Shinto

Shinto is the native religion in Japan with its roots stretching back to
500 B.C., and is a poly-theistic one venerating almost any natural
objects ranging from mountains, rivers, water, rocks, trees, to dead
notables. In other words, it is based on animis m. Natural wonders
make the Japanese believe, out of an awe or reverence, that such
wonders are created by the mighty, super-natural powers, and the
ghost of a deity dwells in such objects. A case in point is Kumano
Nachi Great Shrine (a UNESCO World Heritage site) in Wakayama
Prefecture. The main object of worship in this shrine is Nachi Falls
with a drop of 133 meters. Ancient people believed God resides in
this falls. Also great warriors, leaders and scholars are often
divinized. Thus anything, even a rotten head of a sardine, can be
deified, so goes a cynical saying. To dedicate to those diverse deities,
shrines were erected in a sacred spots throughout Japan. Among the
natural phenomena, the sun is most appealing to Japanese and the
Sun Goddess is regarded as the principal deity of Shinto, particularly
by the Imperial Family. We Japanese call our nation "Nippon" in
Japanese. It literally denotes "the Origin of the Sun." The Japanese
national flag is simple, one red disk in the center, and it symbolizes
the sun. (Not the empire that the sun never sets.)

Japanese mythology relates that there was the goddess of the sun
and the ruler of the heaven named Amaterasu, who was believed to
be the legendary ancestor of the current Imperial Family. It asserts
that she was once so offended by the misdeeds of her brother that
she came down to the earth and hid in a cave. The universe was
plunged into pitch darkness and evil thrived. The gods and goddesses
gathered near the cave to talk about how to get her out. They he ld a

party and a goddess began to dance in front of the cave, causing the
crowd to roar with delight. As she whirled about, her clothes fell off,
drawing cheers from the other gods. Curious about the fuss,
Amaterasu peeked out from behind a jumbo rock blocking the cave's
entrance. The dancing goddess held up a mirror and said, "We are
dancing to celebrate for a new goddess."Amaterasu came out to see
the new goddess, but what she saw was her own reflection. A
powerful god grabbed her out and told never to hi de again. (Picture,
left: A mini-shrine installed at a shopping mall near Kawasaki Station,
East Japan Railway.)

Today's Emperor Akihito (1933-) is said to be the 125th direct

descendant of Emperor Jinmu, Japan's legendary first emperor and a
mythical descendent of Amaterasu. Though not often referred to
today, the Japanese calendar year starts from 660 B.C., the year of
her accession. The reigning emperors were considered to be the
direct descendant of the Sun Goddess and revered as a living god at
one time or another. When the Pacific War was imminent in 1940, the
fascist government was boasting it was the year of 2600 to exalt the
national prestige, and it even made a song celebrating the 2600th
anniversary.

With the introduction of Buddhism from China in the mid-sixth

century, however, Shinto began to be overshadowed by Buddhism.
Greatly affected by the new religion, Imperial Prince Shotoku (574 622) institutionalized Buddhism as a state religion and built many
great temples such as Horyuji in Nara Prefecture and Shiten'noji in
Osaka. Many Buddhist temples today have a hall, in which Prince
Shotoku is enshrined in homage of his achievements. (As a matter of
fact, his portrait had been printed on the 10,000-yen bills until 1984.)
Since then, Buddhism had been supported by many emperors for
quite some time, including Emperor Shomu (724-749) who founded
World-famous Todaiji in Nara in 743.

Entering the medieval ages, emperors and Shinto lost the reigning
power, and the nation was gradually controlled by the military rulers.
The process of blending Buddhism with Shinto progressed, and in the
Heian Period (794-1185) Shinto deities came to be recognized as
incarnation of the Lord Buddha. A case in point was emerging of the
syncretic school that combined Shinto with the teachings of the
Shingon sect Buddhism. The basis of the school's belief was that
Shinto deities were manifestation of Buddha divinities. Most
important was the identification of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu with
Buddha Mahavairocana or Dainichi Nyorai in Japanese (the Great Sun
Buddha). The well-known Japanese eclecticism in religion was already
extant at this stage.

In the Kamakura Period (1185-1333), however, Shinto was

emancipated from the Buddhism domination by the military dictators,
and Shintoist claimed that Shinto divinities were not incarnation of
the Buddha but that Buddha himself was rather manifestation of
Shinto deities. Tsurugaoka Hachimangu Shrine used to be a typical
mixture of Shinto and Buddhism elements and a prime example of
syncretism as Yoritomo Minamoto (1147-1199), the founder of the
Shrine, was in the lineage of the Imperial Family.

After the Meiji Imperial Restoration of 1868, the Emperor restored

the sovereignty, and the new government institutionalized Shinto as
the official state religion while implementing restrictive policies
against Buddhism and other religions including Christianity.
Tsurugaoka Hachimangu Shrine had to remove or thrown away all of
its structures and objects associated with Buddhism. The Emperor
turned living god, and those who dared to gaze directly at the divine
Emperor were subject to arrest. Some critics say it was more fascistic
than today's North Korea since Kim Jong Il is not divinized yet.
Today's emperor is no longer a god, of course, but a symb ol of the

state and of the unity of the people, according to the Constitution.

Shinto, however, continues to be the Imperial Family's religion, and
traditional Shinto rituals are taking place in the Imperial Palace
regularly. Its influences can be seen on the Japanese national
holidays, many of which originate in Shinto rituals.

