1.

ABSTRACT
This experiment was conducted to determine the total head loss and loss coefficient of

fluid flow through a 90 degree elbow and to compare the flow measurement using venturi,
orifice and rotameter. The other objective was to compare the pressure drop against each device.
The flow rate through a pipe can be measured by using the orifice meter, venturi meter
and the rotameter. From the energy equation, it can be deduced that when pressure head reduces,
the velocity head will increase. In the orifice and venturi meters, the cross-sectional area
available for flow is restricted. Therefore, an increase in velocity will result in a decrease in
pressure at a point from the energy equation.
The same principle can be applied to the rotameter but the difference is that the areas
available for the flow is variable while the pressure drop across the restriction is keep constant.
This can be achieved through a tapered tube and float arrangement. As flow increases, the flow
will raise until the dynamic force of the fluid balances the gravitational force acting on the float.
The flow is directly dependent on the height of the float.
From the results that we obtained, the venturi meter is closer to the value of the actual
flow rate compared to the orifice meter and the value of its flow rate percentage error is smaller
compared to the orifice meter and rotameter. This can be caused by the fact that venturi flow
meter has a smaller head loss compared to the orifice meter by its design.

2.0

INTRODUCTION
Flow is defined as the rate (volume or area per unit time) at which a substance travels

through a given cross section and is characterized at specific temperatures and pressures. The
instruments used to measure flow are termed flow meters (Miryala, 2006). SOLTEQ Flow
meter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101) apparatus is designed to operate together with a
basic hydraulic bench or any water supply. It is to familiarize the students with typical methods
of flow measurement of an incompressible fluid.
The apparatus is able to demonstrate the flow measurement comparison by using a
venturi meter, orifice meter and rotameter. By using Gravimetric or Volumetric Method, the flow
comparison can be further used to compare against the flow measurement of the hydraulics
bench, depending on the type of hydraulics bench in use. Other features of the flow apparatus
include a 90 degree elbow with pressure tapping before and after this elbow. The purpose of
these features is to provide an added function to this apparatus to allow students to calculate the
total head loss and loss coefficient when fluid flows through these devices.
Venturi meter

Fig 1.1: Venturi meter

The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and a suitable differential pressure gauge. It
is used to measure the flow rate of compressible and incompressible fluid in a pipeline. The
venturi tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion. The function of the
converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its static pressure. A pressure

difference between inlet and throat is thus developed, which pressure difference is correlated
with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream back to the
entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.
Orifice meter

Fig 1.2: Orifice meter

The orifice meter is also used in measuring the flow rate of a reservoir or through a pipe.
It consists of a flat plate with a circular hole drilled in it. There is pressure tap upstream from the
orifice plate and another at downstream.
Rotameter

Fig 1.3: Rotameter

The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating element with
low pressure drop and no electrical connection that gives direct reading of flow rate for a wide
range of liquids and gases. Basically, a rotameter consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube
through which fluid flow upward. Within the tube is placed a freely suspended float of pumpbob shape. When there is no flow, the float rests on a stop at the bottom end. As flow
commences, the float rises until upward and buoyancy forces on it are balanced by its weight.
The float rises only a short distance if the rate of flow is small, and vice versa. The points of
equilibrium can be noted as a function of flow rate. With a well-calibrated marked glass tube, the
level of the float becomes a direct measure of flow rate.

3.0

OBJECTIVES
1. To familiarize the students with typical methods of flow measurement of an
incompressible fluid
2. To compare flow measurement using venturi meter, orifice meter and rotameter and
determine the most accurate device
3. To determine the total head loss and loss coefficient of fluid flow through a 90 degree
elbow
4. To compare the pressure drop against each device

4.1

THEORY

Applications of the Bernoulli equation yield the following result, which applies for both
the Venturi meter and the Orifice meter.
Bernoulli Equation:
P1
(V 1)2
+
+ Z1 =
g
2g

P2
g

(V 2) 2
2g

+Z

Z1=Z2
P1
g +

(V 1) 2
2g

P 1P 2
g

P2
g

( V 2 ) 2( V 1 ) 2
2g

(V 2)2
2g
. (1)

Use of the continuity Equation Q = A1V1 = A2V2, equation (1) becomes

A2V 2
V1 =
(2)
A1
Substitute (2) into (1):
P 1P 2
g
Hence,

A2V 2
)
A1
2g

( V 2 ) 2(
=

( 2 2)(

A2V 2
)
A1

2g

V2 =

1
2P
.

