Timber

A. Introduction
Timber is wood in any of its stages from felling to readiness for use as structural material for construction or
wood pulp for paper production. Timber is one of the oldest structural materials used by man. Temples and
monuments built several centuries ago but which still remain in excellent condition show the durability and usefulness
o timber. Wood used for structural purposes are timber. There is a lot of demand for primary species of timber like,
deodhar, sissoo, sal etc. There are a large number of species of timber which can be used for construction and other
purposes but are not well known in the market. In order to enhance and economize the utilization o wood, many
wood based products have been developed in a big way like veneers, plywood, hard board, particle board, etc.
B. Sources of Timber
The source of timber supply is the trees in the forests. It is a part of the plant life that thrives in many forms.
Though trees are different from other forms of plants life like herbs, they are basically of the same group, both in their
structure and growth. They grow much taller than herbs and take a longer time to mature.
I.

Tree and Its Growth

All plant life is basically made up of root, stem, leaves and branches. The roots anchor the tree to the
ground and take in mineral nutrients from the soil. The stem conducts the food materials to the leaves, stores them
and also provides mechanically rigidity by supporting the leaves and branches. The leaves are the most important
part of the tree for its existence because it is here that the complex substance required for the life processes are
manufacture the complex substances required for the growth of the tree.
II.

Cross section of a Tree Stem

1. Bark outermost layer or the skin of the trunk. Its main function is to give protection to soft tissues of wood
within.
2. Cambium a thin layer of thickened sap below the bark which is not yet converted into sap wood. This is mainly
responsible for the circumferential of the tree.
3. Sapwood the food consumption and storage layer of the wood stem. The sap is light in color, light in weight
and liable to decay. Sapwood being an active later in moist, rich in food material and less durable.
4. Heartwood innermost part of the tree. It is mainly concerned with providing mechanically stability and
supporting the heavy top part of the tree.
5. Pith also known as medulla. It is about 1.25 cm in diameter but sometimes barely visible. This is fibrous tissue
representing the original sapling.
6. Annual Rings / Growth Rings concentric layers of wood.
7. Medullary Rays radial lines in the cross section and as small bands in the radial section.
III.

Classification of Trees:

1. Exogenous Trees (exogens), which grow outward.

2. Endogenous Trees (endogens), which grow inward from a hard exterior shell or more commonly endwise
by the acquisition of new joints.
Other important classification:
Softwoods (gymnosperm) have needled shaped and grow in temperate regions and in high altitudes.

Obtained from coniferous trees having a characteristic of a Christmas tree type growth.
Light colored
Growth rings distinct
Usually light in weight
Resinous in nature and readily catch fire
Can be easily split
Strong along the grain but weak across

Hardwoods (angiosperms) broad-leaved trees.

-

Called deciduous
Generally dark-colored
Growth rings are not as distinct as in softwoods
Usually heavier in weight
Non-resinous and do not catch fire readily
Cannot easily split
Strong in tension, compression and shear along across the grains

Other Methods of Classifications of Timber

1. Based upon the modulus of elasticity. The species of timber recommended for structural purposes are
classified into three groups A, B and C as:
Group A: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 125 t/cm
Group B: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 98 t/cm and below 125t/cm
Group C: Modulus of elasticity in bending above 56 t/cm and below 98 t/cm
2. Grading of structural timber. Structural timber can be graded into three classes. Select grade, Grade I and
Grade II. This classification is based upon the structural design characteristics like permissible stresses defects,
etc.
3. Based upon availability. According to availability, timber can be of three grades namely, X, Y and Z.
X Most common 1415m or more per year
Y Common 335m to 1415m per year
Z Less common below 355m per year
4. Durability. Durability of timber is tested by the graveyards test conducted in the open. Timbers are classified
based upon such observations as of:
High Durability
Moderate Durability
Low Durability

: Timbers having average life of 120 months and over.

: Timbers having average life less than 120 months but of 60 months or more
: Timbers having average life less than 60 months

5. Seasoning Characteristics. Timbers are classified depending upon their behavior to cracking and splitting
during normal air-seasoning practice under three categories:
Highly Refractory (Class A)
Moderate Refractory (Class B)
Non refractory (Class C)

: These are slow and difficult to season free defects.

: These maybe seasoned free from surface defects, etc. if some protection is
given against rapid dying.
: These can be rapidly seasoned free from defects.

6. Treatability. This classification is based upon the behavior of timber to preservative treatment under pressure. It
can be classified as:
-

Heartwood easily treatable.