In general, Shinto has no canon of written scriptures like the Bible or

the Koran, though ceremonial prayer called norito (a formulary
statement addressed to the deity) is chanted by shrine priests. Nor is
it an iconolatry. Most of Shinto shrines house sacred objects such as
mirrors (the symbol of the Sun Goddess), swords and jewel (those
three objects are the imperial regalia) on the altar, where the gods
are believed to reside, and the objects serve as spirit substitutes for
the gods.

Shinto can also be said the religion of rituals or ceremonies mostly for
purifications or exorcism, which can often be observed even at the
corporate society. Whenever a new factory manager was appoi nted,
for example, he traditionally has to visit three places first thing he
arrived at the assigned factory: A mini-shrine installed at a cozy
corner of the factory grounds, where he says a prayer for the safety
during his tenure at the factory; leaders of the factory's labor union
to say hello and; chief of the local fishermen's association as the
factories are usually located near the seacoast and likely to pollute
the seawater with effluent. (Picture, right: Shinto priests performing
rituals at Samukawa Jinja.)

At the ground-breaking ceremony or at the start-up of new facility, be

it a high-tech or a smoke-stack industry, a Shinto priest is always
invited to perform the purification and exorcism rituals. Those are
common Shinto-related customs practiced at any manufacturing
plants in Japan. In case of Toyota Motor, just one example out of

many, top executives play out corporate ritual every autumn at the
Ise (e-seh) Grand Shrine in Mie (me-eh)Prefecture, the spiritual home
of Sun Goddess Amaterasu, with their newest models, making threehour driving from their headquarters near Nagoya. Shinto is thus
firmly embedded in today's corporate society.

The Yomiuri, a leading daily newspaper in Japan (with a circulation of

10 million), once reported that a bogus organization billing itself as
an association of Shinto priests has made a lucrative business out of
sending retired workers disguised as priests to new building sites in
Tokyo to conduct ground-breaking ceremonies. The fake priests have
been dispatched on hundreds of occasions over three years, charging
40,000 yen per visit, which lasts only an hour or so. Of a customer's
40,000-yen payment, the 'priest' earns 10,000 yen and the group
receives the remainder. To perform rituals officially as a priest, an
individual have to be authorized by the association of Shinto Shrines,
and yet there is no certification or qualification system.

We sometimes see the raging controversy over the governments'

attitude toward Shinto when they donate money to shrines as
offerings. A local prefectural government once paid 166,000 yen of
taxpayers' money on 22 occasions between 1981 and 1986 to
Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo, which enshrines Japan's 2.6 million war dead including World War II Class-A criminals such as the wartime
Prime Minister. The payment was made to cover Tamagushi fee.
Tamagushi is a sprig of Cleyera orchnacca with white paper -strips
called shide {she-deh} attached and used by Shinto priests at
ceremonies. A citizen's group filed a lawsuit in 1982 against the
governor charging that paying public money to the Shinto shrine is
unconstitutional. Article Twenty of the Constitution reads that the
state and its organs shall refrain from religious education or any
other religious activity. A lawyer for the defendants had said that the
small cash offerings to the shrine represented condolences and were

humanitarian courtesy to the 2.6 million war-dead. In April 1997, the

Supreme Court ruled that the donation violated the Constitution. The
ruling was supported by 13 judges of the 15-member Grand Bench of
the Supreme Court.

Shinto ceremony sometimes marks life stages of Japanese. One month

after birth (31st day for boys and 32 days for girls, to be exact),
parents and grand-parents bring the baby to a shrine, where they
express gratitude to the Shinto deities for being given the baby and
have shrine priest pray for his or her good health and happiness. This
is called Miyamairi {me-yah-my-re}, or Visit to Shinto Shrine, a
Japanese version of infant Baptism. Today, most of Miyam airi is
practiced between one month or 100 days after birth. In famous and
popular shrines, the ceremony is held every hour in turn. Naturally,
weekends are busy. A group of a dozen or so babies and their families
are usually brought in the hall, one group after another. There is no
price list for the service. We usually pay 10,000 yen per baby. The
group is led in by turn and sit in front of and facing the alter. A Shinto
priest wearing unique Shinto costume and headgear appear between
the group and the altar, and start to recite prayer or norito, swinging
Tamagushi right and left. We don't understand what he is saying
except that somewhere in the middle of the prayer, the priest cites
the name of the baby and his or her birthday. The prayer continue for
about ten minutes. And then, parents carrying the baby go forward
one by one and bow to the altar. In the end, sake, or rice wine, in a
red wooden cup is given to each of them.

Next chance he or she may visit a shrine to mark the specific life
stage is Shichigosan (seven-five-three) festival of November 15, when
three-year-old boys and girls, five-year-old boys and seven-year-old
girls (nominal age based on the calendar. In an extreme case, a baby
born on December 31 will be two years old the next day) c all on
shrine to pray for good health and have blessing by the priest. In

November 15, particularly on weekends near the day, you may see
lots of children and their parents wearing colorful clothes or kimono
in the precinct of famous shrines. They are visiting the shrines for the
Shichigosan ceremony.

The third time they are taken care of by Shinto priests will probably
be wedding. Ceremony usually takes place at hotels or gorgeous
ceremony halls specifically designed for wedding with makeshift
shrine altars. Here again, a Shinto priest with whom the hotel or hall
has contract presides the wedding rituals reciting prayer or norito.
Unique in wedding ceremony under Shinto is the practice called san san-kudo (three-three and nine times) or three-time exchange of
nuptial cups. Three flat cups, almost like dishes with small, medium
and large size, in which sake is powered and the gloom first sips it
three times. Then, the bride follows suit. The moment the ritual is
finished, the couple officially become wedded under Shinto.

