Adoption

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New Ways of Thinking about the Influence of Cultural Identity, Place and
Spirituality on Child Development within Child Placement Practice
Victoria Sharley
Adoption & Fostering 2012 36: 112
DOI: 10.1177/030857591203600312
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http://aaf.sagepub.com/content/36/3-4/112

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What is This?

New ways of thinking about the influence of

cultural identity, place and spirituality on
child development within child placement
practice
The policy and practice of family placement within the UK
can be understood as the archetypal separation of a
person from their physical environment, yet the intersection of person with place both past and present has
been argued to be crucial for identity formation. Indeed,
intersectional analysts have called for alternative frameworks which challenge western models centering on the
individual person disconnected from his or her community. An emerging body of work has drawn on Maori
social work literature to explore the intersection of person
(identity) with place through an application to the concept
of spirituality within western social work practice models
(Zapf, 2005a, b). According to this perspective, people
can have deep spiritual connections with the physical
environment in which they live, creating a sense of belonging and attachment to that place. Victoria Sharley considers this Maori spiritual analysis in the context of family
placement practice in the UK. In so doing, she offers a
new way of thinking about the inter-relationship of cultural
identity, place and spirituality as it affects the development of children separated from their birth families.

Victoria Sharley is a
social worker
specialising in
domestic violence
and abuse, Devon,
UK
Key words:
spirituality, place,
family placement,
separation, cultural
identity, Maori

112

Introduction

The policy and practice of family

placement within the UK can be understood as the archetypal separation of a
person from their physical environment.
Yet the intersection of person with
place both past and present has been
argued to be crucial for identity formation (Sheldrake, 2001; Canda, 2008;
Crisp, 2008). Place is considered not
just as a geographical position but as a
space connecting a persons narrative
with their environment (Sheldrake,
2001). Inspired by the authors experience of working closely with a Maori
community in Napier, New Zealand, this
short article draws on a Maori spiritual
framework to interrogate western
theoretical frameworks and concepts
commonly deployed in the context of
family placement. In so doing, it offers a
new way of thinking about the influence

of cultural identity, place and spirituality

on child development within placement
practice in the UK.
An alternative framework

A body of work has drawn on Maori

social work literature to explore the
intersection of person (identity) with
place through an application of the
concept of spirituality within western
social work practice models (Zapf,
2005a, b). According to this perspective,
people can have deep spiritual connections with the physical environment in
which they live, creating a sense of
belonging and attachment to that place.
Maori cultural identities are directly
connected to the physical place where
many generations have shared their
history and lifestyle in coexistence,
stewardship, co-operation and harmony
with the natural world (Zapf, 2005b).
Zapf (2005a) cites Spretnak (1991, p 91)
in explaining spiritual values that start
from the assumption that people and
nature (land) are inextricably linked:
A people rooted in the land over time
have exchanged their tears, their breath,
their bones, all of their element
oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur, all the rest with
their habitat many times over. Here
nature knows us.
People are not viewed as separate from
but as part of the natural environment,
which is conceptualised as a living
system that is a source of energy and
knowledge (Zapf, 2005b). Referring
again to Spretnak (1991, p 90), Zapf
emphasises how the physical environment does not provide a passive backdrop to human action but is a sensate
conscious entity suffused with spiritual
powers. This profound interconnected-

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ADOPTION & FOSTERING VOLUME 36 NUMBERS 3 & 4 2012

ness of persons to land and place has

been summarised by the metaphor of I
am I and the Environment (Ortega y
Gasset, 1985, cited in Zapf, 2005a, p 6),
or Im not in the place but the place is
in me (Suopajarvi, 1998, cited in Zapf,
2005a, p 6). This view is one of relatedness and interdependence of all life
forms within an all-encompassing and
integrated whole, which enables coexistence and a profound sense of belonging
(Coates et al, 2006). It is through belonging that all life forms can thrive and
develop, and realise their unique identity
within relationships that are mutually
beneficial (Coates et al, 2006). Understanding the importance of wairuatanga,
the Maori expression of the spiritual
dimension and the spiritual connection
of a person to all dimensions of their
world, is therefore significant for practitioners in conceptualising Maori cultural
identity (Munford and Sanders, 2011).
Further, for Maori, an important
spiritual connection concerning place
is a persons position and ancestry in
their whanau (wider family grouping),
iwi (tribe) and hapu (sub-tribe) (Ruwhiu,
2008). The position that a person has
within their whanau involves understanding the relational and familial
connections across generations. Ancestral relationships provide clarity about
the obligations, rights, roles and practices for connecting with people within
and outside the whanau (Munford and
Sanders, 2011). This is significant for
Maori because respecting the position of
a person within their whanau, iwi and
hapu is crucially important for protecting mana (honour and respect accorded
to a person). Whanau connections within
and between generations are thus
important in providing a deep sense of
shared history and cultural identity
(Munford and Sanders, 2011).
How might this alternative
framework interrogate western
theoretical frameworks and
concepts commonly deployed in
the context of family placement
for looked after children?

