Design and Construction of the Billy

Bishop City Airport Pedestrian Tunnel,

Toronto, Canada
Andrew Cushing, Jon Hurt, Robert Talby
Arup, Toronto, Ontario CANADA
Tony DiMillo, Mike MacFarlane
Technicore Underground, Inc., Toronto, Ontario CANADA
ABSTRACT
The Billy Bishop City Airport Pedestrian Tunnel in Toronto is the first known underwater pedestrian tunnel to an airport
facility in the world. It was constructed in the thinly horizontally bedded Georgian Bay Shale formation characteristic of
Southern Ontario, and employed a unique pre-support technique comprised of seven 1.85m diameter interlocking
horizontal secant drift bores, each sequentially drilled by tunnel boring machines and backfilled with mass concrete. This
paper summarizes the key aspects of the design and construction associated with this groundbreaking tunnel project.
RSUM
La sous-marin tunnel pitonnier Billy Bishop de Toronto City Airport est le premier de son genre dans le monde. Il a t
construit dans la formation de la baie Georgienne de schiste de la sud de l'Ontario, qui se caractrise par de minces
literie horizontal, et utilis une technique de pr-support constitu de sept 1,85 m verrouillage horizontales alsages,
chaque squence de forage remblay avec du bton. Ce document rsume les aspects cls de la conception et de la
construction associs ce projet rvolutionnaire.

INTRODUCTION

The Billy Bishop City Airport is located on an island in

Lake Ontario, and is separated from the downtown
Toronto mainland by a 120 meter wide shipping channel.
At present, the only access to the airport is by ferry.
However, an airport upgrade project which includes a new
pedestrian tunnel is currently under construction. When it
opens to the public next year, it will provide the first fixed
connection to island airport since its initial opening in
1939.
The tunnel, along with two vertical access shafts, has
already been excavated through the Georgian Bay Shale
formation, which is characteristic of Southern Ontario and
the Greater Toronto Area (GTA). The rock is thinly
horizontally bedded, under a high in-situ horizontal stress
state, and when excavated leads to time-dependent
swelling deformation. The 10 meter cut diameter of this
tunnel makes it one of the largest excavated in the GTA to
date. Considering the potential for tunnel crown instability
within the bedded shale for this rather large span below
Lake Ontario, the tunnel contractor (Technicore
Underground) proposed a novel construction technique by
sequentially drilling a series of seven 1.85m diameter
interlocking (secant) drift bores with tunnel boring
machines and backfilling them with unreinforced mass
concrete, thereby resulting in an arched roof pre-support.
Conventional excavation methods were used to advance
the main tunnel profile, which consisted of a continuous
central cut, incremental sidewall excavation and bolting,
and mass invert excavation.
This paper will address the design and construction
aspects of the Billy Bishop City Airport Pedestrian Tunnel,
including the analysis methods employed to evaluate the
tunnel crown stability and tunnel rockwall swelling

potential, tunnel construction issues, including TBM drift

bore drilling and concrete backfilling operations, the use of
prefabricated steel rebar cages and steel fiber reinforced
concrete in the permanent tunnel lining, and tunnel
performance monitoring results.
2

PROJECT HISTORY AND PARTICIPANTS

In early 2010, the Toronto Port Authority (TPA)

announced that it was seeking a private partner to
construct a pedestrian tunnel at the Billy Bishop City
Airport. In July 2011, an agreement involving an exchange
of land between the TPA and the City of Toronto
permitted the tunnel project to go forward. Three consortia
were invited to respond to the Request for Proposal (RFP)
for the project, with bids being submitted in October 2011.
In January 2012, a Public Private Partnership (P3) was
formed between the TPA and Forum Infrastructure
Partners, a consortium consisting of Forum Equity
Partners (Developer and Equity Partner), PCL
Constructors, Inc. (General Contractor), Technicore
Underground (Shaft and Tunneling Contractor and TBM
Manufacturer), Johnson Controls (Facilities Manager),
Arup Canada, Inc. (Lead Designer Structures and
Tunneling), ZAS (Architect), and EXP (Geotechnical
Engineer of Record), with groundbreaking for the project
taking place in March 2012.
3