There are as many as 80,000 Shinto shrines in this country

consecrating to one of the Shinto pantheon, but four are
predominant: Hachiman, Tenjin (also called Tenmangu), Inari {e -nahre} and Jingu.

Hachimangu enshrines 15th Emperor Ojin, the de facto first emperor

since all emperors before him are legendary. It is worshipped as the
god of archery or war and later became a tutelary deity of the
Minamoto Clan. Tsurugaoka Hachimangu ranks among the most
prestigious ones, and offers a wide array of Shinto rituals and
ceremonies.

Tenjin literally means the heaven's god, but is dedicated to the

memory of Michizane Sugawara (845-903), the patron deity of
scholarship or learning. Egara Tenjin in Kamakura is one of the three
greatest Tenjin in Japan.

Inari is the shrine for the god of harvest and is popularly called fox
deity since the fox is believed to be messengers of this god.
Characteristic of this shrine is it multiple, vermilion torii gates and a
pair of fox statues are placed in front of the shrine.

Added to those are shrines called Jingu, which are associated with the
Imperial Family. Most notable are: Meiji Jingu in Tokyo, Ise Jingu,
Heian Jingu in Kyoto, Atsuta Jingu in Nagoya.

* Shrine architecture
A full-fledged Shinto shrine is made of two-part structure as
represented by the famous Nikko Toshogu Shrine in Tochigi
Prefecture: one is the oratory called Haiden, before which worshipers
say a prayer, and the other is the inner sanctum called Honden, the
main dwelling of the deity built behind the Haiden. In contrast to
Buddhist temples, Honden contains no statues but houses symbolical
and sacred objects of worship such as mirrors and swords, in which
the spirit of the deity is believed to reside. As its nature of sanctuary
shows, the laity can never get access to the sacred Honden. Haiden is
more spacious than Honden as it is used for rituals and ceremonies.

* Torii gate
Shrines always have symbolic gates called torii Worshipers will pass
under this sacred gate, which demarcates the sacred area of the
shrine. Because of its sacredness, it is difficult to deal with it. In the
Haneda Airport in Tokyo, there once was a 7.2-meter-high torii gate
on a planned new runway. It was erected at the entrance of Anamori
Inari Shrine before World War II. After the war, American Forces
requisitioned the area and the shrine was moved. Fortunately, the
torii was allowed to remain there in light of the local people's fear of
punishment by Shinto deities. To construct a new runway later, it had
to be dismantled. Again, locals protested in fear that it might incur
divine wrath. Government authority compromised, and decided,
instead of dismantling, to relocate it to a bank of the Tama River
about 800 meters away from the former site. However, it is
unconstitutional for the government to cover the total cost for
removing religious structures of a specific religion. After a long
discussion, it was agreed that part of the total cost would be pai d by
private sectors, and the torii was finally relocated in February 1999.
(Picture, left: Torii gate at Tsurugaoka Hachimangu.)

* Purification
For a Shinto worshiper, purification is essential before offering a
prayer and it is performed through exorcism called Harai, cleaning
one's body with water. It is called Misogi {me-soh-ghe}, and
abstention from defilement or Imi {e-me}. In a large shrine, there is a
stone wash-basin and visitors are required to rinse their mouth and
hands for Misogi before approaching the deity.

* Komainu, or guard dogs

In front of shrines, there are a pair of dog-statues facing each other.
They are guardian dogs and identical to Deva of Buddhist temples,

one on the right always has its mouth open and as if to say "ah" while
the other has its mouth closed and looks like saying "um".

* Method of prayer
The method of prayer before the alter at shrines is quite distinct from
that of Buddhist temples. As part of prayer ritual, worshipers bow
twice, clap their hands twice (to make sure the god is listening?), bow
once more and then (or before the prayer) throw coins into a
offertory box.

* Kagura, or Shinto music and dancing

Kagura is a ritual dances accompanied by music called Gagaku {gah gah-koo}. Gagaku is the traditional music of the Japanese Imperial
Court, and standard instruments include sho (a reed-free mouth
organ made of 17 bamboo), biwa {be-wah} (a short-necked lute),
hichiriki (a double-reed pipe like a small oboe) and taiko (drums). The
Imperial Household Agency has the Imperial Ensemble and its
musicians are hereditary dating from the ninth century. One of them
is the Togi family and they are now employees of the Imperial
Household Agency. Kagura and Gagaku are thought to help provide
communications between the god and worshipers. For further details
on Gagaku, refer to the Agency's site.

* What can religion and religious organizations do in a natural

catastrophe?
At 5:46 a.m. on Tuesday, January 17, 1995, a devastating earthquake
hit Kobe and its neighboring areas. More than 6,400 people were
killed. Many of them were crushed to death while sleeping in wooden
houses. Ruptured gas lines ignited, fueled by the wooden

construction material, and broken water mains kept firefighters from

combating. The elevated expressway spanning Osaka and Kobe, which
was supposed to be quake-proof under seismic technology collapsed
for one kilo-meter long. Almost all of main roads were unusable
blocked by collapsed buildings. With nowhere to live in, no water and
no electricity, survivors had to get by anyhow.

