THE TENDENCY OF A TALL BUS TO

ROLLOVER WHEN FULLY LOADED

WITH PASSENGERS
SHERLYN GOO KHAR SHING, TEE SHU SHING AND ERIC TAN BOON KIAT
SMK MUNSHI ABDULLAH, 75350 BATU BERENDAM, MELAKA

Abstract
The stability of a vehicle on the road are affected by several factors; among them
are speed, mass, centre of gravity, seat belts, conditions of its tyres, driving attitudes
and road nature. In the case of centre of gravity, it varies significantly with the
number of passengers on board. The fatality of accident of large vehicles like the
bus due to rollover is much severe than other types of accident. The direct factor of
rollover is the height of the centre of gravity. The study uses a wooden block with its
ratio of width to height roughly corresponds to that of a tall bus. The added mass
represents the passengers on board. The block is being tilted laterally till it reaches
an angle that it topples over. Bigger angle for topple over resembles a better stability.

INTRODUCTION
Theory
A parameter called the Static Stability Factor (SSF) is assigned to each vehicle. It is
defined as one-half the track width divided by the height of the center of gravity. It is
called "static" because SSF is essentially the tangent of the slope angle for a vehicle
to just roll over while sitting on the slope.

t
tan 2
h
t/2
tan
h

t
2h

mg

In a real situation a vehicle is usually moving when it rolls over, not standing
still on a slope. We consider two types of idealized moving rollover situations: A
vehicle is moving (sliding) sideways and the wheels strike a solid obstacle that
provides a pivot point for a possible rollover. Rollover occurs when the ensuing
rotation causes the force of gravity vector to pass through the pivot point. This can
be equivalent to the static case.
The second situation, vehicle is moving, without slipping, around a horizontal
circular curve at a constant speed high enough to just cause rollover. Rollover occurs
when the force of gravity vector passes through the pivot point.
a
tan
g
v2
tan
rg

mg

It should be emphasized that the effects of suspension movement, tire

movement or electronic/mechanical stability control may be very important in the
rollover tendency for a vehicle. Suspension and tire movements would likely increase
the tendency for rollovers, while electronic/mechanical stability control is designed to
make it less likely that a vehicle

LITERATURE REVIEW
Rollover accidents are also very common and frequent in Malaysia. In most
of the rollover accidents of buses, its roof faces strong impact with the surface of
road. However, this impact leads to collapse of bus roof causing severe injury to the
occupants and extreme damage to the frame of bus. National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration (NHTSA, 2002 b), USA, reported that only about 3% of all
crashes are rollovers that caused 33% of total crash related deaths. This example
clearly showed the severity of rollover crashes compared to other types of crashes.
Rollover may be of different types depending on the reasons that commence it. The
definitions include the following factors:
(i)

Trip-over: If the lateral motion of the vehicle is suddenly slowed or

stopped, it increases the tendency to rollover of bus. The opposing force
may be produced by a curb, pot-hole or pavement in which the bus wheels
dig into.

Figure 1.1: Trip over of a vehicle on road surface.

(ii) Fall-over: This type of rollover occurs when the road surface, on which the bus is
traveling, slopes downward in the direction of movement of the vehicle such that the
center of gravity (c. g.) becomes outboard of its wheels (the distinction between this
code and turn-over is a negative slope).

Figure 1.2: Fall over of vehicle out of road

(iii) Flip-over: When a vehicle is rotated along its longitudinal axis by a ramp-like
object such as a turned down guardrail or the back slope of a ditch. The vehicle may
be in yaw when it comes in contact with a ramp-like object

Figure 1.3: Flip over of vehicle on road surface.

(iv) Bounce-over: When a vehicle rebounds off a fixed object and overturns
as a consequence. The rollover must occur in close proximity to the
object from which it is deflected.

Figure 1.4: Bounce over of vehicle after facing impact sidewise.

(v) Turn-over: When centrifugal forces from a sharp turn or vehicle rotation
is resisted by normal surface friction (most common for vehicle with
higher distance between road surface and c. g.). The surface includes
pavement surface and gravel, grass, dirt, etc. There is no furrowing and
gouging at the point of impact. If rotation and/or surface friction causes
a trip, the rollover is classified as a turn-over.