TUNNEL DESIGN ISSUES AND METHODS

3.1

Introduction

There are two distinctive features of the shale in the

Toronto region. One is a high horizontal stress regime,
and the second is long-term time dependent swelling

behavior which occurs upon stress relief of the rock mass

and availability of fresh water.
3.2

Horizontal Bedding of Rock Mass

The short term kinematic stability of the backfilled TBMdriven secant bore arch was assessed on the basis of
numerical modeling using the discrete (distinct) element
program UDEC by Itasca Consulting Group, which offers
the advantage of modeling the entire construction
sequence of excavating and backfilling each individual
drift bore, followed by the main tunnel excavation and
support as well as the potential to identify kinematic failure
mechanisms. The UDEC analysis also considers stress
and jointing anisotropy of the rock mass and models the
progressive stress re-distribution following each
construction stage.
UDEC uses a constitutive Mohr-Coulomb failure
criterion model which does not address the time
dependent deformation (TDD) behavior of the Georgian
Bay shale.
However, potential kinematic failure
mechanisms would be expected regardless of TDD
effects. Therefore, the use of UDEC was deemed
appropriate to evaluate these kinematic failure
mechanisms.
3.3

Time-dependent Deformation (TDD)

Hawlader, Lee, and Lo (2003) studied the impact of

applied load on the swelling potential of different shale
samples. They concluded that the applied stress in one
principal stress direction reduces swelling strain not only
in that direction but also in the perpendicular directions.
Arup contracted the Itasca Consulting Group to implement
the numerical forumulations of Hawlader, Lee, and Lo
(2003) into the Swello module in the FLAC 2D finite
difference progam to evaluate time-dependent swelling
behavior of the shale rock mass. The results of these
analyses, and a comparison to measured values, are
presented later in the paper.

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

4.1

Drift Bore Drilling and Temporary Support

The tunnel design concept proposed by Technicore

Underground involved the drilling and backfilling of seven
1.85m diameter drift bores (1 to 7) within the crown of the
main tunnel profile, two lower unfilled drift bores (8 and 9),
and three main tunnel excavations center (cut 1),
sidewalls (cut 2), and invert (cut 3) as shown in Figure
1. The drift bores were sequentially drilled using two
1.85m diameter tunnel boring machines, one of which is
shown in Figure 2, constructed by Technicore
Underground. Each TBM was fitted with a total of 16
300mm diameter disc cutters.
Each of the seven bores followed the same inclination
profile of the main tunnel, namely a 1% incline from the
mainland portal to approximate mid-length, followed by a
4% incline leading to the island portal. Lower bores 8 and
9 were drilled at a constant inclination within the central

cut (no. 1) between main tunnel springline and invert level

and left open to provide both a void for the rockbreaker
excavating the central cut to break into and a temporary
ventilation duct for dust control during excavation.
Temporary support within each drift bore consisted of
1.2m x 2.4m sheets of 10mm thick plywood placed
lengthwise along the crown of each drift bore and
expanded into place with circular steel ribs placed at 1.1m
spacing immediately behind the tail shield of the TBM
(Figure 3). This temporary support was provided to
prevent pieces of shale from falling from the crown of the
drift bore. The center-to-center spacing of the four
primary drift bores allowed for all to be left open
simultaneously prior to concrete backfilling, with the
vertical load of the rock above being transmitted
temporarily through the rock pillars between adjacent
primary drift bores.
The steel sets were typically
recovered during the retreat from each drift bore just prior
to backfilling.
The structural compression integrity of the secant bore
arch was paramount to the stability of the main tunnel
excavation cavity, as it provided vertical support to the
crown rock load from above. During the excavation of
each drift bore, some of the rock chips within the
cutterhead
were
pulverized
and
subsequently
compressed by the weight of the TBM shield as it
advanced against the wall of the bore at and below
springline level into the equivalent of a stiff to hard clay of
approximate 25mm thickness. As the presence of any
soft layers within the secant bore arch could compromise
its compressive stiffness and hence overall structural
integrity, the rock abutment wall of each end primary bore
(3 and 4) and the sidewalls of each of three secondary
bores (5, 6, and 7) were cleaned of the aforementioned
deleterious materials prior to concrete backfilling
operations.
Upon completion of drilling each of the three
secondary crown drift bores (5, 6, and 7), the sidewalls of
these bores were also inspected to ensure sufficient
overlap with the concrete backfill of the adjacent primary
drift bores. The design called for a minimum secant
dimension of 300mm, which was governed primarily by
the minimum concrete shear area required to support the
selfweight of the drift bore arch in the event that it was not
fully engaged in compression. Despite a slight misalignment of the first drift bore, this overlap was achieved.
4.2