Yasuo Tanaka (1956-), Akutagawa-Prize winning novelist, TV

personality and politician, watched the news on TV, and thought what
he could do for the victims as an individual. He flew to Osaka
immediately and bought a mini motorcycle, following suggestions of
Nishinomiya Catholic church (his parents were baptized Christians).
The motorcycle was a best vehicle not only to commute between
Osaka and Kobe, but also to run around wrecked areas in Kobe. What
he carried in the beginning were bottled water, tissue paper etc., and
gave them out in person to those who barely survived in the area
where no cars or truck were able to reach. He shuttled between
Tokyo and Osaka by air two or three times a week and commuted to
Kobe by motorcycle like a newspaper delivery boy from early in the
morning till late at night, dealing with many tasks he had with TV and
radio stations and magazine publishers in Tokyo. He called for
whomever he had connections with to help afflicted people in Kobe.
Within two weeks, Volkswagen donated a Vanagon, Beneton offered
thousands of underwear, Cathay Pacific promised to provide 2,000
overnight kits for passengers. Foreign companies were more
supportive than domestic ones. Tanaka carried those products driving
Vanagon himself and delivered them to the sufferers. His work as an
individual volunteer continued for more than half a year. Th rough
charities, he witnessed what human behaviors were like when a
catastrophe attacked urban cities.

Temples and shrines usually have halls, which are usable as shelters,
and grounds where temporary tent villages can be built. According to

Tanaka, not only did few offered such services, but they declined
Tanaka's request to do so, saying they were also victims and busy
taking care of themselves.

Tanaka first contacted Catholic churches in Nishinomiya and Kobe,

and joined their relief operation, but later he began his activities in
his own way. Before long, he found a Buddhist temple priest was
engaged in rescuing people. As the priest alone couldn't do much, he
asked the sect's headquarters, which hosts hundreds of young
trainees in the mountain, to come down to Kobe and help the victims
as a practical training. The headquarters rejected the request, saying
they are orientated to spiritual training, not for secular affairs.

Tanaka also sharply rebuked the mass media. A host of reporters,

journalists, TV personalities, anchor-person or whatever you may call
them, rushed to Kobe for coverage. Many chauffeured limousine for
them and their crews were parked on main streets of central Kobe,
making traffic jam even worse. They gave no hand whatsoever to the
victims. Tanaka wrote in his Kobe Quake Diary a case covered by a
widely known journalist, who dubbed himself as "Japanese Walter
Cronkite". He and his crew flew to Kobe shortly after the quake and
videotaped without getting a permission a young man desperate ly
looking for his parents trapped under the wreckage. As they
continued taping, the young man said to them crying "Stop it!", but
they didn't. Instead, the Japanese Cronkite ended the coverage on TV
saying "The victim's anger seems to have turned to the m ass media".
At least, he had to get the young man's permission before coverage.
All he had in mind at the time was how to improve TV ratings. Tanaka
pointed out the mass media didn't have even a sense of ethics. While
biking around devastated area, Tanaka often witnessed groups of the
biggest yakuza, of which headquarters are located in Kobe, offering
people with hot drinks and foods at street corners. They were far
more helpful than religious organizations.

Tanaka also criticized officials of the local go vernment including

Governor of Hyogo Prefecture, who must have witnessed how badly
Kobe was damaged through the windows of his official residence the
moment the tremor hit, but went to the office at 9 o'clock with a
chauffeured car as usual as if nothing has happened. They had, says
Tanaka, no sense of crisis management at all.

In conclusion, religion and religious organizations can do little in a

natural catastrophe.
The two fundamental Shinto doctrines are that Japan is the country of the gods
and her people are the descendants of gods. This concept of the divine descent
of the Japanese people, as well as the divine origin of the land, has given rise to
a conviction of superiority over other countries and peoples. With the
exception of a few designated sects of Shinto, the religion has no founder, no
sacred writings, and no authoritative set of beliefs. Worship takes place at one
of the numerous shrines in the country of Japan, although many Japanese have
altars in their home to one or more of the large number of deities.
The word Shinto comes from the Chinese word Shen-tao, which means the
way of the gods. A major feature of Shinto is the notion of kami, the concept
of sacred power in both animate and inanimate objects. There is in Shinto a
powerful sense of the presence of gods and spirits in nature. The gods of
Shinto are too numerous to be grouped into a hierarchy, but the sun goddess
Amaterasu is highly revered, and her grand imperial temple is located 200
miles southwest of Tokyo. Shinto teaches that the Japanese people are
themselves descended from the kami.
The religion of Shinto is entirely incompatible with biblical Christianity. First,
the idea that the Japanese people and their land are favored above all others
contradicts the Bibles teaching that the Jews are the chosen people of God:
For you are a holy people to Jehovah your God. Jehovah your God has chosen
you to be a special people to Himself above all people that are upon the face of

the earth. However, though the Jews are Gods chosen people, they have
never been designated as better than any other people, and the Bible does not
teach that they were directly descended from gods.
Second, the Bible is clear that there are not many gods, but one God: I am
Jehovah, and there is none else, no god beside Me. The Bible also teaches
that God is not an impersonal force but a loving and caring Father to those
who fear Him. He alone created the universe, and He alone reigns sovereignly
over it. The idea of gods that inhabit rocks, trees, and animals combines two
different falsehoods: polytheism (the belief in many gods) and animism (the
belief that gods are present in objects). These are lies from the father of lies,
Satan, who walks about like a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour.
Third, Shintoism fosters pride and feelings of superiority in the Japanese
people; such elitism is condemned in Scripture. God hates pride because it is
the very thing that keeps people from seeking Him with their whole hearts. In
addition, the teachings of the basic goodness and divine origin of the Japanese
people preclude their need for a Savior. This is the natural consequence of
assuming ones race is of divine origin. The Bible states unequivocally that all
have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God, that we all need a Savior, the
Lord Jesus Christ, and that there is no other name under heaven given among
men by which we must be saved.
Shinto teaches that the kami might commune with those who have made
themselves worthy through ritual purification, but the God of the Bible
promises to be present to anyone who calls upon Him for forgiveness. No
amount of personal purification (a form of salvation by works) will make a
person worthy of the presence of God. Only faith in the shed blood of Jesus
Christ on the cross can accomplish cleansing from sin and make us acceptable
to a holy God. For He made Him who knew no sin to be sin for us, that we
might become the righteousness of God in Him

