Chapter 3 Cell Biology and Genetics

Read 3.1 3.9 and 3.11; Note: we will discuss plasma membrane last
Learning Outcomes:
*LIPID SOLUBLE=HYDROPHOBIC=NONPOLAR
*WATER SOLUBLE=HYDROPHILIC=POLAR
characteristic functions of the cell
1. Cell metabolism and energy use
2.Synthesis of molecules
3.Communication
4.Reproduction and inheritance
Cytology: the study of the anatomy and physiology (structure and function) of cells
Two classes of cells in the human body
somatic cells: body cells

make up the tissues and organs of the body

differentiate or specialize into many different forms according to function

sex cells: reproductive cells

female: ovum (oocytes)

male: sperm

A typical somatic cell is surrounded by a watery medium known as extracellular fluid

(ECF) or interstitial fluid.
Extracellular: outside the cell
Intracellular: inside the cell
Characteristic functions of the cell
1. cell metabolism and energy use: the energy released from some metabolic
reactions fuel cellular activities and release energy as heat, which helps maintain body
temp.
2. synthesis of molecules: different cells synthesize varies types of molecules; the
structure and function of cells are determined by the types of molecules they produce

3. communication: cells produce and respond to chemical and electrical signals that
allow them to communicate with another
4. reproduction and inheritance
Components of a cell (See table 3.1)

Plasma membrane cell membrane

o forms the outer boundary of the cell, through which the cell interacts with
its external environment
o NOT a cell wall

Cytoplasm cytosol and organelles

o the cellular material outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane,
is about half cytosol and half organelles.

Nucleus control center of the cell

o usually located centrally; it directs the cells activities, most of which take
place in the cytoplasm

Components of the Cytoplasm:

Cytosol: the fluid portion of the cytoplasm, which contains the cytoskeleton and
cytoplasmic inclusions.

Organelles: structures within the cell that are specialized for particular functions

Inclusions: any foreign or other substance contained in the cytoplasm of a cell

Organelles:
1. Cytoskeleton: supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles in place

begins in anaphase and continues through telophase

Functions of Cytoskeleton:
supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles in place

Internal scaffolding of cell

responsible for changes in cell shape and the movement of cell organelles

function in intracellular transport

protein filaments common in all cells

o Microfilaments: small fibril forming bundles, sheets, or

networks in the cytoplasm of cells
provides structure to the cytoplasm and mechanical
support for microvilli and stereocilia
formed largely of actin
a contractile protein
o Microtubules: hollow tube composed of tubulin, measuring
approximately 25 nm in diameter and usually several
micrometers long.
helps provide support to the cytoplasm of the cell
and is a component of certain cell organelles, such
as centrioles, spindle fibers, cilia, and flagella.
form the internal structure of the centrioles
2. Nucleus

control center of cellular operations

determines the structural and functional characteristics of a cell by determining

the types of proteins produced by the cell

Most cells have one nucleus, but there are exceptions:

i.

multi-nucleated
1. more than one nucleus
2. usually larger than regular cells
3. ex: skeletal muscle

ii. a-nucleated
1. no nucleus
2. usually have a shorter lifespan than those with a nucleus
3. ex: red blood cells
Structure of nucleus

Nuclear envelope: double membrane structure surrounding and enclosing the

nucleus

Nuclear pores: pore-like openings in the nuclear envelope where the inner and
outer membranes fuse.

Nucleolus: somewhat rounded, dense, well-defined nuclear body with no

surrounding membrane; contains ribosomal RNA and protein
i.

incorporates portions of chromosomes that contains DNA from

which rRNA is produced

ii. within the nucleolus, subunits of ribosomes are manufactured

nucleoplasm: gelatinous substance inside the nucleuss cell membrane

Genetic material: DNA

3. Ribosome: small, spherical, non-membrane bound; sites of protein synthesis; can

be found free in cytoplasm or associated with an intracellular membrane complex.

Composed of a large and small subunits: proteins and RNA

Workbench of protein synthesis

Types of ribosomes: free v. attached

i.

free ribosome: ribosomes found free in the cytoplasm or associated

with the endoplasmic reticulum

ii. attached: associated with an intercellular membrane complex or

endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Network of membranes distributed throughout the cytoplasm

consists of broad, flattened, interconnecting sacs and tubules

i.

cisternae: interior spaces of sacs and tubules; are isolated from

the rest of the cytoplasm

Involved in protein, lipid and carbohydrate synthesis

Stores material

Neutralizes toxins

Two types: Rough ER v. Smooth ER

i.

