mass Comm

Dr. H.N. Vidya

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Prof. Chanakya Kumar

Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education

IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research,

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Energy Security Being a State Security

Discovering Synonym Finder Primarily Based Approach

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Women and Politics in India

Finding the Optimal Number of Ticketing Counters at

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An Over-View Discussion & Conservation of Wetlands

Design, Engineering and Analysis of Utility Scale Solar

Time Constrained Self-Destructing Data System

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Compressed Air Vehicle (CAV) (A Practical Approach

Design of an Optimised Low Power Full Adder Using

An MTCMOS Technique for Optimizing Low Power

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Enhancement Scheme low Power Pulse Triggered Flip

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Degraded Document image Enhancing in Spatial

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(Dr.Victor Babu Koppula)

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

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Vijay Kumar, P.P.N

Wood Biodegradation Centre (Marine)

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Machilipatnam minor port and the baseline information so generated is