The Credo begins with a sense of gratitude. This sense of gratitude is, perhaps,
the key to understanding Shintoism. One is grateful to Ones parents for life,
food, clothing and grateful to village gods and ones ancestors for land,
possessions, and employment. It is this sense of givenness that generates the
famous sense of Japanese Obligation.
As with most religions, generalizations are difficult. It is often said that
Shintoism represents the values and dispositions of Japanese culture. Although
this is true to an extent, it is important to remember that most nations are
made up of many cultures. As with all the traditions examined in this book,
Shintoism embraces considerable diversity. In particular it is not at all clear
where Shintoism ends and Buddhism starts. This partly due to the lack of the
organization. As we shall see, one had to wait until 1900 for a comprehensive,
national organization. Yet it is right to describe Shintoism as Indigenous
religion of Japan, which for centuries did not need a name. The name Shinto
(taken from shen do (dao, tao)) arose in the sixth century CE precisely to
distinguish itself from Buddhism. As Buddhism was the Way of the Buddha
so Shintoism described itself as the old way, The Way of the Gods or a better
translation The way of the Kami. Kami is a difficult term to describe.

In Brief Kami are the forces and powers that pervade everything; they are seen
best in extraordinary things of life the sun, thunder, great people (such as
Emperors) and animals. As this idea is very important, more shall be said about
the kami later on.
Shintoism distinguishes itself from the other faith traditions in a number of
ways. Although it has books that are revered, it does not really have a
scripture. Although it does make ethical demands, it does not really have a
strong code of ethical behavior. It is also extremely significant historically. After
World War II, the postwar surrender treaty built in requirement that the Shinto
religion must be disestablished. This chapter will explore all the elements.
However, to begin with we shall start with a brief historical survey, which will
be followed by a systematic account of Shintoism.

Shintoism In the Past

The Early Period
The first Japanese histories were written down in the eighth century BCE. Prior
to this, we have a small number of clues. There are Chinese documents from
the third century, which describe visits of people to japan, and a significant
archeological record. Everything seems to suggests that the Japanese had a
appreciation of the beauty of the natural world. They loved their island home.
The power of nature and the miracle of fertility preoccupied them greatly.
They wanted to merge with nature rather than fight or resist it. Anything
provoking awe, either in nature, amongst people, or beyond, provoked
worship. This is where the idea of kami comes from. In early Japanese history,
considerable prominence is given to the story of the descent of the Imperial
family from the supreme Sun Goddess.
It also seems that from the start (whenever that was) government and
religion were closely linked together. Scared leaders, who in early times were
female Shamans, were responsible both for organizing and worship of the kami
and for the organization of human affairs. There was no clear philosophy or
ethics. Instead the focus was a sense of gratitude and joy for life and a real
intimacy with nature. This intimacy partly depended on Ritual Purity. One
had to be clean to be close to the kami. The theme of purity has continued to
be a major part of Shintoism right up to the present day.
A link between the political and the religious realms can be found in the very
earliest Japanese clans. The government of eighth-century japan saw it as their
responsibility to organize the major religious festivals and to maintain the
shrines. The Emperors functions combined administrative duties with his
religious ones. The stability of the cosmic order depended on this
combinations. It is not surprising that it was written in 712 and Nihong in 720.
These two texts outline two central themes of Shintoism: the existence of kami
throughout Japan and the semi-divine descent of japan and her people.

Period 2 : Heian period

Shintoism has shown itself remarkable in its capacity to assimilate different
influences. Two centuries before the Heian period (794-1185), the
sophisticated Chinese had arrived. The Japanese welcomed the highly
developed and complex system of Confucian political life. They worked hard to
impose order on their informal tribal systems. Although the Chinese political
system dissipated over time, the Confucian ethic became a significant part of
Japanese life that continues to this very day. However, in Heian period,
Buddhism emerged as a major influence. Although Buddhism had already
arrived and taken root with Nara Buddhism , the Heian period saw the
emergence of two further Buddhist sects. As in many other countries in Asia,
Buddhists were good at accommodating local religions. A popular Buddhist
strategy was to suggest that the local deities were simply the local expression
of Buddhist experience. So, for example the Buddhist monks of the Shingon
sect described the local kami as expressions of bodhisattvas (enlightened
being). Kobo Daishi was the founder of Shingon: he introduced the highly
esoteric Buddhism that had its roots in the Tantric tradition of India. The
second sect emerging in this period was the Tendai, founded by Dengyo Daishi.
The famous Chinese text the Lotus Sutra was its central scripture and its
Japanese headquarters was the Hieizan mountain. It was also during this
period that Taoism became important Japanese religion was a hybrid of
Shintoism, Buddhism and religious Taoism, which took distinctive Japanese
expression. Shugendo, for example, was a highly organized pilgrimage
movement of this period: it stressed the need to make pilgrimage to sacred
mountains, which and acknowledge the power of the local Kami on these
mountains, which were linked to the local bodhisattvas of Buddhism.
Shintoism was now inescapably linked with other religious traditions. Scholars
disagree as to the extent of this linkage. Helen Hardacre insists that the
practice of Shinto was for centuries a mere appendage to Buddhist
institutions. Brian Bocking insists that For most of its history what we call in
retrospect Shinto was mainly Buddhism, with generous helpings of Taoism, YinYang philosophy, Confucianism, folk religion and more recently European-style
nationalism. Edwin O. Reischauer is more nuanced and more accurate when
he writes, The two religions became institutionally very much intertwined.....
And yet, throughout, Shinto retained its distinctiveness and strength.