Rough ER:
1. has ribosomes attached to the surface

2. these ribosomes are sites where proteins are produced and

modified for secretion and for internal use
3. provide an area for storage and transport of the ribosomes
to other cell areas
ii. Smooth ER: lipid metabolism and drug detoxification
1. no ribosomes attached to surface
2. manufactures lipids, such as phospholipids, cholesterol, and
steroid hormones, as well as carbohydrates
3. no function in protein synthesis
5. Golgi Apparatus: packaging and distribution center

flattened membranous sacs, containing cisternae, that are stacked on top of each
other;

specialized endoplasmic reticulum that modifies, packages, and distributes

proteins and lipids manufactured by the rough and smooth ER for secretion from the
cell

Flattened membranous discs stacked together

Communicates with the ER and plasma membrane

Modifies and packages secretions

Renews and modifies the plasma membrane

Packages material that remain in the cell

6. Secretory Vesicles:

membrane bound

pinch off from the Golgi Apparatus

move to the surface of the cell, their membranes fuse with the plasma membrane,
and the contents of the vesicle are released to the exterior by exocytosis

7. Lysosome: membrane bound vesicle that contain hydrolytic enzymes that function
as intracellular digestive enzymes.

Vesicle filled with digestive enzymes

form at the Golgi apparatus

digest worn out cell organelles (autophagia) and foreign substances that enter
the cell

8. Peroxisome: membrane bounded body similar to a lysosome in appearance but

often smaller and irregular in shape

contain enzymes that break down fatty acids and amino acids

contains catalase which breaks down hydrogen peroxide (byproduct of the

breakdown of fatty and amino acid, can be toxic to cell) to water and oxygen

Vesicle filled with enzymes that detoxify

cells active in detox, such as kidney and liver cells, have many peroxisomes

9. Mitochondrion

rod shaped bodies with a double membrane wall; inner membrane has numerous
folds known as cristae

Power house of the cell

Site of ATP production

Double membrane with two internal compartments: inter-membrane space and

matrix
i.

cristae: shelflike infolding of the inner membrane of a

mitochondrion

ii. matrix: the substance located in the space formed by the inner
membrane.
10. Centriole

oriented in pairs within the centrosome; lie at right angles to each other
i.

centrosome: specialized zone of cytoplasm close to the nucleus;

center of microtubule formation in the cell.

Composed of a short cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules

an anchor for microtubules during cell division

form the bases of cilia and flagella

Direct movement of genetic material during cell division

11. Cilia

Hair-like, motile extensions

Moves secretions or fluids across the surface of cells

Their motion moves materials over the surface of the cell

12. Flagellum

Similar to cilia but longer

move in wave-like fashion

instead of moving small particles, they move the entire cell

13. Microvilli

cylindrically shaped extensions of the plasma membrane

short extensions of cell

increase surface area for absorption

DO NOT MOVE

supported by actin filaments (microfilaments) instead of microtubules

Cell Cycle: includes the changes a cell undergoes from the time it is formed until it
divides to produce two new cells
Interphase

non-dividing phase; cell growth and DNA replication

DNA is present as thin threads of chromatin in the nucleus

phase between cell division

consists of 90% or more of cells life cycle

divided into 3 stages:

G1: the first gap the cell carries out routine metabolic activities
S: the synthesis phase DNA is replicated (new DNA is synthesized)
G2: the second gap the cell prepares for cell division
replication: the process by which two new strands of DNA are made, using two
existing strands as templates
organelles, other than the nucleus, duplicate during interphase

Cell Division

types of cell division:

Mitosis: cell divides.

the division of a cells chromosomes into two new nuclei; each of which has the
same amount and type of DNA as the original nucleus

one diploid (containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one

from each parent) cell divides to produce two diploid cell

divided into 4 phases:

prophase:
chromatin condenses to form mitotic chromosomes (consists of two chromatids
joined at the centromere)
chromosomes are visible with a light microscope and evident that each has
replicated
spindle fibers extend from the centrioles to the centromeres of the chromosomes
the centrioles divide and migrate to each pole of the cell (move to opposite ends
of the cell)
the nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear
metaphase: Meet in the Middle
chromosomes align near the center of the cell
anaphase:
chromatids separate
two identical sets of chromosomes are moved by the spindle fibers toward the
centrioles at one of the poles of the cell
at the end, each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of the cell,
and the cytoplasm begins to divide
telophase:
nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes to form two separate
nuclei
the chromosomes begin to uncoil and resemble the genetic material
characteristic of interphase.

Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins. The

chromosomes have unraveled to become chromatin. Cell division has
produced two daughter cells, each with DNA that is identical to the
DNA of the parent cell.
mitotic chromosome: densely coiled chromatin that forms compact chromosomes

chromatid: one half of a chromosome; separates from its partner during cell
division
centromere:location where the two separate chromatids are attached

spindle fiber: specialized microtubule that develops from each centrosome and
extends toward the chromosomes during division.

Types of cell division:

Mitosis: one diploid cell divides to produce two diploid cells

cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm during cell division

Meiosis: one diploid cell divides to produce multiple haploid cells

o cell division that results in the formation of gametes
o gametes have 1/2 the number of chromosomes and 1/2 as many alleles as
the original diploid cell
o consists of two divisions, which result in on (female) or four (male)
gametes, each of which contains one half the number of chromosomes in a
parent cell.

Gene expression
Analogy
-the recipe: copy of the gene (mRNA)
-the cake: the protein
-the kitchen: ribosome
-ingredients: amino acids
transcription: the synthesis of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA based on the nucleotide sequence
in DNA; occurs in the nucleus (copying the recipe)
translation: synthesis of polypeptide chains at the ribosome in response to information
contained in mRNA molecules; occurs outside of the nucleus, in the ribosome. (turning
the recipe into a cake)

The Plasma Membrane:

Functions:

Physical isolation: separates the cells contents from ECF

Regulation of exchange between the ECF and the cytoplasm

Sensitivity

Structural support: encloses and supports the cells contents

boundary separating the substances inside the cell from substances outside the cell

attaches cells to extracellular environments or to other cells

determines what moves in and out of cells

Structure:
-The plasma membrane is a bilayer of phospholipids with associated
proteins and carbohydrates.
Membrane Lipid
Consists of two main lipids:

Phospholipids: most of the surface of the membrane

are amphipathic

form bilayer in aqueous solutions

o Lipid Bilayer: a double layer of phospholipid molecules
phospholipids readily assemble into this layer because they have a
polar (charged) head and a nonpolar (uncharged) tail.
allows membrane to have a fluid structure

Cholesterol: stabilize the position of the phospholipids of the plasma membrane

o accounts for 1/3 of the total lipids in the plasma membrane
o sensitive to temperature

Membrane Proteins (See table 3.2)

Integral proteins: penetrated deeply into the lipid bilayer, in many cases extending
from one surface to the other.
o part of plasma membrane

o embedded in phospholipid bilayer

Peripheral proteins: attached to either the inner to the outer surfaces of the lipid
bilayer

Functions of proteins of the plasma membrane

Marker molecules: cell surface molecules that allow cells to identify other cells or
other molecules
o self cells or foreign?
o healthy or diseased?

Attachment proteins: allows cells to attach to other cells or to extracellular

molecules
o anchor cells to other cells (cadherins) or to extracellular molecules
(integrins)

Transport Proteins: integral proteins that allow ions or molecules to move from one side
of the plasma membrane to the other; includes channel, carrier, and ATP power pumps

Channel proteins: one or more integral proteins arranged so that they form a tiny
channel through the plasma membrane
o provide a passageway across the membrane
o leak channels: pores are ALWAYS open and are responsible for the
plasma membranes permeability t ions when the plasma membrane is at
rest
o gated channels: channels or pores can be open or closed

Carrier proteins: transporters integral membrane proteins that move ions or

molecules from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.

ATP-powered pumps: transport proteins that move specific ions and molecules
from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.

Receptor proteins: proteins or glycoproteins (proteins with attached

carbohydrates) in the plasma membrane that have an exposed receptor site on
the outer cell surface, which can attach to specific chemical signals. The binding
acts as a signal that triggers a response.
o ligands (general term for any substance) small molecules that bind to the
protein or glycoprotein, changing cell activity

Enzymes: protein that acts as a catalyst

Characteristics of Membrane proteins

-proteins are specific

-they have a saturation point-they can only move so much at a time (this limits activity)
-sensitive to environment: temp. and pH
Carbohydrates
-only found of the outer surface of the plasma membrane
-usually associated with proteins or lipids forming glycoproteins or glycolipids
glycoproteins: proteins with attached carbohydrates
-integral or peripheral
glycolipids: lipids with attached carbohydrates
-form a halo around the cell known as the glycocalyx

glycocalyx: collection of glycoproteins, glycolipids, and carbohydrates on the

outer surface of the plasma membrane; also contains molecules absorbed from the
extracellular environment, so there is no precise boundary between the plasma
membrane and the extracellular environment.

functions of carbohydrates
-attachment
-identification
Membrane Permeability

Determines what enters or leaves the cell

how things move through a cell

hydrophobic molecules dissolve in the membrane and cross it with ease

hydrophilic molecules may not cross the membrane readily

Selectively permeable: allows only certain substances to pass through it

o permits the free passage of some substances and restricts the passage of
others