A1
1(
)2
A2

P
g

. (3)

Q = CdA2V2 .. (4)
Substitute (3) into (4):
A1 2

A2

1
Flow rate, Qv =

Cd A 2

Where

2 P
= 2 g h

Where;
h: head difference in meter (m) from the manometer readings for the appropriate meter
g: acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Cd: discharge coefficient for meter (0.98)
A1: inlet area (5.309x10-4 m2)
A2: throat area of the meter (2.011x10-4 m2)
The discharge coefficient, Cd must be used in order to simplify assumptions made when
applying the Bernoulli equation. The assumed values used in this experiment are:
Venturi meter Cd: 0.98
Orifice meter Cd: 0.63
The energy loss that occurs in a pipe fitting is usually expressed in term of head loss and
can be determined from the manometer readings. For this experiment, theoretically assumed the
head loss for venturi meter and rotameter is low while for orifice meter is medium. Theoretically,
venturi meter is the most accurate equipment to measure the flow rate of fluid in the pipe
compared to orifice meter and rotameter as it has the lowest value of head loss and percentage
error.

5.0

APPARATUS
In order to complete this experiment, a few equipment is needed:
1. Flow meter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101) apparatus
2. Hydraulic bench - enables the measurement of flow by timed volume collection
3. A stopwatch to determine the flow rate of water

1. Flow meter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101) apparatus

5
1

8
9

1. Manometer tubes

6. Rotameter

2. Discharge valve

7. 90 elbow

3. Water outlet

8. Orifice

4. Water supply

9. Venturi

5. Staddle valve
2. Hydraulic bench

3. Stopwatch

6.0

PROCEDURES

6.1

Demonstration of the operation and characteristic of three different basic types of

flow meter

1.
2.
3.

The apparatus is placed on the bench and ensures that it is level.

The inlet pipe is connected to the bench supply and the outlet pipe to the volumetric tank.
The pump is then started and slowly opens the bench valve. Once the water flows through

4.

the apparatus, the flow control valve is fully opened.

When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, the bench valve is

5.

closed to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.

The water level in the manometer board began to display different level of water heights

6.

and it can be adjusted by using the staddle valve.

When the manometer levels have reached a convenient height, the flow is slowly reduced
by controlling the flow discharge valve of the apparatus and then the discharge valve is

7.

totally closed.
With the maximum measurable flow rate, the readings on manometer (AJ) and
rotameter are noted (readings on manometer (I-J) are noted for 90 degree elbow

8.

experimental data).
Step 7 is repeated for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing both
bench valve and discharge valve. The manometer level is adjusted to demonstrate similar

9.

flow rates at different system static pressures.

A timed volume collection is carried out using the volumetric tank at a fixed flow rate
and the rotameter readings are recorded. This is achieved by closing the ball valve and
measuring the time taken to accumulate a known volume of fluid in the tank (3L) by
using a stopwatch.

6.2
1.
2.

Shut-down Procedures
The water supply valve and the venturi discharge valve are closed.
The water supply pump is switched off and the water from the unit is drained off when
not in use.

7.0

RESULTS

7.1

Demonstration of the operation and characteristic of three different basic types of

flow meter

Table 7.1: Demonstration of the operation and characteristics of three different basic types of
flow meter
7.2

Determination of the loss coefficient when fluid flows through a 90 degree elbow

Volume

Time

Flow
rate,

Differential Piezometer Head, h'

V2/2g

(l)

(min)

(mm)

(m/s)

(mm)

(l/min)

Elbow (hI - hJ)

0.69

4.35

0.14

1.00

0.34

8.82

0.28

4.00

0.22

13.64

0.43

9.42

3
0.17
17.65
6
0.55
15.42
Table 7.2: Determination of the loss coefficient when fluid flows through a 90 degree elbow