Although it is true that we have to wait until 1900 for the basics of a national
Shinto organization, it is wrong to deny the existence of distinctive Shinto
beliefs nad dispositions before this. It is true, however, that Buddhism and
Shintoism were both operating together in Japanese culture up until 1868.

Period 3: Kamakura Period

The Heian period was marked by political and social stability. The Kamakura
period (1185-1333) was much more troubled. Political power shifted from the
court to the shoguns (the feudal powers). Struggles between these feudal
powers, which had their roots in the Heian period, now dominated the political
scene. Religiously, many of the syncretistic tendencies of the Heian period
continued. However, as is common in troubled times, a widespread belief
arose that the people were living in the third and final age of the world. (The
first age was the period when people practiced the Buddhas teaching and
obtained enlightenment; the second age was a period of practice but few
expected to obtain enlightenment; and the third was the period of indifference
to the teaching and virtually no observation.) Given that this was the final age,
an expectation developed that the world would end soon, probably through a
great catastrophe. The forms of Buddhism that emerged in this period
reflected these expectations. It is not surprising that the Pure Land Sects and
the Zen Sects emerged during this period.

Period 4: Tokugawa period

Perhaps partly in reaction to the unsettled nature of the preceding period, the
Tokugawa period was marked by strong central government, peace, and order.
Its attitude to religions was strongly conservative. Helen Hardacre suggests
that Shintoism in the period operated differently within the three different
layers of Japanese society. The first layer was the ritual practice of the
imperial court, which maintained a formal schedule of elaborate ritual for both
Buddhas and kami. It was during this period that the widespread Japanese
practice to Shinto ritual to mark birth and Buddhist ritual to mark death
became a commonplace. The second layer consisted of the large shrines that

had sufficient resources to support an hereditary priesthood. Many were

branch shrines (i.e., linked with an original shrine through a ceremony); often
these shrines were a result of migration of members from the original shrine as
they settled so they a new shrine dedicated to the clan deity. Many of the
most prestigious shrines, such as Usa Hachiman, Inari, Kasuga, Tenjin, Konpira,
Munakata, Suwa, and Izuma, developed branch shrine throughout Japan. The
third layer involved many thousands of local shrines dedicated to a local
tutelary deity. Often these shrines did not have a professional priest, but
simply survived through the support of the local community .
Towards the end of the Tokugawa period, two distinct developments emerged.
The Ise pilgrimage was the means by which many Japanese people found
themselves in the worship of Kami. Villages would support certain carefully
chosen pilgrims as they traveled to the shrine to offer prayers for a bounteous
harvest. The second development was the Shinto school of thought known as
National Learning. This school has its root in the work of Kada no Azumamaro
(1669-1739), but in the nineteenth century was heavily shaped by Hirata
Atsutane (1776-1843). The key issues for this school were the separation of
Shinto from Buddhism, the need for Shinto funerals taken by a Shinto priest,
and the reestablishment of a department of religion within the government.

Period 5: The Meiji Restoration

Tokugawa feudalism came to an end with the Meiji Restoration (1868). Earhart
sees this date as the movement of Japan into the modern world. Although
ostensibly the restoration is so called because the Emperor was restored to his
position as head of state, in fact it was the period when a modern nation state
was formed. Earhart outlines the extent of the change, when he writes: The
whole system of government was reorganized along the lines of a nation-state.
The office of the military ruler was abolished and the emperor formally ruled a
centralized government with a constitution and elected legislators. The feudal
clans were replaced with prefectures which administered local government as
the branch of the central authority. The new capital was established at Tokyo.
To finance the government a tax system was adopted.

On the religious front, it was the period when the state started to support
Shinto as the state religion. A campaign was waged against Buddhism. In the
same way that the Emperor had been restored so, the argument went, the
original religion of Japan had to be restored. This meant the removal of
Buddhist statues and Buddhist priests from the Shinto shrines.
During the 1870s, the government found it difficult to insist on Shintoism as
the main and most important religion in Japan. Japanese Buddhism was not
going to be so easily dismissed. Between 1872 and 1875 the government had a
Department of Religion which included both Shintoism and Buddhism. Matters
were finally resolved in 1882, when the government formally recognized State
Shintoism. Legally State Shintoism was not religious; it was a religion (i.e., the
13 groups which were linked with Shintoism) and this was distinct from State
Shintoism. The government argued that religion was separated from the State,
thereby protecting religious liberty.
Although religious diversity was permitted in Japan, Shinto dominated the
scene right up until 1945. After the 1890s, every child in Japan was given a
complete introduction to Shinto and a strongly nationalistic ethic. It is a
widespread perception that Shinto is responsible for Japans military
aggression. Actually most religious traditions in Japan supported Japans war
activities. Although it is true that the State used Shinto to encourage a patriotic
and nationalistic outlook, it would be wrong to simply link Japanese war
machine to the Shinto religion.