This section considers four western

theoretical frameworks and concepts that

have contributed to understanding and

intervention within child placement
practice in the light of the alternative
Maori framework linking identity,
spirituality and place. These are: the
ecological model of child development;
resilience; attachment theory; and a
strengths-based perspective.
The ecological model of child
development

The ecological or bio-psychosocial

model has been influential in conceptualising child development as being
influenced by interactive relationships
occurring across a number of subsystems at ontogenic-level (individual),
micro-level (family), exo-level (community) and macro-level (socio-cultural)
within the childs environment (see
Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Jack, 2001; Jack
and Gill, 2003). Within family placement practice the role of the professional
is to establish and/or support the viability of the family, and indeed the capacity
of the prospective primary carer/parent
(in the context of the familial and wider
social environment), for the benefit of a
child who is deemed in need (Department of Health, 2000). Family placement support focuses on improving the
parenting relationship, diminishing
developmental risk to children and the
vulnerability of the family, and establishing protective factors to increase
childrens resilience (Rutter, 1985;
Cleaver et al, 1999).
The relational nature and interconnectivity of the alternative Maori perspective resonates with the conceptual
framework of the ecological model,
which foregrounds interacting subsystems (Coates et al, 2006). However,
the spiritual and physical dimensions of
the natural environment as interrelating
and coexisting with the human,
subjective dimension are missing from
the ecological model (Munford and
Sanders, 2011). According to Zapf
(2005a), the Maori spiritual view of the
environmental context in which family
placement takes place is not to be seen
as a lifeless backdrop or modifying
factor influencing the carer/parentchild

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relationship. The placement and people

within it are not separable from the
natural environment, but spiritually connected to it as a living system. The Maori
concern would be to align the child and
parents emotional, physical, mental and
spiritual characteristics with the environment and the spirit world (Hart, 1996,
cited in Zapf, 2005a, p 7). This differs
from the western model of separating
and isolating individuals and relationships for treatment and re-introduction
into the social world (Zapf, 2005a).

and source of belonging and restoration.

For Maori, land is a sacred place, not
just as a physical site that links people
and the spiritual world, but a place for
which there is history and continuity of
identity across generations. It is this
capacity of place to provide people with
memories, a sense of permanence and
belonging that can equip children who
are dislocated and relocated. Special
places that help a child feel rooted may
be especially important at times of
greatest displacement (Crisp, 2008).

Spirituality as a component of
resilience

Attachment theory

Research identifying how some children

display resilience in the face of adversity
has influenced family placement practice, such that components of resilience
are identified by professionals when
determining childrens needs and assessing prospective placement families.
Rutter (1985) highlighted key components of resilience as self-esteem, a
belief in ones own self-efficacy and
agency and ability to change ones
circumstances, and strategies for
problem-solving. Religion and spiritual
beliefs have been proposed as contributing to strengths and resilience, by
providing meaning for experiences and/
or offering a value system for parenting
(Gotterer, 2001; Dutt and Phillips, 2010;
Furness and Gilligan, 2010). Yet
literature highlights that professionals do
not consider the influence of religion
and spiritual beliefs routinely in their
work with children and families (Seden,
1995; Dutt and Phillips, 2010; Furness
and Gilligan, 2010). While this may be
linked to negative media perspectives on
religion and spirituality, it nevertheless
suggests that these are viewed as
optional add-on components in the
ecological or bio-psychosocial developmental model (Canda, 2008).
The Maori world view does not regard
spirituality as another component of the
child or parent to be assessed, or as a
resource to be accessed in a care plan
(Zapf, 2008). A broader version of
spirituality connects the person with
their physical environment as a partner
114

Attachment theorists have explored the

importance of the parentchild attachment relationship to the way the mind
processes interpersonal information
about the self and the relationships with
others to use as a psychosocial template
for future relationships (Howe, 2005).
Children often bring insecure relationship templates to their relationships with
their placement parent(s). Placement
support has, therefore, increasingly
focused on enabling foster parents/carers
both to recognise the attachment
behaviours and defence mechanisms of
their childrens insecure relationship
styles, and empathise with their childs
anxiety. The aim of this is to encourage
self-regulation of the childrens emotional and social selves (Howe, 1998;
Agass, 2002; Ruch, 2005).
The alternative Maori perspective
does not view a childs identity as solely
formulated through the individual in
social relationships with other people.
The social environment is not privileged
over the physical environment (Zapf,
2005a). Rather, by viewing the childs
identity as interconnected with all
dimensions of their world expressed as
wairuatanga traditional Maori and
Aboriginal cultures express a worldimage identity (Zapf, 2005a; Munford
and Sanders, 2011). The belief that
humans live within an interdependent
relationship with all life forms provides
meaning and value to a childs place and
contribution to the world. This broader
world image identity can provide a
more positive self-image to children who

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lack a sense of self-worth as a result of

the events that prevent them from being
able to live safely within their families.
Moreover, the Maori perspective of
regarding all relationships as spiritual,
not just those within the whanau (wider
family grouping), provides a different
but positive lens through which to view
new relationships between children and
their family placement carers/parents.
A strengths-based perspective