Figure 1.5: Turn over motion of vehicle.

White, D. M. [2] worked on the rollover accident simulation program (RASP)
developed to study design factors which affect rollover stability. The main parameter
investigated were spring stiffness, height of CG and roll movement of inertia. The
height of CG was the most critical factor affecting rollover harms.
So many researches have been carried out on rollover of different vehicles.
Some of those researches are briefly cited in this section. Kecman, D., and Tidbury,

G. H. [1] presented a pioneer research on how to calculate different parameters for

the certification of rollover related issues which was accepted as a base of ECE
Regulation 66. The authors concluded that, finite element analysis is a cost effective
way of describing bus structures to comply with the new bus structure strength in
rollover requirements. White, D. M. [2] worked on the rollover accident simulation
program (RASP) developed to study design factors which affect rollover stability.
The main parameter investigated were spring stiffness, height of CG and roll
movement of inertia. The height of CG was the most critical factor affecting rollover
harms.
Kumagai et al., [3] simulated a bus using full FEA program. The result of full
scale dynamic rollover test of a complete bus to ADR 59 or ECE 66 were used to
verify the predictions of a model based on the dynamic testing of some critical
structural components. A good agreement was shown between the test and the
analysis technique. The same work was done by Niii, N., and Nakagawa, K [4] later
on in 1996. Kecman, D., and Dutton, A.J. [5] described the development of a seat to
meet both the ECE 80 Regualtion (for unbelted occupants) and the ADR 68 (for
belted occupants), which is still commercially feasible in terms of weight and cost.
Initial components were tested and combined with an analytical study using
MADYMO and CRASH-D to optimize the design of a new seat. Rasenack et al. [6]
presented a survey of bus collision between 1985-1993 in Germany. Eight of the
collisions were rollovers accounting for 50.2 % of all severe injuries and 90 % of all
fatalities. Vincze-Pap, S. [7] reviewed the experience of IKARUS Company, a
Hungarian bus manufacturer, in the development of test specifications for coach
rollover safety. The paper continued with a comparison of the four different test
methods in the ECE 66 Regulation accepted for type approval of buses and

coaches. The effects of occupants impact with roof, windshield, interior and pillars
were analyzed in their study. Roper, L. David [8] studied the effect of lateral speed,
height of the center of gravity and different types of road surfaces numerically in his
detailed work to investigate the reasons of rollover that helps to initiate rollover.
Ferrer, I., and Miguel, J. L., A [9] presented a repot on the reasons of fatalities during
rollover accidents of high speed buses. Research concluded that, most of the
fatalities were caused due to ejection of passengers from bus and impact with bus
interior.

PROBLEM STATEMENT
The chances of a bus rollover increases significantly when fully loaded with
passengers. A fully loaded bus might have a higher of center of gravity and hence
reduce the angle of lateral tilting for rollover to occur. The centre of gravity changes
with the number of passengers on board. The experiment studied extend in which
the tilting angle changes with the mass added to the top of the wooden block.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective is to study how the number of passengers varies the centre of
gravity of tall vehicle. In the experiment, it is how the added mass on the upper
surface of a narrow wooden block varies the angle of toppling.
METHODOLOGY
Model of a wooden block is used to represent a tall bus resting on a slope in static
condition. The actual bus has dimensions about 14.5 feet high, 8 feet wide and 30
feet long. The actual height to be considered is the height of the centre of gravity
(about half of the physical height of the bus). Then, the height and width will roughly

form a square. The block that has a square cross section was chosen to represent
the bus. The block used has dimensions 5 wide, 5 tall and 18.75 long. The bus has
typical mass about 14,500 kg and a passenger about 70 kg which is about 0.5 % of
the mass of the bus. For the model, the wooden block has mass of 615 g, the added
mass that representing a passenger is 3.0 g (5% of 615 g).The wooden block is
placed with its lateral side perpendicular to the slope of greatest gradient. The lower
side of the base is taped to the platform to prevent sliding when the platform is lifted
for the angle of topple.