Drift Bore Backfilling

To avoid having to use the airport ferry to transport

concrete trucks to the island shaft, all drift bore concrete
backfilling (with a 15 MPa compressive strength) was
advanced from within the mainland shaft. Since the
vertical position of each drift bore is 5m lower at the
mainland portal relative to its position at the island portal,
drift bore backfilling operations had to be advanced
through a 3m long concrete bulkhead cast within each
drift bore at the mainland end. To prevent the buildup of
drainage water behind the bulkhead prior to concreting, a
small drainage hole was provided within the bulkhead
invert, and the concreting tube was placed within the
bulkhead crown, terminating just behind its interior end.

Figure 1. Tunnel profile drifts and main excavation

As the backfill concrete had to be pumped uphill to

overcome a 5m elevation increase over a portal-to-portal
distance of 187m, it had to remain in a fluid state for the
entire backfilling operation of each drift bore - potentially
3
over an 8 hour duration for each 500 m volume.
Technicore Undergrounds affiliate Tec-Mix developed a
proprietary concrete mix for the drifts which allowed for
long duration fluid properties for pumping uphill, but did
not use traditional high cement content that would have
made the backfilled drifts difficult to mine through.
For the very first backfilling operation, a second
concreting pipe was placed within the bulkhead crown
which extended along the entire 1% grade and through
the transition zone to the start of the 4% grade segment.
This secondary pipe was installed in case the fluid
concrete could not be pushed along the entire 187m
length of the bore, either due to premature setting or
difficulties in overcoming the 5m elevation difference. As
it turned out, this second concreting pipe was not
required, and it was subsequently deleted from all
remaining six drift bore backfilling operations.
In an effort to ensure complete filling, a tube-manchette (TAM) was installed within the crown of the
first backfilled bore along its entire length to permit
remedial grouting (if necessary), while truncated TAM
tubes were used at the higher (island) end of all
subsequent bores. In fact, during the drilling of the central
secondary bore, a tapered void (400mm maximum depth
at the island portal) was encountered along the final 10m
length of each adjacent backfilled primary bore.
Additional temporary support in the form of intermittent
wooden wedge blocks, plywood, and shotcrete was
applied within the sidewalls of the central bore to
accommodate a temporary span width more than double
that of a single bore.
The cumulative duration of drift bore drilling and
backfilling took approximately 6 months, from December
2012 to May 2013.
4.3

Main Tunnel Excavation

Figure 2. One of two 1.85m diameter TBMs for drift bores

Central Cut 1 Excavation

Figure 3. 1.85m diameter drift bore temporary support

Once drilling and backfilling of the series of seven

interlocking crown drift bores was completed (Figure 4),
excavation of the main tunnel central cut (no. 1)
commenced. This work was advanced from mainland to
island portal over a two month period using a Liebherr 934
excavator with rockbreaker attachment (Figure 5). As a
means of dust control, a positive air stream was induced
toward the island portal through one of the two open drift
bores at/below the main tunnel springline with fans
installed at both the mainland and island portals.
The rock sidewalls were inspected by Arup staff on a
regular basis, and the locations of vertical joints and water
seeps were noted.
The primary vertical joint set
(coincident with the major horizontal stress direction) was
oriented transverse to the tunnel axis.
During the
excavation of the tunnel, vertical slices of rock typically fell
from the tunnel face, so care was taken not to approach
the working face too closely.