Heartwood treatable but complete preservation is not easily obtained.
Heartwood only partially treatment.
Heartwood refractory to treatment.
Heartwood very refractory to treatment, penetration of preservative being practically nil from sides to ends.

C. Identification of Timber

General Properties
1. Color. Color in wood shows a wide range o variation. The color of the same kind of timber changes depending
upon whether the surface us freshly cut or has been exposed.
2. Odor. The odor disappears on exposure and if present, is pronounced only when freshly cut.
3. Hardness. Hardness is defined as the resistance of the material to indentation or penetration by a foreign body.
Soft to Very soft
Moderate Hard
Hard to Very Hard

: Readily indented by finger nail.

: Not readily indented by finger nail but readily cut a knife.
: Not indented by finger nail and cut difficulty by knife.

4. Density. Density varies considerably depending upon:

- The weight o wood substance
- Any solid or dissolved substances
- Moisture content
- Any air cavities or walls
Of these, the weight of water in wood varies considerably. The timber may be grouped into three classes based upon
density:
Light to Very Light
Moderate Heavy
Heavy to Very Heavy

: Density below 550kg/cm

: 550 to 750 kg/cm
: Above 750 kg/cm

5. Grain. It refers to the general direction or alignment of wood cells.

- Spiral grain is a natural defect due to the irregularities in the formation of the fibers themselves.
- Interlocked grain in which grain changes direction to left and right more or less irregularly.
- Wavy grain is produced by undulations in the course of wood.
6. Texture. Texture is due to the size of cells, distribution and proportion o various types of cells. Timber can be
classified into three main classes.
- Fine texture
- Medium coarse texture
- Coarse texture
7. Lustre. It is due to the difference in the light reflecting property of the different cells. The rays reflect light much
more than others.
Structures of Softwood
1. Tracheids. These are hollow, needle shaped units closely packed together so that a cross section through them
resembles a honeycomb.
2. Storage Tissues (Rays and Wood Parenchyma Cells). The storage of food materials is done by two types of
cells rays and weed parenchyma. Rays are horizontally and radially aligned and can be seen as thin lines in
the cross section and as bands in the radial section.
3. Resin Canals. The resin formed in the parenchyma cells and in some species occur in special channels.
4. Growth Rings. These are normally distinct in softwoods. In some woods, growth rings maybe distinct or faint
due to the similarity between early wood and late wood.
Structures of Hardwoods
1. Pores or Vessels. Pores are tubular elements running in a vertical direction and serve to conduct water and
mineral nutrients.
2. Inclusions. These are sometimes colored deposits, white or chalky deposits and ingrowths of adjoining tissues
into the pore.
3. Parenchyma. These are soft tissues and consist of small, thin walled, rectangular and brick-shaped cells.
4. Rays. Their function is horizontal conduction and storage. In the cross section, rays can be seen as numerous
fine light-colored lines.
5. Fibers. Fibers are too small to be seen individually but collectively, it form the ground mass in other tissues are
set.
6. Cellular Canals. These are long tubular cavities seen in the horizontal or vertical direction.

D. Felling and Conversion

Time for felling a timber
A timber tree should be felled immediately after it has attained its full growth in order to obtain maximum
quality of wood at its most endurable state. If any tree is cut down prior to its maturity, it will yield more sap and less
quantity of heartwood.
Felling of Timber
Felling is done by making clean saw cut as near to the base as possible. Felled timber should be converted
into smaller pieces as early as possible.
Conversion of Timber
The sawing of logs to form balks, boards, plank, deals, battens, etc. is called the conversion of timber.
During conversion, due allowance usually 3mm to 6mm should be kept for shrinkage, squaring and planning.
Conversion is done in several ways as discussed below:
1. Sawing. Is the use of any tool, either hand-operated or power-driven, having a thin metal blade or disk with
a sharp, usually toothed edge, used for cutting wood, or ether hand materials.
Methods of Sawing:
1.1. Ordinary or Flat Sawing a very easy and quick method of sawing. The log is moved backward and
forward on a saw which cuts parallel slices or cuts.
1.2. Tangential Sawing the cutting is tangential to the annual rings at right angles to the medullary rays.
1.3. Radial Sawing sawing is done parallel to the rays and perpendicular to the rings. Radially sawn timber
shrinks and warps less than the ordinary sawn planks.
1.4. Quarter or Rift Sawing the log is first cut into quadrants. Each quadrant may be further sawn by plain,
tangential or radial sawing.
1.5. Combination Sawing it uses combination of one or two of the above methods to convert the log.
Lost of Timber in Conversion
There is 40% of the weight of the log wasted in conversion of timber by sawing.
Bark sap, etc.: 10%, Trimmings: 18% - 20%, Saw dust: 10%
E. Moisture in Timber
One of the most important characteristics of timber that affects its use and on-the-site performance is its
moisture content. This is very important factor in timber utilization and the technology of timber revolves around
the efficient methods of controlling the moisture content of timber.
1. Hygroscopic Nature of Timber
Timber is by nature hygroscopic, it absorbs water from the surrounding air. For efficient utilization, the
timber needs to be more or less dry, the permissible moisture content being from 6% to 20% depending upon
the use and the environment of use.
1.1. Water in Wood (Moisture Content)
The moisture content of timber is the weight of water it contains, expressed as a percentage of the weight of
water in the timber when oven dried.
1.2. Fibre Saturation Point
It is the moisture content in percentage of timber when the cell walls are saturated with water and the cell
cavity contains no water.
1.3. Equilibrium Moisture Content
A stage is finally reached after which there is no further interchange of moisture between the wood and air.
Such a state is called the state of equilibrium. The moisture content at this stage is called the equilibrium
moisture content. Any subsequent change in temperature or moisture content of air upsets this balance and as a
result there is further exchange of moisture until a new stage of equilibrium is reached.