Period 6: After World War II

The surrender and occupation of Japan in 1945 brought State Shintoism to an
end. William K. Brunce headed up the Religions Division of the Civil
Information and Education Section and produced the Shinto Directive on
December 15, 1945. This Directive prohibited the funding of Shinto doctrine
and the supporting of any ideology that encouraged militarism and
ultranationalism. It also prohibited any creed asserting the superiority of the
Emperor or the Japanese people. The emperor duly announced that he was

only human and not a god. The occupying powers were insisting that Shintoism
should be treated just like Buddhism and Christianity. Shinto priests no longer
worked for the State, Shinto shrines did not receive any state subsidy; and
religious nationalistic sentiments were removed from the school textbooks.
The results was a crisis within Shintoism. Its popularity waned rapidly; it was a
religion directly associated with the defeat. Once isolated from government it
found itself lacking sufficient organization, which hampered the traditions
capacity to recover. For many years it looked as if Shintoism was in serious
trouble. However, in recent years it has recovered, or perhaps, to be more
accurate, it has demonstrated how it has remained part of the Japanese
psyche.
This perhaps can be best illustrated by the controversy surrounding the death
of Emperor Hirohito who died on January 7, 1989. The crown prince Akihito
succeeded him on January 6,1989, but the enthronement ceremony was not
held until November 1990. During the intervening period, the whole issue of
state funding for the enthronement had to be confronted.
Article 89 of the constitution of Japan (1946) states explicitly: no public
money or other property shall be expended..... for the use, benefit or
maintenance of any religious institution or association........ This article would
appear to prohibit funding for either the funeral or the enthronement.
However, the strength of the traditionlists (i.e., those who insisted that
Japanese traditions must be maintained) was sufficient for the government to
be persuaded to pay for these rituals. For the funeral, the government divided
the occasion into a religious private ceremony and a secular public part,
both of which were paid for out of the public purse. For the enthronement, the
government made a similar distinction. The actual enthronement ceremony
(Sokui-no-Rei) was considered a state affair and paid for out of state funds. The
Daijosai ceremony, which is the occasion when the Emperor assumes spiritual
power by spending part of a night in a special Shinto shrine, was to be funded
out of the Imperial court budget. The court budget comes from the
government, so it is a moot point whether this careful distinction made any
difference.

There are some movements that would like the government to extend further
funding to certain other shrines. Such movements are vigorously opposed,
especially by Christians, who fear a repeat of the 1930s. The result is that
Shintoism continues to gain widespread recognition, although the government
tries to keep its distance.

Shintoism Today
Worldviews
Kami
The concept of kami probably has its roots in the Japanese love of nature.
According to traditions there are many thousands (yaoyorozu no kami vast
myriads of kami) of these life powers. Although the Sun Kami Amaterasu-oMikami is considered the head of the kami, she is not considered the source or
the overall creator. Indeed she pays respect to the other kami. This means that
unlike many other traditions there is a fundamental plurality of forces in
control of the world. The central texts that describe the main kami are the
Kojiki and Nihongi. It is here that the marvelous Japanese story of the creator
kami Izanagi and Izanami. Kami are found throughout nature: mountains,
trees, rocks, seas, rivers, and animals. Even people can be described as kami,
not least the Emperor. Naturally there are those kami which are destructive
and cause suffering, for example Magatsuhi-no-kami (the kami of misfortune).
Traditionally such destructive kami are located in the nether-world (the land of
Yomi). Evil, in Shintoism, is not inherent in humanity but comes from outside.
The primary human duty towards the kami is to worship them. All deserve
respect, even the destructive kami. There are thousands of shrines in Japan. All
insist on approaching the kami having observed the fundamental rituals of
purification. Then it is possible to offer food, offer dances and music, and chant
prayers. Some homes have a kami shelf (kamidana). This is a miniature shrine,
which is often decorated with pine sprigs or the sacred sasaki tree. The family
will deposits various offerings on the shelf and demonstrate their
acknowledgement of the kami by clapping, boying and praying in front of the
shrine.

The comcept of is a distinctive Japanese contribution to the understanding of

the spiritual in the world. Only certain forms of Hinduism and animism are
similar. It is the acknowledgement of the many varied powers that maintain
the balance of the cosmos. The worship of the kami is essential to maintain
the harmony of the human with nature.

Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters) and Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan)

These are the earliest texts of Shintoism. Emperor Temmu (672-86) felt that
existing histories were unreliable and offered to provide a corrected text. The
Kojiki was compiled first in 712 CE, closely followed by the Nihongi, which
according to tradition was compiled in 720 CE. The major theme of the Kojiki is
the origin of kingship. Book 1 explains the origins of the world through the
marriage of two kami, Izanagi and Izanami. Together they create the Japanese
islands and many other kami, Izanamu is then killed by the kami of fire, so
Izanagi descends to the underworld to try and find her. When Izanagi returns
to the earth, the act of purification brings about the existence of the Kami of
the Sun, Amaterasu. She is the historic ancestors of the Imperial family. She is
the administrator of the heavenly domain. It is her grandson Ninigi who
descends form heaven to Mount Takachiho to rule the Japanese islands.
Books 2 starts with the great-grandson of Ninigi, Jimmu, who becomes Japans
first Emperor. Jimmu goes to war against the forces of evil and finds the center
of the land, which is where he builds the Imperial Palace. We are then
provided with a careful record of 13 other Emperors before arriving at
Emperor Ojin, who historians have evidence lived in the fifth century CE. Book
3 continues to document the achievements if the great Emperors. It describes
their exploits, from Emperor Ninotoku to Empress Suiko.
Nihongi covers similar ground. There are thirty volumes, of which the first two
deal with the age of the kami and the remaining twenty-eight tell the story
from Emperor Jimmu to Empress Jito. It seems that the two books are
intended for different audiences. The Nihongi has made use of more sources; it
seems to be intended as an official chronicle, comparable to the historical
records of the Chinese.