Bureaucratic procedures dominate child

care practice in the west and aim to
eliminate complexity, uncertainty and
risk, and to defend against the professional anxiety of confronting the
distressing reality of the circumstances
of childrens lives (Wilson et al, 2008).
Professionals within family placement
have the challenge of working out how
best to meet the complex needs of
children who cannot live safely with
their parents, and for whom adversity is
likely to continue after they have been
separated from their birth parents and
placed within an alternative family
(Biehal et al, 2010). There is a danger of
preoccupation with the adversity and
difficulties such that children are viewed
primarily from the perspective of risk.
As Gilligan (2010, p 176) highlights:
Thus, they may cast children and young
people more in the vulnerable role of
bearers of risk, that is they see children
as heavily exposed to, or carrying, risk
by virtue of their very status as children.
Drawing on Gilligan (2010), professionals in such stressful situations are
first likely to overestimate the capacity
of the professionals and services in
this case family placement to resolve
risk and adversity, and, second, to
underestimate the power of healing and
recovery within the children, families
and surrounding networks and contexts.
This fits with a strengths perspective
that values peoples expertise and strategies for surviving their adversity, and
their drive, autonomy and ability to
overcome their situation (Saleeby, 2008).
Strengths approaches are consistent

with Maori spiritual belief in the energy

and resources of local communities and
peoples capacity and self-determination
to find healing and gain control over
their lives (Ferguson, 2001). Building
engaged, strong communities is a
feature of social and community work in
Aotearoa New Zealand (Munford and
Sanders, 2011). The approach is not one
of imposing ideas upon communities,
but recognising the position of a person
within their group or tribe as essential
for protecting mana. The message for
western family placement is that the
validating of local knowledge, histories,
talent and resources can create shared
drive and energy in communities for
recruiting and supporting families.
How has an understanding of
the richness of Maori cultural
identity affected my practice in
the UK?

Although there is considerable difference between an established indigenous

group within New Zealand and the
diverse ethnic and cultural groups in the
UK, there are transferable perspectives
for practice. Drawing on experiences of
working alongside Maori whanau in
New Zealand, I recognise the significance of wider family and environmental
factors and their impact upon a childs
developmental needs, safety, resilience
and overall sense of health and spiritual
well-being. An understanding of the
richness and complexity of Maori
cultural identity has in practice encouraged me consistently to recognise the
importance of the childs sense of self,
sense of purpose, belonging and how
they understand their place in the world,
and to support their development (Zapf,
2005a; Munford and Sanders, 2011).
I strive to maintain a flexible, creative
approach to working in partnership with
families, advocating a move away from
the inevitability of the childs separation
from their birth family and home
environment. Instead, I encourage a shift
towards a thinking that promotes and
supports the wider familys own ability
to heal and repair itself. This is congruent with a Maori intra-familial problem-

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115

solving perspective and draws upon the

principles of family group conferencing
and kinship family placement. Locating
the accountability and decision-making
responsibility for the childs development, well-being and safety with the
wider family group fosters a family-led
and family-focused strengths-based
approach, to effect a sustainable change
that meets the childs needs and comes
from within. This is not to negate or
ignore the complexities and challenges
involved in the effective management
and monitoring of ongoing risk to a
child within the context of current
kinship placement practice here in the
UK. Instead, a Maori-informed approach
aims to draw upon the richness of Maori
cultural principles in individual practice,
in order to emphasise the strength, value
and resilience afforded by the profound
interconnectedness of the child and their
physical space in the world, both past
and present.
I have taken into practice the significance of building relationships through
exchange, and the concept of developing
spirituality in the context of the childs
already deep-rooted and historic bonds
and connections to their wider community. The aim is to achieve a collective efficacy that combines a mutual
trust, openness and transparency in
practice, alongside social protection and
control delivered through the childs
own wider family and neighbourhood
(Howe, 2009). As a result, the child feels
more spiritually embedded in their
physical environment, has an increased
sense of overall well-being and happiness, and in turn, will be more likely to
meet their developmental milestones.
In short, I hold that a childs depth of
identity, cultural ancestry, sense of self,
sense of belonging to a place in the
world, are all rooted to their wider sociocultural membership in families. As a
practitioner, I now understand that the
child is not in fact in the place, but the
place is indeed within the child
(McAdoo, 1993; Suopajarvi, 1998).
Concluding remarks

Coates et al (2006) warn against

116

idealising any cultural practices without

considering conformity to international
human rights principles, and that
professionals should sensitively question
potentially unjust or harmful practices
arising from spiritual beliefs. However,
that said, the concept of spirituality
enables an openness to considering the
diversity of cultural identities through
the application of alternative knowledge
and meaning frameworks (Barker and
Floersch, 2010). In this case, the Maori
spiritual framework has encouraged an
awareness of the important intersection
of place and identity, specifically attending to a holistic perspective on the interrelationship of physical/natural, spiritual
and human dimensions over time.
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Victoria Sharley 2012

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