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9-82
Figure 9.36 Soil Resistance to a Lateral Pile Load (adapted from Smith, 1989)
The design of laterally loaded piles must evaluate both the pile structural response and soil
deformation to lateral loads. The factor of safety against both ultimate soil failure and pile
structural failure must be determined. In addition, the pile deformation under the design
loading conditions must be calculated and compared to foundation performance criteria.
The design of laterally loaded piles requires the combined skills of the geotechnical and
structural engineer. It is inappropriate for the geotechnical engineer to analyze a laterally
loaded pile without a full understanding of pile-structure interaction. Likewise it is
inappropriate for the structural engineer to complete a laterally loaded pile design without a
full understanding of how pile section or spacing changes may alter the soil response.
Because of the interaction of pile structural and geotechnical considerations, the
economical solution of lateral pile loading problems requires communication between the
structural and geotechnical engineer.
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Soil, pile, and load parameters have significant effects on the lateral load capacity of piles.
The factors influencing these parameters are as follows:
1. Soil Parameters
a.
Soil type and physical properties such as shear strength, friction angle,
density, groundwater level, and moisture content.
b.
2. Pile Parameters
a.
b.
c.
d.
Group action.
b.
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For the design of all major pile foundation projects, Reese's more rigorous computer
method should be used. The LPILE program is described in more detail in Section
9.7.3.3. Additional information on the LPILE program may be found in the program
technical manual by Reese et al. (2000).
9.7.3.2 Broms' Method
The Broms' method is a straight forward hand calculation method for lateral load analysis of
a single pile. The method calculates the ultimate soil resistance to lateral load as well as
the maximum moment induced in the pile. Broms' method can be used to evaluate fixed or
free head conditions in either purely cohesive or purely cohesionless soil profiles. The
method is not conducive to lateral load analyses in mixed cohesive and cohesionless soil
profiles. For long fixed head piles in sands, the method can also overpredict lateral load
capacities (Long, 1996). Therefore, for mixed profiles and for long fixed head piles in
sands, the LPILE program should be used. A step by step procedure developed by the
New York State Department of Transportation (1977) on the application of Broms' method
is provided below.
STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE FOR BROMS' METHOD
STEP 1
Determine the general soil type (i.e., cohesive or cohesionless) within the critical
depth below the ground surface (about 4 or 5 pile diameters).
STEP 2
Determine the coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction, Kh, within the critical
depth for cohesive or cohesionless soils.
a.
Cohesive Soils: K h =
n1 n2 80 qu
b
Where:
b.
Cohesionless Soils:
Choose Kh from the Table 9-14. (The values of Kh given in Table 9-14 were
determined by Terzaghi.)
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N1
0.32
0.36
0.40
Pile Material
N2
Steel
Concrete
Wood
1.00
1.15
1.30
STEP 3
1900 (7)
8143 (30)
17644 (65)
1086 (4)
5429 (20)
10857 (40)
b.
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STEP 4
b.
c.
d.
Yield stress of pile material, fy, in MPa (lb/in2) for steel or ultimate
compression strength, f'c, in MPa (lb/in2) for concrete.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
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STEP 5
STEP 6
STEP 7
b.
b.
Cohesive soil:
1. hD > 2.25 (long pile).
2. hD < 2.25 (short pile).
Note:
b.
It is suggested that for hD values between 2.0 and 2.5, both long and
short pile criteria should be considered in Step 9, and then the smaller
value should be used.
Cohesionless soil:
1. D > 4.0 (long pile).
2. D < 2.0 (short pile).
3. 2.0 < D < 4.0 (intermediate pile).
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STEP 8
STEP 9
b.
c.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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Figure 9.37 Ultimate Lateral Load Capacity of Short Piles in Cohesive Soils
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Figure 9.38 Ultimate Lateral Load Capacity of Long Piles in Cohesive Soils
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Figure 9.39 Ultimate Lateral Load Capacity of Short Piles in Cohesionless Soils
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Figure 9.40 Ultimate Lateral Load Capacity of Long Piles in Cohesionless Soils
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STEP 10
Calculate the maximum allowable working load for a single pile Qm.
Calculate Qm in kN (lbs) from the ultimate load Qu in kN (lbs) determined in
Step 9 as shown in Figure 9.41.
Qm =
Qu
2.5
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b.
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ec/D
0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05
10
0.00
Dimensionless
Deflection
Factor,
yKhbD/Qa
4
Free Head
Fixed Head
0
0
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10
Dimensionless
Deflection
Factor,
y(EI)3/5Kh2/5/QaD
Free Head
ec/D
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Fixed Head
0
0
10
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STEP 13 Reduce the allowable load from Step 12 for pile group effects and the method of
pile installation.
a.
b.
