secondedition

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LINEARALGEBRA
AGeometricApproach
secondedition


Thispageintentionallyleftblank

LINEARALGEBRA
AGeometricApproach
secondedition

TheodoreShifrinMalcolmR.Adams
UniversityofGeorgia
W.H.FreemanandCompanyNewYork


Publisher:RuthBaruthSeniorAcquisitionsEditor:TerriWardExecutiveMarketingManager:JenniferSomerville
AssociateEditor:KatrinaWilhelmEditorialAssistant:LaurenKimmichPhotoEditor:BiancaMoscatelliCover
andTextDesigner:BlakeLoganProjectEditors:LeighRenhardandTechsetters,Inc.Illustrations:Techsetters,

Inc.SeniorIllustrationCoordinator:BillPageProductionManager:EllenCashComposition:Techsetters,Inc.
PrintingandBinding:RRDonnelley
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2010921838
ISBN13:9781429215213ISBN10:14292152162011,2002byW.H.FreemanandCompanyAllrightsreserved
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
Firstprinting
W.H.FreemanandCompany41MadisonAvenueNewYork,NY10010Houndmills,BasingstokeRG216XS,England
www.whfreeman.com

CONTENTS

PrefaceviiForewordtotheInstructorxiiiForewordtotheStudentxvii

Chapter1VectorsandMatrices1
1.Vectors12.DotProduct183.HyperplanesinRn284.SystemsofLinearEquationsandGaussian
Elimination365.TheTheoryofLinearSystems536.SomeApplications64

Chapter2MatrixAlgebra81
1.MatrixOperations812.LinearTransformations:AnIntroduction913.InverseMatrices1024.
ElementaryMatrices:RowsGetEqualTime1105.TheTranspose119

Chapter3VectorSpaces127
1.SubspacesofRn1272.TheFourFundamentalSubspaces1363.LinearIndependenceandBasis
1434.DimensionandItsConsequences1575.AGraphicExample1706.AbstractVectorSpaces
176
v


vi
Contents

Chapter4ProjectionsandLinearTransformations191
1.InconsistentSystemsandProjection1912.OrthogonalBases2003.TheMatrixofaLinear
Transformationandthe
ChangeofBasisFormula2084.LinearTransformationsonAbstractVectorSpaces224

Chapter5Determinants239
1.PropertiesofDeterminants2392.CofactorsandCramersRule2453.SignedAreainR2and
SignedVolumeinR3255

Chapter6EigenvaluesandEigenvectors261
1.TheCharacteristicPolynomial2612.Diagonalizability2703.Applications2774.TheSpectral
Theorem286

Chapter7FurtherTopics299
1.ComplexEigenvaluesandJordanCanonicalForm2992.ComputerGraphicsandGeometry3143.
MatrixExponentialsandDifferentialEquations331
ForFurtherReading349AnswerstoSelectedExercises351ListofBlueBoxes367Index369

PREFACE

O
neofthemostenticingaspectsofmathematics,wehavefound,istheinterplayofideasfromseeminglydisparate
disciplinesofthesubject.Linearalgebraprovidesabeautifulillustrationofthis,inthatitisbynaturebothalgebraic
andgeometric.Ourintuitionconcerninglinesandplanesinspaceacquiresanalgebraicinterpretationthatthen
makessensemoregenerallyinhigherdimensions.Whatsmore,inourdiscussionofthevectorspaceconcept,we
willseethatquestionsfromanalysisanddifferentialequationscanbeapproachedthroughlinearalgebra.Indeed,itis
fairtosaythatlinearalgebraliesatthefoundationofmodernmathematics,physics,statistics,andmanyother
disciplines.Linearproblemsappearingeometry,analysis,andmanyappliedareas.Itisthismultifacetedaspectof
linearalgebrathatwehopeboththeinstructorandthestudentswillfindappealingastheyworkthroughthisbook.
From a pedagogical point of view, linear algebra is an ideal subject for students to learn to think about
mathematical concepts and to write rigorous mathematical arguments. One of our goals in writing this textaside
from presenting the standard computational aspects and some interesting applicationsis to guide the student in
this endeavor. We hope this book will be a thoughtprovoking introduction to the subject and its myriad
applications, one that will be interesting to the science or engineering student but will also help the mathematics
studentmakethetransitiontomoreabstractadvancedcourses.
We have tried to keep the prerequisites for this book to a minimum. Although many of our students will have
had a course in multivariable calculus, we do not presupposeanyexposuretovectorsorvectoralgebra.Weassume
only a passing acquaintance with the derivative and integral inSection6of Chapter3andSection4 ofChapter4.Of
course, in the discussion of differential equations in Section 3 of Chapter 7, we expect a bit more,including some
familiaritywithpowerseries,inorderforstudentstounderstandthematrixexponential.
In the second edition, we have added approximately 20% more examples(a numberofwhicharesampleproofs)
and exercisesmost computational, so that there are now over 210 examples and 545 exercises (many with multiple
parts). We have also added solutionstomanymoreexercisesattheback ofthebook,hoping thatthiswillhelpsome
of the students in the case of exercises requiring proofs, these will provide additional worked examples that many
students have requested. We continue to believe that good exercises are ultimately what makes a superior
mathematicstext.
Inbrief,herearesomeofthedistinctivefeaturesofourapproach:
Weintroducegeometryfromthestart,usingvectoralgebratodoabitofanalyticgeometryinthefirstsectionand
thedotproductinthesecond.