7.3

Flow rate of fluid (m3/s) and flow rate percentage error (%)

Timed
(Qt)
7.2510-

Flow rate (m3/s)

Venturi
(QV)
Orifice (QO)
-5
7.3010
5.4310-5

Rotameter
(QR)
8.3310-5

Flow rate percentage error

(%)
Orific
Venturi
e
Rotameter
0.69
-25.1
14.90

1.4710-4 1.6310-4 1.3010-4

1.6710-4
10.88
-4
-4
-4
2.2710
2.4910
1.9210
2.5010-4
9.69
-4
-4
-4
2.9410
3.2910
2.6110
3.3310-4
11.9
-4
-4
-4
1.8510
2.0410
Average
1.5910
2.0810-4
8.29
Table 7.3: Flow rate of fluid (m3/s) and flow rate percentage error (%)
7.4

-11.56
-15.42
-11.22
-15.83

13.61
10.13
13.27
13.00

Head loss at every flow meter

Venturi (hA-hC)
0.006
0.03
0.07
0.122
Average
0.057
Table 7.4: Head loss at every flow meter

Head loss, h (m)

Orifice (hG-hH)
0.008
0.046
0.1
0.185
0.085

Graph 7.1: Piezometer Head against Velocity Head

Rotameter (hI-hJ)
0.001
0.001
0.004
0.006
0.003

GRAPH OF PIEZOMETER HEAD VS VELOCITY HEAD

10

8
f(x) = 0.39x
R = 0.99

0
0

Coefficient of loss, K =

Slope K = 0.394

h
V2
2g

10

12

14

16

18

8.0

CALCULATIONS

Venturi meter
h: head difference in meter (m) from the manometer readings (hA hC)
g: acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Cd: discharge coefficient for meter (0.98)
A1: inlet area (5.309x10-4 m2)
A2: throat area of the meter (2.011x10-4 m2)

For rotameter flow rate = 5 l/min

Venturi flow rate,

q = Cd A2

A1 2

A2

2 g h

2.011 104 2

5.309 104

1
q = (0.98) (2.01110-4)

2.011 104 2

5.309 104

1
q = (0.98) (2.01110-4)

[ 2 g ( 0.2400.234 ) ]

[ 2 g ( 0.2400.234 ) ]

m3/s

1000l
1
min
60

q = 4.38 l/min

Orifice meter
h: head difference in meter (m) from the manometer readings (hG hH)
g: acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Cd: discharge coefficient for meter (0.63)
A1: inlet area (5.309x10-4 m2)
A2: throat area of the meter (2.011x10-4 m2)

Orifice flow rate,

q = Cd A2

1
A1
1(
)2
A2

2g h

2.011 104 2

5.309 104

1
q = (0.63) (2.01110-4)

[ 2 g ( 0.2400.232 ) ]

m3/s

2.011 104 2

5.309 104

1
q = (0.63) (2.01110-4)

[ 2 g ( 0.2400.232 ) ]

q = 3.26 l/min
Flow rate Calculation (m3/s)

Timed flow rate, Qt =

Volume collected
Time taken
0.003m3
41.4 s

= 7.2510-5 m3/s
Rotameter flow rate, QR =

5 l /min
60000

= 8.3310-5 m3/s

Venturi flow rate, QV =

4.38 l/min
60000

= 7.310-5 m3/s

Orifice flow rate, QO =

3.26 l/ min
60000

= 5.4310-5 m3/s

Calculation of velocity of flow in the pipe

Choose the min flow rate, Q = 4.35 l/min
4.35

l
min

1 min
60 s

1 m3
1000 l

= 7.2510-5 m3/s

Velocity of flow in the pipe with diameter of 26mm

Q
V=

( D)2
4

1000l
1
min
60

7.25 105

3 2
(26 10 )
4

V=

V = 0.14 m/s
Calculation of velocity head
2

V
2g

(0.14)
2 9.81

= 1.00 mm

Calculation of flow rate percentage error

Venturi:

Q v Qt
Qt

100

( 7.3 105 )(7.25 105 )