Figure 4. Completion of secant drift bore backfilling

standardize the geometric profile of the main tunnel

sidewalls, a template was fabricated and hung by a single
sliding, rotating pivot from temporary overhead rails
affixed to the underside of the crown drift bores (Figure 7).
The template was rotated into place against the final (cut
2) sidewall and checked for proper horizontal and vertical
alignment. When the template was not in use, it was
rotated 90 degrees about its vertical axis, slid
longitudinally, and stored against the temporary cut 1
sidewall.
Cut 2 was advanced in 3m increments. After each
incremental excavation, the final tunnel sidewall
excavation was bolted using an upper row of 3.5m long
polyester resin encapsulated steel dowels (32mm bar
diameter) at 1.25m longitudinal spacing, followed by six
rows of 3.5m long Swellex MN24 bolts (installed on a
1.5m staggered grid pattern). After cut 2 had advanced
some distance, the heads of the Swellex bolts were cut
and a 50mm thick non-structural sealing layer of
polypropylene fiber reinforced shotcrete was applied to
the exposed shale surface to prevent it from slaking
deterioration.
Invert (cut 3) excavation was advanced using a
backhoe with mini-roadheader attachment (Figure 8), and
took approximately two weeks to complete.
4.4

Figure 5. Main tunnel excavation with rockbreaker

Inspection of the underside of the crown drift bores
indicated regular instances of transverse cracking, most
likely resulting from shrinkage of the unreinforced backfill
concrete. These transverse shrinkage cracks were easily
identified, as they were always accompanied by a nominal
amount of water seepage. As the drift bore crown arch
was intended to act solely in compression within the
transverse plane, the transverse cracks were not of great
concern. Nevertheless, locations where a transverse
crack intersected multiple bores were instrumented with
additional survey prisms and monitored for relative
displacement across the crack. No such displacement
was observed.

Tunnel Waterproofing

The waterproofing system for the tunnel is comprised of a

2.5mm thick PVC membrane which is separated from the
shotcreted sidewalls by a layer of geotextile. Ribbed
waterbars were thermally welded to the PVC membrane
around the entire tunnel profile perimeter at 12m intervals,
coinciding with the construction joint locations of the
permanent tunnel arch lining. As the tunnel invert was
poured separately from the tunnel arch, longitudinal
waterbars were also installed along the entire tunnel
length at the invert-arch interface.
A gap grouting tube was installed within the crown
along the entire tunnel length, and remedial grouting
tubes were installed at either side of the ribbed waterbars
and in the tunnel invert. It should be noted that the shaft
waterproofing was comprised of an HDPE membrane,
hence a transition detail had to be developed between the
PVC and HDPE membranes.
This transition was
achieved using an intermediate Dilatec membrane and
epoxy paste adhesive. In addition, a remedial grouting
tube was also installed on the PVC-side of the transition,
which can be injected with a polyurethane grout (if
necessary).
4.5

Permanent Tunnel Lining

Sidewall (Cut 2) and Invert (Cut 3) Excavation

After the central cut was complete, the main tunnel was
widened by the removal of the rock sidewalls, indicated as
cut 2.
Cut 2 sidewall excavation was advanced primarily by a
reconditioned DOSCO roadheader (Figure 6) as well as
an X-centric rock ripper, and took approximately 2 months
to complete. The final sidewall excavation was achieved
with a small grinder attachment on an excavator arm. To

The permanent tunnel lining was constructed in two

general phases. First, the invert was cast in 18m
maximum lengths, followed by the tunnel arch, which was
cast in 12m maximum lengths. The invert and arch pours
are connected by a shear key. While there is continuity of
rebar over the invert construction joints, there is no
continuity between the invert and arch pours or across the
arch construction joints. As a means of secondary