2. Shrinkage of Timber
Drying of timber causes shrinkage while absorption of water causes the timber to swell. Timber is not a
homogenous material and hence, the shrinkage along different directions is not uniform.
Green timber shrinks least along its length, much more along the radial direction and maximum along the
circumference. The figures vary considerably for different species of timber, but on an average, the shrinkage is
about 0.1% along the circumference.
Permissible Moisture Content
IS: 287 1973 lays down the maximum permissible moisture content for different zones as per average
relative humidity as:
Zone I : Less than 40%, Zone II : 40% - 50%, Zone III : 50% - 67%, Zone IV : 67% and above
Determination of Timber
1. Oven Dry Method
Moisture content can be determined by the oven drying method. The wet timber is weighed (W) and dried
in an oven weight, moisture content can be determined as:

F. Mechanical Properties of Timber

1. Tensile Strength
Tension results when a pulling force is applied to opposite ends of a body. The result is an elongation or
stretching of the material in the direction of the applied force.
2. Compressive Strength
It is determine from tests and two types of strength are identified, along the grain and across the grain.
3. Shear Strength
Shear strength is determined only parallel to the grain as shear strength perpendicular to the grain cannot
be determined because of failure due to other causes before the ultimate shear strength is reached.
4. Bending Strength
Bending Strength indicates both the ease with which a wood can be bent and the percentage of its strength
it retains after bending.
5. Cleavability
Refers to the splitting strength of the specimen. The property so as to be referred to directions such as
radial and tangential splitting.
6. Brittleness
The property of suffering little deformation before breaking.
7. Torsion Strength
A tough wood is one that will not rupture until it has deformed considerably under loads at or near its
maximum strength, or one which still hangs together after it has been ruptured and may be bent back and forth
without breaking apart.
8. Hardness
The hardness is the ability of the wood surface to resist damage.
G. Defects in Timber
Defects are irregularities found in wood. Usually cause by climatic condition, nature of soil where tree grows
and by natural calamities.
Defects cause in timber may be basically classified into two categories.

Internal defects which are due to factors affecting the growing tissue of the tree.
External defects due to external agents or subsequent treatment of timber.