Movement across the membrane is either

Passive: cell does not expend any energy

Active: cell expends energy

4 categories of transport (See table 3.3)

Diffusion

Carrier-mediated transport

Osmosis

Vesicular
concentration gradient

the concentration difference between two points, divided by the distance between
two points
solutes diffuse down their concentration gradient (from a higher to a lower solute
concentration) until an equilibrium is achieved.
the greater the concentration gradient, the greater the rate of diffusion of a solution
down that gradient
increasing the concentration difference or decreasing the distance between the two
points increases the concentration gradient, whereas decreasing the concentration
difference or increasing the distance between the two points decreases the
concentration gradient
Diffusion: Movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of
lower concentration;

passive process

simple diffusion: diffusion without the help of membrane proteins

substances move DOWN a concentration gradient

temp. of the solution, size of the diffusing molecules, the viscosity of the solvent,
and the magnitude of the concentration gradient affect the rate of diffusion

Osmosis: diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

diffusion of WATER
if solutes cannot move across the membrane, water molecules will move to
equalize the solute concentration on either side of the membrane

Tonicity: describes the concentration of a solution relative to the cytoplasm (see figure
3.17)

-osmotic: concentration of solute

-tonic: tendency of cells to shrink or swell

term used to describe the solute concentration of a solute relative to some other
solute

Isotonic: type of solution that causes cells to neither shrink nor swell; same solute
concentration as the cytoplasm

Hypertonic: relatively higher solute concentration than the cytoplasm;

o crenation: water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic
solution, causing the cell to shrink

Hypotonic: relatively lower solute concentration than cytoplasm;

o lysis: water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell; if it swells
enough, it can eventually rupture

Carrier-mediated transport: substance moves across the membrane through interactions

with membrane proteins

the process by which transport proteins mediate, or assist, the movement of large,
water-soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules or ions across the plasma
membrane.
has 3 characteristics:

specificity: each transport protein binds to and transports only a single type of
molecule or ion.
competition: the result of similar molecules binding to the transport protein.
Closely related substances, in which regions of two different molecules have the
same shape, may bind to the same binding site. The substance in the greater
concentration or the substance that binds to the binding site more readily is moved
across the membrane at the greater rate
saturation: the rate of movement of molecules across the membrane is limited by
the number of transport proteins.
transport proteins may function in passive transport or active transport

Facilitated diffusion: diffusion with help

o carrier or channel-mediated process that moves substances into or out of
cells from a higher to a lower concentration
o passive process
o diffusion of solute across a membrane with the help of transport proteins
o solute moves DOWN its concentration gradient

Active transport:
o mediated transport process that requires energy provided by ATP
o energy requiring process during which a transport protein PUMPS a
molecule across a membrane
o moves solute UP or against its concentration gradient
o helps cells maintain steep ionic gradients across the cell membrane
o sodium and potassium are big players in regulating protein activity
sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump: moves Na+ out of cells and
K+ into cells. The result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside
of the cell and a higher concentration of K+ inside the cell

Vesicular Transport: bulk transport

bulk transport across the membrane by the formation or release of membranebound vesicles

ACTIVE process

vesicle: a membrane bound sac within the cytoplasm of a cell

Endocytosis: the uptake of material through the plasma membrane by the

formation of a vesicle.
o A portion of the plasma membrane wraps around a particle or droplet and
fuses so that the particle or droplet is surrounded by a membrane. That
portion of the membrane pinches off so that the enclosed particle or
droplet is within the cytoplasm of the cell, and the plasma membrane is
left intact.
o pinocytosis: cell drinking distinguish from phagocytosis in that smaller
vesicles form, and they contain molecules dissolved in liquid rather than
particles
o phagocytosis: cell eating solid particles are ingested and phagocytic
vesicles are formed.
o Receptor-mediated endocytosis: specific receptor molecules that recognize
certain substances and allow them to be transported into the cell by
phagocytosis and pinocytosis; the receptor sites combine only with certain
molecules; this mechanism increases the rate at which the cells take up
specific substances.
Receptor molecules on the cell surface bind to molecules to be
taken into the cell.

 The receptors and the bound molecules are taken into the cell as a
vesicle begins to form.
The vesicle fuses and separates from the plasma membrane

Exocytosis: elimination of material from a cell through the formation of vacuoles

1.

A secretory vesicle moves toward the plasma membrane

2.

The secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane

3.

The secretory vesicles contents are released into the extracellular fluid