vii


viii
Preface

 We emphasizeconceptsandunderstandingwhy,doing proofsinthetextandaskingthestudentto do plentyinthe

exercises. To help the student adjust to a higher level of mathematical rigor, throughouttheearlyportionofthetext
we provide blue boxes discussing matters of logic and proof technique or advice on formulatingproblemsolving
strategies. A complete list of the blue boxes is included at theendofthebookfortheinstructorsandthestudents
reference.
We use rotations, reflections, and projections in R2 as afirstbrushwiththenotionofalineartransformationwhen
we introduce matrix multiplication we then treat linear transformations generally in concert with the discussion of
projections. Thus, we motivate the changeofbasis formula by starting with a coordinate system in which a
geometricallydefinedlineartransformationisclearlyunderstoodandaskingforitsstandardmatrix.
Weemphasizeorthogonalcomplementsandtheirroleinfindingahomogeneoussystemoflinearequationsthat
definesagivensubspaceofRn.
In thelastchapter weincludetopicsfortheadvancedstudent,suchasJordancanonicalform, aclassificationofthe
motions of R2 and R3, and a discussion of how Mathematica draws twodimensional images of threedimensional
shapes.
The historical notes at the end of each chapter, prepared with the generous assistance of Paul Lorczak for the first
edition, have been left as is. We hope that they give readers an idea how the subjectdeveloped and who the key
playerswere.
A few wordsonmiscellaneoussymbolsthatappearinthetext:Wehavemarkedwith anasterisk ()theproblems
for which there are answers or solutions at the backofthetext.Asaguideforthenewteacher,wehavealsomarked
with a sharp () those theoretical exercises that areimportantandtowhichreferenceismadelater.We indicatethe
endofaproofbythesymbol.

SignificantChangesintheSecondEdition
We have added some examples (particularly of proof reasoning) to Chapter 1 and streamlined the discussion in
Sections 4 and5.Inparticular,wehaveincludedafairlysimpleproofthatthe rankofamatrixiswelldefinedandhave
outlined in an exercise how thissimpleproof can beextendedtoshowthatreducedechelonformisunique.Wehave
alsointroducedtheLesliematrixandanapplicationtopopulationdynamicsinSection6.
We have reorganized Chapter2, adding two new sections: one on linear transfor mations and one on elementary
matrices. This makes our introduction of linear transformations more detailed and more accessible than in the first
edition,pavingthewayforcontinuedexplorationinChapter4.
We have combined the sections on linear independence and basis and noticeablystreamlined thetreatment ofthe
four fundamentalsubspacesthroughoutChapter3. Inparticular,wenowobtainalltheorthogonalityrelationsamong
thesefoursubspacesinSection2.
We have altered Section 1 of Chapter 4 somewhat and have completely reorga nized the treatment of the
changeofbasis theorem. Now we treat first linear maps T : Rn Rn in Section 3, and we delay to Section 4 the
generalcaseandlinearmapsonabstractvectorspaces.
We havecompletelyreorganizedChapter5,movingthegeometricinterpretationof thedeterminant fromSection1to
Section3.UntiltheendofSection1,wehavetiedthecomputationof determinantstorowoperationsonly, provingat
theendthatthisimpliesmultilinearity.