The defect will be discussed under three headings. (Natural, Due to Seasoning, Due to Manufacturing or Use)
1. Natural
1.1. Knots
A knot is a particular type of imperfection in a piece of wood. They are defects which weaken timber and
lower its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration.
Knots may be classified as follows:
According to size:
1. Pin knot a knot not more than 6.5mm in diameter
2. Small knot a knot more than 6.5mm, but not more than 20mm in diameter
3. Medium knot a knot more than 20mm, but not more than 40mm in diameter
4. Large knot a knot more than 40mm in diameter
According to form:
1. Round and oval knot a knot cut more or less at the right angles to its long axis so that the exposed
section is round.
2. Slay/Spike knot a knot cut approximately parallel to its long axis so that the exposed section has an
elongated shape.
According to position on the surface of the wood:
1. Knot cluster group of two or more knots such that the wood fibres are deflected around the group.
2. Branches knot two or more knots emanating from the same base.
According to quality:
1. Live knot a knot whose fibres are completely intergrown with those of the surrounding wood.
2. Sound knot live knot free from decay
3. Decayed knot knot soften than the surrounding wood and containing decay
4. Tight knot lice or dad knot held firmly in place
5. Dead knot knot whose fibres are not intergrown with those of the surrounding wood
6. Loose knot a dead knot which is not held firmly in place
7. Knot hole a hole left as a result of the removal of a knot
1.2. Cause by Abnormal Growth
1. Wind Cracks shakes or cracks on the outside of a log due to the shrinkage of the exterior surface caused by
atmospherics influence.
2. Rind Galls peculiar curve swellings cause generally by the growth of layers of wood over the shump formed
by the imperfect cutting off of a branch.
3. Twisted Grain of Spiral Grain caused by the twisting of the fibres due to wind.
4. Upset facture of the fibres across the log so that there is very likelihood of a break occurring. Caused by
excessive compression due to bending of shock during the growth of the tree.
5. Shakes caused by rapture of tissues resulting to partial or complete separation of the fibres along the grain.
- Heart shake A crack starting at the heart and extends in a radial direction (along the medullar rays) and at
the right angles to the annual rings.
- Star shakes A number of shakes occurring at or near the pith of the tree giving the appearance of a star on
the end of a piece.
- Ring/Cup shake crack developed between the growth rings either over the whole circumference or part of it.
- Radial shake Split are fine, numerous and irregular. Occurs when felled timber in kept expose to sun.
6. Compression wood and Abnormal wood which formed on the lower side of branch or inclined stems of
conifers.
7. Sap Stain discoloration of sap wood mainly due to fungi.
8. Burr/Burl large excrescence on a tree trunk or an enlarge root stock with hilly contorted grain.
2. Defects due to Seasoning
1. Twist spiral distortion along the length of the timber.
2. Cup curvature in the transverse direction of the timber.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Honey Combing separation of the fibres in the interior due to drying stresses.
Bow curvature of the timber in the direction of the timber.
Check rupture along the grain during seasoning.
Split separation of the fibres along the grain and extends from one end of the plank to the other.
Compression failure buckling or collapse caused by compression.
Case Hardening due to the unequal drying of the exterior surfaces under compression and the interior surface
under tension due to rapid drying.
9. Spring cultivate of the timber in its own plane.
3. Due to Manufacturing or Use
1. Chipped/Torn Grain caused by the breaking away of timber below the surface of the dressing by the action of
the planning tool.
2. Chip Mark indentation on the finished surfaced caused by chips.
3. Wane original round surface of a tree which remains on a finished plank.
4. Boxed Heart pith at the center fully enclosed within one piece in the process of conversion.
5. Diagonal Grain caused due to improper sawing of wood.
Evaluation of Defects
Knots tend to weaken the timber in tension but may improve the strength in compression.
Check, Splits and Shakes reduce the shearing resistance of wood.
Tension Wood it has high longitudinal shrinkage tending it to warp and split.
Sap Rot chances of fungal attack are high if wood has this defect if not well-seasoned.
Slope of Grain lower the tensile strength parallel to the grain and the modulus of rupture which increase in the
case of radial slope of grain.
Loose Grain - reduction in structural.
Wane - reduce the mechanical properties and volume.
Worm Hole spoil the appearance and reduce mechanical strength.
Pith Pockets affect the appearance and destroy the integrity of wood.
Mould essentially spoils the appearance of wood.
H. Decay of Timber
Decay usually caused by the presence of sap or by alternate dry and wet condition of timber.
Causes of decay
9. Alternate moisture and dryness
10. Fungi and molds
11. Insects and warms
12. Heat and confined air
The detection of incipient decay may be done as follows:
1. Abnormal color.
2. Areas showing a range of brown colors different from the normal color of wood indicate the presence of fungus.
3. Abnormal mottled appearance often indicates decay.
4. Softness and brashness of woods.
5. Roughness of surface.
6. Few or numerous small pits and presence of soft spots of intense discoloration.
Diseases of timber
1. Foxiness it disfigures the timber by reddish brown stains around the pith denoting growth in a marshy soil and
indicating the commencement of decay in a matured tree.
2. Plethora disease caused by non-uniform supply of nutrients to all portions of the tree.
3. Quaggywood center of the tree found to be full of shakes and clefts.
4. Doatiness form of incipient decay.
Damage due to Fungal Attack
Fungi a system of plant organisms which live on and attack timber and caused rot and decay.
Two groups of destroyer:
Bacteria smallest living organism