Reduction
Factor
8b
1.0
6b
0.8
4b
0.5
3b
0.4
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Special Note
Inspection of Figures 9.39 and 9.40 for cohesionless soils indicates that the ultimate load
Qu is directly proportional to the effective soil unit weight, . As a result, the ultimate load
for short piles in submerged cohesionless soils will be about 50 percent of the value for the
same soil in a dry state. For long piles, the reduction in Qu is somewhat less than 50
percent due to the partially offsetting effect that the reduction in has on the dimensionless
yield factor. In addition to these considerations, it should be noted that the coefficient of
horizontal subgrade reaction Kh is less for the submerged case (Table 9-14) and thus the
deflection will be greater than for the dry state.
p
y
The negative sign indicates that the soil resistance opposes pile deflection. The soil
modulus, Es, is the secant modulus of the p-y curve and is not constant except over a small
range of deflections. Typical p-y curves are shown in Figure 9.45. Ductile p-y curves, such
as curve A, are typical of the response of soft clays under static loading and sands. Brittle
p-y curves, such as curve B, can be found in some stiff clays under dynamic loading
conditions.
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Figure 9.45 Typical p-y Curves for Ductile and Britle Soil (after Coduto, 1994)
The factor most influencing the shape of the p-y curve is the soil properties. However, the
p-y curves also depend upon depth, soil stress-strain relationships, pile width, water table
location, and loading conditions (static or cyclic). Procedures for constructing p-y curves
for various soil and water table conditions as well as static or cyclic loading conditions are
provided in the LPILE program documentation by Reese et al., (2000).
Procedures for p-y curve development cover the following soil and water table conditions:
1. Soft clays below the water table.
2. Stiff clays below the water table.
3. Stiff clays above the water table.
4. Sands above or below the water table.
The LPILE program solves the nonlinear differential equations representing the behavior of
the pile-soil system to lateral (shear and moment) loading conditions in a finite difference
formulation using Reese's p-y method of analysis. The strongly nonlinear reaction of the
surrounding soil to pile-soil deflection is represented by the p-y curve prescribed to act on
each discrete element of the embedded pile. For each set of applied boundary (static)
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loads the program performs an iterative solution which satisfies static equilibrium and
achieves an acceptable compatibility between force and deflection (p and y) in every
element.
The shape and discrete parameters defining each individual p-y curve may be input by the
user or generated by the program. Layered soil systems are characterized by conventional
geotechnical data including soil type, shear strength, density, depth, and stiffness
parameters, and whether the loading conditions are monotonic or cyclic in nature.
In LPILE, the influence of applied loads (axial, lateral and moment) at each element can be
modeled with flexural rigidity varying as a function of applied moment. In this manner,
progressive flexural damage such as cracking in a reinforced concrete pile can be treated
more rigorously. The LPILE program code includes a subroutine which calculates the value
of flexural rigidity at each element under the boundary conditions and resultant pile-soil
interaction conditions.
LPILE problem data is input through a series of menu-driven screens. Detailed information
concerning the software can be found in the LPILE program users manual by Reese et al.
(2000). The users manual includes useful guidelines for integrating LPILE analyses into
the overall design process for laterally loaded deep foundations, and example problems.
The LPILE computer printout file summarizes the input information and the analysis results.
The input data summarized includes the pile geometry and properties, and soil strength
data. Output information includes the generated p-y curves at various depths below the
pile head and the computed pile deflections, bending moments, stresses and soil moduli as
functions of depth below the pile head. This information allows an analysis of the piles
structural capacity. Internally generated (or input) values of flexural rigidity for cracked or
damaged pile sections are also output. Graphical presentations versus depth include the
computed deflection, slope, moment, and shear in the pile, and soil reaction forces similar
to those illustrated in Figure 9.46.
The LPILE analyses characterize the behavior of a single pile under lateral loading
conditions. A detailed view is obtained of the load transfer and structural response
mechanisms to design conditions. Considerable care is required in extrapolating the
results to the behavior of pile groups (pile-soil-pile interaction, etc.), and accounting for the
effects of different construction processes such as predrilling or jetting.
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The opening LPILE program screen is presented in Figure 9.48. The main basic menu
choices include; File, Data, Options, Computation, and Graphic. Clicking on the File menu
allows the user to choice between a opening a new or existing file. File saving is also
under the File menu options. A step by step procedure follows for performing a new LPILE
analysis. The program user should also consult the LPILE technical and users manuals by
Reese et al. (2000).
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Click on the Options menu. A submenu will open to the right allowing the unit
system for the analysis to be selected.