7.25 105

100

= 0.69

Orifice:

Q oQt
Qt

100

( 5.43 105 )(7.25 105)

= -25.10 %

7.25 105

100

Rotameter:

Q RQ t
Qt

100

( 8.33 105 )(7.25 105 )

7.25 105

100

= 14.90 %

Calculation of head loss

Venturi:

Rotameter:

= h A - hC

= hI - hJ

= 0.240 0.234

= 0.235 0.234

= 0.006 m

= 0.001 m

Orifice:
= hG hH
= 0.240 0.232
= 0.008 m

9.0

DISCUSSION
From the experiment conducted, we are able to observe the operation and characteristics

of the three different types of flow meter that are venturi meter, orifice meter and rotameter.
During this experiment, all the experimental data are recorded in order to determine which

device gives the most accurate measurement of the system flow rate. Besides, we are also able to
determine the flow rate percentage error and the total head loss of the three devices.
After the experiment has been conducted, we are able to calculate the value of flow rate
and the flow rate error from the three devices based on the data recorded. Based on the results,
the average flow rate for venturi meter is
2.08 104

4
m3/s and 1.59 10

2.04 104 m3/s, the flow rate for orifice meter is

m3/s for rotameter.

Apart from that, we also have calculated the average flow rate percentage error for the
three devices. From the results obtained, the average flow rate error for venturi meter is 8.29%,
-15.83% for orifice meter and 12.98% for rotameter. The negative sign can be dropped to
compare the error value of each device. From the theory stated earlier, the accuracy of a flow
meter depends on the flow rate percentage error which indicates the most efficient flow meter
has the lowest flow rate percentage error. Therefore, the results show that the venturi meter has
the lowest percentage error with value of 8.29%.
The values of head loss for the three flow meters are also obtained throughout the
experiment. From the theory, it has stated that the venturi meter has a low value of head loss,
followed by the rotameter and lastly the orifice meter. From the results, the average head loss for
venturi meter is 0.057 m, followed by the rotameter that is 0.085 m and 0.003 m for the orifice
meter.
However, the result for head loss is the opposite of the theory stated earlier. Venturi meter
should have the lowest head loss value followed by rotameter and then orifice meter. Hence, it
can be said that there must be some errors happened during the experiment was done as the
outcome does not support the theory.
Some factors that might contribute to the error include the presence of air bubbles in the
manometer tubes that will affect the accuracy of the reading taken. Other than that, the error can
be caused by the wrong position of the eyes during the manometer reading that is not parallel to
the reading scale.

10.0

CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, it can be said that venturi meter is the most accurate flow meter

compared to the orifice meter and the rotameter with the lowest value of flow meter percentage

error (8.29%). The theory stated that the most accurate and efficient flow meter is the one with
lowest percentage error and it is proved through this experimental result.

11.0

RECOMMENDATION
After the experiment has been conducted, we can see that the value of head loss does not

obey the theory of this experiment. From the theory, the venturi meter is said to have the least

value of head loss but the results showed that the rotameter has the lowest head loss. Therefore,
certain precautions should be taken to improve the accuracy of the results obtained.
The first recommendation is to make sure that there is no air bubbles trapped in the
manometer tubes and the pipeline. The air bubbles may cause the reading of the flow meter less
accurate. Secondly, make sure the position of the eyes are parallel to the reading scale during the
measurement is taken as this will affect the whole calculation if it is wrong. This is because to
calculate the head loss, the values in the specific manometer tubes are being subtracted. Next,
make sure there is no presence of small particles in the fluid as some of the devices are sensitive
to these particles.

12.0
1.

REFERENCE
Lab manual 1; Flow meter Measurement Apparatus, Model: FM 101

2.

Miryala, A. (Ed.). (2006). Flow Sensors. Retrieved October 7, 2014, from

https://controls.engin.umich.edu/wiki/index.php/FlowSensors

3.

Helmenstine, A.M. (Ed.). (2014). How to calculate percentage error. Retrieved October
11,

2014,

http://chemistry.about.com/od/workedchemistryproblems/a/percenterror.htm

13.0

APPENDICES

from