Fungi are mainly responsible for the decay of timber

Life cycle of Fungus:
HYPHEA

SPORE

MYCELIUM

FRUIT BODY

Control Fungal Attack

The following points are to be kept in mind with reference to rot-causing fungi:
1. The timber should not be subjected to alternate wet and drying conditions. This can be ensured by painting
or varnishing after drying the timber thoroughly.
2. Where alternative wet and drying conditions are unavoidable and painting is too costly, as in the case of
railways sleepers, a proper preservative treatment should be made.
3. No timber used in a structure should have sap wood present in it.
4. It should be ensured that adequate ventilation is there around the timber, particularly where it is built into
masonry.
Damage due to Insects
Damage in timber by insects are quiet considerable particularly in warm countries.
EGG

BUTTERFLY OR
MOTH

LARVA OR
CATERPILAR

PUPATION
STAGE OR
CHRYSALIS

Important categories of Insects

1. Termites or White ants it completely excavate the wood at the center leaving the outer shell intact.
2. Beetles
13. Long horn beetles are small beetles 6mm to 20mm in size and mainly thrive on timber in the forest and can
attack any wood.
14. Pin hole beetles are very small, 3mm to 6mm in size and also called ambrosia beetles.
15. Powder post beetles are small beetles which normally attack only starchy hardwoods with large pores.
16. Furniture beetles are the common beetles that attack the furniture and other wood works in the house.
17. Death watch beetles (Xestobium) are beetles that varies from 6mm to 20mm in size, and chocolate brown in
color.
Control of Insect Pests
Since insects do not attack and destroy the whole timber before it is apparent, it is possible to do in situ
prevention. The tunnels made by the insects further help in the deep penetration of toxic elements that are used to
destroy them.
I.

Seasoning of Timber
The process by which the moisture content of timber is reduced to a suitable level depending upon the use.

Objectives of seasoning
3. To reduce movement the tendency to split, warp and shrink
4. To make it immune from attacks of insects

5.
6.
7.
8.

To increase the strength, durability, workability and resilience

Ta make it receptive to finish like preservatives, paints and varnish
To reduce the weight to minimize cost of transportation
To make the timber burn readily (if used as fuel)

Three factors that control this process: Humidity, Rate of air circulation, Temperature of the surrounding air.
Seasoning characteristics of timber
All timber does not respond to seasoning the same way. Some are very sensitive and tend to twist, warp,
and check at even a slow rate of drying while other timbers do not react so violently to even higher rate of drying.
Timber Classification Depending upon their Behavior
Class A Highly refractory woods
Class B Moderate refractory woods
Class C Non-refractory woods
Methods of Seasoning
Kiln Seasoning- quicker method to the desire moisture content under highly controlled conditions.
Two main method of artificial seasoning:
1. Compartment Kiln consists of closed-air tight shed in which the timber is kept. The timber remains stationary
while the environment is changed as the seasoning progresses.
2. Progressive Kiln has the stack on trolleys that progressively travel through chambers that change the
conditions as it travels through the varying atmospheres.
Natural/Air Seasoning slow process and the reduction in moisture content to the desired level mat not be
attainable by air seasoning is adopted.
Methods of Stacking Timber
1. One in Nine Stacking Nine sleepers laid each allow gap between adjacent sleepers.
2. Close Crib Stacking Solid stack without gaps with sleepers alternate layer, places in criss-cross manner,
slower rate of seasoning and reduces the air circulation.
3. Open Crib Stacking Gaps between adjacent sleepers in this layer allow the more air circulation. The affect of
during in this method resembles the one and nine method.
Three Types of Air Seasoning Shed
1. Shed Type 1 consists of a roof and walls on four sides with doors at ends, adjustable shutters at the top and
bottom of walls provide controlled circulation.
2. Shed Type 2 consists of a roof with walls on three sides, th north side being open.
3. Shed Type 3 consists of roof on a four pillars all sides being open.
Chemical Seasoning consists of immersing timber in solution of salt, also known as Salt Seasoning.
Electrical Seasoning the principle is to be subject the wood by the use of plates or electrodes at the ends to an
electric current.
J. Preservation of Timber
Apart from structural wood preservation measures, there are a number of different
(chemical) preservatives and processes (also known as timber treatment, lumber treatment or pressure treatment)
that can extend the life of wood, timber, wood structures or engineered wood. These generally increase
the durability and resistance from being destroyed by insects or fungus.
Types of Preservatives
1. Type 1 (Oil Type) Coal tar creosote with or without admixture of petroleum, coal tar, fuel oil or other suitable
oils having boiling range.
2. Type 2 (Organic Type) consists of toxic substances dissolved in volatile spirits.
3. Type 3 (Water Soluble leachable Type) inorganic or organic salts soluble in water.
4. Type 4 (Water Soluble fixed Type) water soluble salts with fixative salt.
Characteristics of Good Preservative

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

It should be strongly toxic to insects, fungi, etc.