STEP 2
STEP 3
Click on Title in the drop down window. The project title window will then
appear as shown in Figure 9.49. A single line of text can then be entered to
describe the project. After entering analysis description, click on the X to close
the box.
STEP 4
Next click on Pile Properties in the drop down window. The pile properties
window will appear as shown in Figure 9.50.
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Figure 9.50 LPILE Data Menu and Pile Property and Pile Section Windows
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STEP 5
a.
b.
c.
Enter the distance from the pile head to the ground surface in meters
(inches). Use a negative number if the pile head is below ground surface.
d.
If applicable, enter the combined ground slope and pile batter angle in
degrees. The ground slope is defined as the angle between the sloping
ground surface and a horizontal surface. The angle is positive if the pile
moves downhill under the applied load and negative if the pile moves
uphill. The pile batter angle from vertical is handled similarly. The batter
angle is positive if the load is applied against the batter direction and
negative if the load is applied with the batter direction.
e.
Click on the Edit Pile Sectional Properties box and the Pile Sections
window will appear. Enter pile section information consisting of depth,
diameter, moment of inertia, cross sectional area, and modulus of
elasticity. For non-uniform piles, up to 10 rows of data can be entered by
clicking on the Add Row box as necessary. Cross sectional area and
moment of inertia data for most pile sections may be found in Appendix C.
Click on Loading Type in the Data menu. The Loading Type window will appear
as shown in Figure 9.51.
a.
For each critical set of loading combinations, determine the axial loads,
lateral loads, and bending moments to be analyzed. Load information
should be supplied by the structural engineers.
b.
c.
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Figure 9.51 LPILE Loading Type and Distributed Loads Input Screens
Figure 9.52 LPILE Pile Head Boundary Conditions and Loading Input Screen
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STEP 6
Click on Boundary Conditions and Loading in the Data menu. The Pile Head
Boundary Conditions window will appear as shown in Figure 9.52 The five
available boundary condition options are depicted.
a.
b.
STEP 7
Click on Soil Conditions in the Data menu. The soil layers window will then
appear as shown in Figure 9.53. The nine available soil type selections are
depicted and correspond to the p-y model that will be assigned to the layer.
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Figure 9.53 LPILE Soil Layers and Individual Soil Property Input Screens
a. For each soil layer, select the soil type and values for the top and
bottom of each soil layer. Then click on data for soil properties
line corresponding to the layer.
b. For each soil type, a second soil property input window will
appear. The user must input values for the effective unit weight
and depending upon the soil type selected, values for the
cohesive strength, the soil strain 50, the p-y modulus, the friction
angle, the uniaxial compressive strength and Youngs Modulus.
Values for 50, can be obtained from triaxial tests or an assumed
value from Table 9-15 can be selected. Values for the p-y
modulus, k, can be measured from laboratory or in-situ test data or
assumed value from Table 9-16 can be chosen.
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c.
After inputting the required soil information for the selected soil
type, close the soil property box and return to the soil layer
window. Add rows as appropriate for the soil model and repeat
steps a and b for each layer
Clay
Consistency
50
cu in kPa (ksf)
Soft Clay
12 24
(0.25 0.50)
0.02
Medium Clay
24 48
(0.50 - 1.0)
0.01
Stiff Clay
48 96
(1.0 2.0)
0.007
0.005
Hard Clay
0.004
STEP 8
Click on the Analysis Type in the Options menu. The Analysis Type window will
then appear as shown in Figure 9.54. The four analysis type options available
are as follows:
Type 1 Computations of Pile Response with User Specified, Constant
EI (Basic Modeling). This analysis uses the modulus of elasticity, E,
and moment of inertia, I, that were input in the pile properties section.
Type 2 -- Computations of Ultimate Bending Moment of Cross Section
(Section Design). Selection of this analysis method activates additional
Data menu input screens (not described herein) on the pile cross
sectional shape, the pile cross sectional dimensions, the rebar
arrangement, the cross sectional material properties and the axial loads
for the cross section analysis. This analysis option computes the
ultimate bending moment and the nonlinear variation of flexural
stiffness with applied moment.
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In this step the lateral, axial and bending moments used in the analysis
should be ultimate values.
b.
For concrete piles, the value of I for a cracked section can be determined
directly by LPILE for each loading step. Alternatively, variations in E and I
can be entered as a function of depth along the pile.
Use design loading conditions and not ultimate values for lateral and axial
loads and bending moments.
b.
STEP 12 Optimize required pile section and pile penetration depth for lateral loading
conditions to meet performance criteria as necessary.
After a basic LPILE analysis is performed, additional analyses can be used to refine the
lateral pile design. Evaluation of pile group performance is discussed in Section 9.8.4.
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