Institutions and Rituals

The Shrine Association (Jinja Honcho)
On February 3, 1946 the Shrine Association was formed. This is the body
responsible for coordinating and governing shrine Shinto. After the
breakdown of State Shintoism, this was the body that emerged to coordinate
continuing Shinto activies. Although some shrine are independent of the
Association, more that 80 percent of Japanese shrines are affiliated to it.
Relatively recently the headquarters were moved from Tokyo to Meiji Jingu.
The central teaching is the guidance of the spiritual leaderships of the Ise
shrines because this embodies the spiritual homeland of Japan. The Ise Shrine
is the Imperial household shrine, which is identified with the Emperor; it
remains popular as a place of pilgrimage. The Association retains certain
traditional convictions about the character of Shinto: for example, it assumes
the Shinto is a national faith, which is separated from Buddhism. The president
is responsible for the recognition of priestly rank and the appointment of
priests to shrines. On certain other occasions the president stands in for the
Emperor.
Festivals
The Shinto word which is closer to festivals is matsuri. According to Brian
Bocking, this term may be rendered festival, worship, celebration, rite,
or even prayer, which is actually captures the range of activities connected
with Shinto festivals are organized around the annual seasonal celebrations.
Most are held at a shrine and will involve offering, prayers, rites, gratitude to
the kami, and straightforward entertainment.

Major Festivals
Oshogatsu (New Year)

1-3 January

Ohinamatsuri (Dolls or Girls Festival)

3 March

Tango nu Sekku (Boys Festival)

5 May

Hoshi Matsuri/Tanabata (Star Festival)

7 July

Ethics
Shintoism is not preoccupied with ethics. Bocking explains that Japanese do
not associate the Shinto word shushin with morality and behavioural norms,
but with the pre-war ethics courses and textbooks used in Japanese schools
to underpin the emperor system. For Bocking, the ethics of Shinto are simply
Japanese versions of Confucianism or Buddhism.
Insofar that Shintoism has an ethic, it is one that stresses the corporate
dimensions of human life. Sokyo Ono writes, The Shinto faith brings not only
the individuals, the neighbourhood and society into direct relationship with the
kami and makes them more ideal; it does the same for the political world. As
we saw in the examination of the history of Shintoism, it is true that Shintoism
has been a bond that linked the people with nature and the state. This, if
course, partly created the problems that led to the allies requiring the
disestablishment of State Shinto at the end of World War II. Sokyo Ono insists
that the use of Shinto for nationalistic purposes was a distortion of the
tradition and writes, Fundamentally, Shinto is a faith which is based on the
belief that many kami cooperate together. Shrines Shinto is worship to unite
and harmonize the various kinds of kami. The spirit of tolerance and
cooperation is a hitherto unnoticed aspect of Shinto. Generally, however,
there is little that is distinctive about Shinto ethics. Japanese ethical traditions
do not draw heavily on the Shinto tradition.

Women
Some feminist scholars suspect that Shintoism historically was positive about
women. There is some evidence that prior to the sixth century CE there was a
female shamanic cult and that menstruating women were viewed positively as
possessed by kami and pure. Problems arose with the arrival of the more maledominated Buddhist traditions, which marginalize Shinto shamanesses and,
perhaps, women more generally. However, as Martinez has shown, the

domination of the major festivals by men can easily lead scholars to ignore the
way that women dominate the minor rituals and festivals.
Martinez provides a study of Kuzaki village. She shows how the bulk of house
hold rites are organized by women. The daily offerings to the kami and the
prayers to household ancestors are almost always performed by the women.
Even the monthly climb up Sengen, the sacred mountain, is an activity of the
working women. This monthly pilgrimage is to ask the kami for good fortune. It
was only when the village celebrated a major festival that the men became
involved. All the political leaders were present, all of whom were men, and
they dominated the occasion.
For Martinez, the interesting feature is the way that the regular acts of rituals
are being dominated by women. She suggests that women,....... because of
their innate power, always have the potential to meditate directly for the
deities. In other worlds there is a constructive message underpinning this,
largely rural, participation in religious activities.

Modern Expression
It is commonplace that western scholars of Japanese religions find themselves
denying the existence if Japanese religion. The education system stresses the
worlds if technology and science and is impatient with the spiritual. Book
shops are full of books in ghosts, avoiding pollution, and UFOs. Ian Reader
insists that there is considerable evidence that Japanese young people are
reacting against such reductionism. He writes, The processes of moderation,
rationalisation, scientific development and increased education thus tend to
stimulate rather than diminish interest in spiritual matter and the world of the
irrational. Religion is alive and well in Japan.
Yet traditional forms are struggling. The evidence is that it is ani-establishment
traditions that attract the interest. Shintoism continued to be identified with
the establishment. However, Ian Reader writes, the rising numbers
participating in festivals, ...... the various occasions which memorialize the
ancestors, the current interest in pilgrimages, the large numbers who acquire
amulets and talismans and visit religious centers to pray for benefits, the small

but growing interest in meditation ....., the contemporary focus on ascetic and
charismatic figures of power, and the seemingly endless emergence and
growth of new religions, are indicative of the energies inherent in the religious
world of Japan today.
Shintoism remains significant because underpinning many festivals and
customs are Shinto traditions. In the 1980s, growing Japanese prosperity
enabled the Japanese to revisit their traditions with pride. In the 1990s, the
economic miracle was less strong and interest in religious traditions waned. It
seems to remain true that interest in Shintoism runs in parallel with Japanese
self-perception; when the Japanese nation is doing well, Shintoism is viewed
positively; when it is doing less well, Shintoism attracts less interest.