It should penetrate readily into timber.
It should cover large surface areas with a comparatively small quantity of preservative.
It should have no destructive influence on strength of the timber.
It should be harmless to human being.
It should not render the timber treated with it more flammable.
It should be non-corrosive to metals.
It should be pleasant in color and give an attractive appearance to the woodwork.
It should be highly resistant to water and dampness.
It should be economical and available readily.

Methods of Treatment:
1. Surface Application done by brushing, spraying or dipping in the preservative solution for a short period.
2. Soaking timber is debarked thoroughly and submerged in the preservative solution for sufficiency long period
till absorption is obtained.
3. Hot and Cold Process the timber is kept submerged in the preservative solution which is maintained in at the
temperature of 90 degrees Celsius for suitable period depending upon the change.
4. Boucherle Process carried out by attaching to the butt end of a pole, a hose is connected to the reservoir of
the preservative at higher level.
5. Diffusion Process can be adopted in the ffg manner:
18. Momentary dipping of timber in concentrated solution and close stacking under cover.
19. Prolonged immersion in dilute solution and close stacking under cover.
20. Application of preservatives paste over all surface of the timber and then close stacking under water.
21. Injecting suitable paste into timber through incisions spread on the surface.
6. Pressure or Pneumatic Processes- require great changes of pressure and are essentially commercial
processes in which a large quantity of timber is treated.
7. Full Cell Or Bethel Process this process is useful when maximum absorption of the preservative is desired.
8. Empty Cell Process aims at a maximum penetration of the preservative with minimum net retention.
a. Lawry Process
b. Rueping Process
Fire Proofing of Timber
The chemicals used in general act by producing non-flammable gasses which reduce the availability of
oxygen to the interior.
22. The melting point of the chemical is low so that it melts and forms a barrier to the supply of oxygen to the inside.
23. The chemical decomposes under heat, yielding non-flammable gasses that dilute the inflammable gasses. The
retards the ignition of inflammable point.
24. The chemical vaporizes at sufficiently low temperature, absorbing sufficient hat so that the temperature of wood
dos not rise to decomposition point.
K. Availability and Uses of Timber
Commonly use timbers worldwide
1. Teak one of the most valuable timber tree in the world.
2. Deodar non-porous wood. Commonly used for construction purposes, furniture and cabinet making, light
and heavy packing, railways sleepers and carriages.
3. Chir is a coniferous tree found in temperate regions. It is similar with deodar but is inferior in quality.
4. Kail similar to chir the only difference is the color in their sapwood. Chirs sapwood is creamy white while
kails is white to pale-yellowish white.
5. Sissoo(Shishan) moderate and sized tree, having a short trunk and large brancher with round leaves.
6. Sai straight-growing upright tree with dark large leaves.
7. Mango moderate straight tree and found almost in all region in India.
Timber in Philippines
First Group:
1. Banuyo large tree with a short trunk that is usually about 30 40 ft (9 12 m) long and in a diameter of 48
72 in (120 180cm).
2. Dungon producing a regular or irregular bole with a merchantable length of 40 60 ft (12 18m) and a trunk
diameter of up to 100 in (40cm) above large buttresses.
3. Ipil developing boles that are often short and thick, and are made up to 50ft (15m) in length.
4. Molave trunk diameter is about 28in (70cm) at maturity. The wood is high in density.