Tilt mechanically
Slotted
weight

Wooden block

Platform

Cellophane
tape

OBSERVATION AND RESULT

Mass of the slotted weight/g

Angle of topple (degree)

0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120

31
28
26
24
22
21
19
17
16

Mass of 3.0 g is equivalent to mass of a passenger in this case and 15g mass
represents 5 passengers. The angle of toppling decreases linearly as the added
mass increases. The changes of the angle of topple over is not significant enough if
the added mass is not substantial.

Angle of topple /

Mass of slotted weight/g

Discussion
The variation of the height of centre of gravity with the number of passengers for tall
vehicle like bus, van and SUV is quite significant. It is not uncommon for these
vehicles to be overloaded with passengers in our country. The angle of topple must
have reached the critical level. It becomes the main contributing factor of rollover
accidence. Fatality and chances of rollover accident not only depends on the centre
of gravity but factors like nature of road surface, speed, tyres and strength of the
chassis, seat belt and etceteras. The speed limit while negotiating a corner can

become vital factor. It depends also on the height of the centre of gravity, radius of
the curve and the coefficient of static friction between the tyres and the road. The
exact study in this area has to involve real situation, instead of using model in this
report. May be a computer simulation with the necessary parameters can provide a
good mean. With this information, perhaps we can suggest an appropriate maximum
height to base ratio for a vehicle and the speed limit for each road curve based on its
radius of curvature.
Conclusion
From the experiment, it is found that as the number of passenger increases, the
angle of toppling decreases. When it is fully loaded with 40 passengers (represents
by 120 g slotted weight), the toppling angle reduced from 30 o to 15o. It is twice the
possibility of rollover as compare to no passengers on board. The study may just be
on the static condition but tilting situation may due to uneven road, pot holes,
obstacles, hump and so on. Then, the angle of toppling will be even smaller. Tall bus
or vehicle is suitable on level road and pose high risk on hilly, undulating and uneven
surfaces. It is suggested that it be suitable on not hilly highway or in the urban areas.

References and Bibliography

1. Kecman, D., and Tidbury, G.H.(year). Optimisation of a Bus Superstructure from the
Rollover Safety Point of View. Tenth Intenational technical Conference on
Experimental Safety Vehicles, Oxford, England, 1985. P.222-234 (page no)
2. White, D.M., P.S.V. Rollover Stability. Tenth International Technical
Conference on Expemental Safety Vehicles, Oxford, England, 1985.
3. Kumagai, K., Kabeshita, Y., Enomoto, H., and Shimojima, S., An analysis

Method for Rollover Strength of Bus Structures, Fourteenth International

technical Conference on Enchanced Safety of Vehcles, Munich, Germany, 1994.
4. Niii, N., and Nakagawa, K., Rollover analysis Method of a Large-Seized Bus.
Fifteenth International technical Conference on the Enhaced Safety of Vehicles,
Melbourn, Australia, 1996.
5. Kecman, D., and Dutton, A.J., Development and Testing of the University
Coach safety Seat. Fifteenth Intenatianl Technical Conference on the Enhanced
Safety of Vehicles, Melbourn, Australia, 1996.
6. Rasenack, W., Appel, H., Rau, H., and Rieta, C., Best systems in Passenger
Coaches. Fifteenth International Technical conference on the Enhanced Safety
of Vehicles, Melbourne, Australia, 1996.
7. Vincze-Pap,S. European Test Methods for Super Structures of Buses and
Coaches Related to ECE R 66 (The Applied Hungarian Calculation Method).
Sixteenth International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of
Vehicles, Windsor, Canada, 1998.
8. Roper, L. David, Physics of Automobile Rollovers, 2001.
9. Ferrer, I., and Miguel, J.L., Assesment of the Use of Seat Belts in Busses Based
on Recent Road Traffic Accidents in Spain. Seventeenth Intenatioanl Technical
Conference on the enhanced Safety of Vehicles, Amsterdam, the Netherlands,
2001.