5. Narra - reached a height up to 100 ft (30cm) or more, trunk diameter of 24 36 in (60 -90 cm).
6. Supa unusually wide sapwood is light grayish brown in color and is clearly demarcated from the heartwood.
7. Tindalo fast growing tree. Rarely attacked by termites.
Second Group:
1. Guijo very tall reaching the height of 200 ft, with straight cylindrical stems, and trunk diameter up to 72 in.
2. Malugai it reached the height of 100 150 ft at maturity. Trunk diameter of 24 36 in.
3. Manggachapui lighter in color of sapwood and is somewhat distinct from the heartwood.
4. Narig lighter color of sapwood than heartwood and is not clearly demarcated.
Third Group:
1. Amugis height of 120 ft with a trunk diameter of 24 30 in.
2. Apitong tree size is reported to vary with species but heights are commonly about 100 200 ft.
3. Mayapis tall tree that is sometimes buttressed often develops straight, clear trunks.
4. Palosapis sapwood is pale yellow and is not distinct from the heartwood in appearance.
5. Red Lauan pinkish color of sapwood and is not clearly demarcated from the heartwood.
6. Tangile large and tall tree with straight, cylindrical trunks above fairly large and high buttresses.
Fourth Group:
1. Almon sapwood and heartwood have the same color but is lighter and usually has grayish tinge.
2. White Lauan sapwood is usually very wide, 2.5 3 in and is lighter in color than the heartwood.
Advantages of Timber in Construction
1. It can be easily worked with tools and required shape can be given.
2. Joints, joinery works and structural connections can be easily made in timber construction.
3. This is suitable for attractive interior decorations.
4. Light in weight, strong in durable if well-protected.
5. Close-grained fibres and natural color of timber impact beauty to the construction.
6. As timber is a heat-resistant material, the houses built of timber are warm in winter and cool in summer.
7. Timber houses can easily be dismantled without getting damage and loss and can suitably be shifted from one
place to other.
8. Timber construction material is economical, when it is locally available.
9. Strength of timber construction is more than any other material of construction in proportion to weight.
Disadvantages of Timber in Construction
1. Timber is not suitable for cyclonic weather and natural calamities.
2. It is costly if it is not locally available.
3. Subjected to fire risk.
4. It is not suitable for dump or wet places.
5. Its liable to crack, warp and decay if not properly seasoned and not treated with preservatives.
6. It needs regular care and maintenance.

8. Wood Based Products

Advantages of these materials:
1. Many secondary species of timber can be extensively used for certain applications.
2. All kinds of wood waste can be used.
3. By their cross-grained construction, these materials have less shrinkage and are sufficiently strong.
4. They can be made very aesthetic to show attractive figures on the exterior despite using inferior wood in the
interior.
5. With additional plastic coatings, they can become functionally very superior.
6. They have better insulation properties.
Veneers

Veneers are thin sheets of wood, 0.4 mm to 6mm thick. Obtained by different knife cutting processes.

Veneers can be classified as:

25. Rotary Veneers
26. Sliced Veneers

Plywood
Plywood is made up of veneers that glued together. The outside layers of plywood are called faces, the
central layer is called core, and those between the faces and core are called cross bands.
The advantages of plywood are:
1. It has a good strength both across as well as along the grains unlike wood, from which it is made, have greater
stiffness and strength along the grain that across it. The more the number of piles, the more uniform is strength
along the across grains.
2. Wood shrinks and expands more across grain as it loses or absorbs water. In plywood, because of the crossgrained construction, the tendency to shrink and swell is considerable reduced.
3. Plywood has better splitting resistance due to grains in adjacent layers running at right angles and nailing the
screwing even close to the edges is safe. It has also greater shock resistance than ordinary wood.
4. Plywood can be easily bent to a curvature limited by the tensile and compressive strength of the outer piles.
5. The face piles made of different heartwoods show great aesthetic variety in grain pattern and color. These can
also be made artificially by sand blasting or etching.
Plywood Grades and Sizes
Plywood for general purposes shall be on the following grades depending upon the type of adhesive used for
bonding of the veneers:
1. Boiling water proof (BWP) grade
2. Boiling water resistant (BWR) grade
3. Warm water resistant (WWR) grade
4. Cold water resistant (CWR) grade
*The classification of plywood for general purposes shall be of the types like AA, AB, AC, AD, BB, BC, BD, CC, CD,
and DD base on their quality of surfaces.
Permissible defects per square meter given by (no. of defects) A=3, B=6, C=9, D=no limit.
THICKNESS
BOARD

BOARD

THICKNESS (mm)

THICKNESS (mm)

3-ply

3,4 5,6

7-ply

9,12 15,16

5-ply

5,6 8,9

11-ply

19,22 25

Above 11-ply

As ordered

Dimensions and Tolerance

(cm x cm)
(cm x cm)
240x120
180x90
210x90
150x120
210x120
180x90
210x90
120x120
180x120
90x90
The dimensions of plywood boards should be specified as the first dimension to represent the length to the grain on
the faces, the second the width and the thickness.
Dimension
(a) Length

Nominal size
Up to and including 120cm
Above 120cm

(b) Width

Up to and including 90cm

Above 90cm

(c) Thickness
Hardboard

Up to and including 5mm

6 to 9mm
Above 9mm

Tolerance
+3mm
0mm
+6mm
0mm
+3mm
0mm
+6mm
0mm
10%
7%
5%

Hardboard is manufactured from raw materials like wood waste obtained from saw mills, veneer
manufacture, furniture making, etc.
3 Types of Hardboard
1. Medium Hardboard which is homogeneous fiber building board having a density exceeding 480kg/m2
2. Normal Hardboard is one with the density exceeding 800kg/m2 but not exceeding 1200kg/m2
3. Tempered Hardboard- is a fiber board which is especially treated to give increased density strength and
water resistance.
Type of Board
Average Density
Thickness
Bending Strength
Water absorption
(modulus of rapture)
(by mass) after
g/cm3
mm
Average
immersion, max.
MPa
%
Medium Board
Min. 0.35
6
9
6
40
Max. 0.80
10
12
Standard
More than 0.80
3
Hardboard
4
30
40

Tempered
HardBoard

5
6
7
3
4
5
6
9

Type
mm
Medium Hardboard

30

30

50

20

Nominal Thickness
mm
6
8
10
12
3
4
5

Standard Hardboard

6
9
Type

Width (m)

Medium Hardboard
Standard Hardboard
Tempered Hardboard

1.2
1.2
1.2

Width and Length of Hardboards

Tolerance on width
Length (m)
(mm)
1.2, 1.8, 2.4, 3.0,
3
3.6, 4.8, 5.5

Tolerance
0.5
0.7
0.7
0.9
0.4
0.5
0.5

Tolerance on Length
(mm)
5

Particle Board
It is a board manufactured from particles of wood or other lingo cellulose materials which are agglomerated,
formed and pressed together by the use of an organic binder together with one or more agents such as heat,
pressure, moisture, etc.
Dimensions and Tolerance
The size of particle boards in mm should be as follows.
Length(mm)
: 4850, 3650, 3000, 2750, 2400, 2100, 1800, 1500, 1200,1000
Width(mm)
: 1850, 1800, 1500, 1200, 1000, 900, 600, 450
Thickness(mm)
: 6, 9, 12, 15, 19, 22, 25, 27, 30, 35, 40
Tolerance

Length

: 8mm

Density

Width
: 8m
Thickness
: 2.5mm
Above 25mm
: 2.5mm
Up to 25mm
: 5mm
: Mean density of particle boards shall be between 500-900kg/m2

Block boards
These boards are extensively used for construction of railway carriages, bus bodies, and marine and river
crafts and for furniture making, partitions, paneling, prefabricated houses, etc.
Block board grading is done as follows
Grade 1: Exterior for bus bodies, railway coaches, pre-fabricated houses, etc.
Grade 2: Interior grade for furniture, partitions, paneling ceiling, etc.
Dimensions
Thickness (mm) : 12, 16, 20, 25, 30, 32, 35, 38, 40, 45, 50
Length (mm)
: 300, 270, 240, 210, 180, 150, 120
Width (mm)
: 150, 120, 90
Other boards:
Batten board
The core is made up of strips of wood usually 8cm wide, each laid separately or glued to form a slab.
Lamin Board
Board having one core of strips, each not exceeding 7mm in thickness glued together to form slab.
Adhesives
Synthetic Resins
A synthetic resin adhesive has a composition consisting substantially of phelonic (obtained from the reaction
of phenol with an aldehyde) or amino plastic resins(obtained from the reaction of urea, thio-urea, melamine, with
formaldehyde) including a hardening agents, fortifier, filler or extender.
Depending upon thie use, they may be also be classified as:
1. Gap filling adhesive suitable for use in situations where the surfaces to be joined may or may not be
continuous contact.
2. Close contact adhesive where the surface to be joined can be brought into close contact by means of
adequate pressure.
Animal Glue
Generally obtained from hides and bones of animals.
Vegetable Glue
It is made from natural grains and starch-bearing roots, potato, corn, wheat with acids like NaOH.

NATURAL FORCES:
Oval Knot

Spike Knot

Loose and Tight Knot

Twisted Grain

Branched Knot

Knot Cluster

Upset

Live Knot

Knot Hole

Dead Knot

Wind Cracks

Shakes

Sapstain
Burr

Coarse Grain

Druxiness

DUE TO SEASONING:

Split

Honey Combing

Check

Warp

Case Hardened
Diseases of Timber