Figure 6. DOSCO Roadheader

Figure 8. Tunnel invert excavation

travelling crane with an extendable boom capable of lifting

the rebar mats and cages over a freshly poured section
and placing it on the invert waterproofing membrane
without damaging it. Invert construction, which took
approximately three months to complete, would have
taken several weeks longer if the steel cages had been
tied in the tunnel.
The relatively short tunnel length (187m) did not justify
the purchase of new formwork for the tunnel arch.
Instead, the formwork used for the Devils Slide Highway
Tunnels (San Mateo County, California, USA) was
purchased and modified by Technicore to suit the profile
of this tunnel. The formwork ran along a pair of rails laid
on the invert (Figure 11).
The tunnel invert and arch were poured to very tight
tolerances, with variations of only a few millimetres
relative to theoretical, as measured by a Faro Focus 3D
High Resolution LiDAR Scan.

Figure 7. Tunnel sidewall (cut 2) profile template

waterproofing, a bentonite strip was installed at all
permanent tunnel lining construction joints.
The invert is comprised of normal concrete, with a
minimum 28-day compressive strength of 35 MPa, while
the arch is comprised of steel fiber reinforced concrete (30
3
kg/m fiber dosage) with the same compressive strength.
The invert concrete pour was advanced efficiently
using rebar mats and cages pre-fabricated by Technicore
affiliate Ewing Fabricators, which were placed with a

TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION MONITORING

5.1

Drift Bore Crown Stability during Main Tunnel

Excavation

As the central cut was advanced, a series of three optical

survey prisms were installed within the underside of the
backfilled crown drift bores, along with one in each
temporary cut 1 sidewall, at 20m intervals along the
tunnel. Regular monitoring of these survey prisms during
sidewall (cut 2) and invert (cut 3) excavations indicated a
stable rock mass during the works, as shown by sample
survey results at Station 0+060m in Figure 13. Survey
results were generally within 3mm of the initial baseline
measurements, the variation attributed primarily to the
precision of the surveying method. Unfortunately, the
initial elastic movement of the drift bore arch crown was
not captured during the initial excavation of central cut 1,
although it is presumed to be significantly lower than the
predicted value.

Figure 9. Tunnel invert rebar placement

Figure 12.
2014)

Completed permanent tunnel lining (June

Figure 10. Tunnel invert concreting

Figure 13. Optical survey data for crown and sidewalls

Figure 11. Tunnel arch formwork and concreting

5.2

Main Tunnel Excavation Sidewall Convergence

Manual Convergence Tape

One method of measuring the horizontal convergence of
the tunnel sidewalls during the main tunnel excavation

was with the use of a steel convergence tape. A hole was

drilled into each of the optical survey prism points installed
within the tunnel sidewalls (at approximate springline
level), which was then used to secure each end of the
convergence tape. The tape was manually tightened to a
standard tension using a steel turnbuckle to obtain the
horizontal chord convergence reading.
The change in the horizontal chord dimension as a
function of time (days) after the central (cut 1) main tunnel
excavation is reported in Figure 14. With the exception of
the station 0+060m readings, the horizontal chord
dimension had reduced (converged) by only 1.5mm (or
less) up to 56 days after excavation. The single outlying
reading at 0+060m is believed to result from the west wall
prism point not being fully fixed, as a consequence of a
vertical fracture oriented parallel to the tunnel axis behind
the prism point. It should be noted that as the initial
convergence readings were taken anywhere between 7
and 22 days after the cut 1 excavation was advanced at
any given tunnel station, the initial elastic sidewall
convergence was not captured in these convergence
readings.

Upon excavation of the tunnel sidewalls (cut 2), the

optical prisms installed within the cut 1 sidewalls were
sequentially removed, reinstalled within the cut 2
sidewalls, and rebaselined. Once again, the incremental
horizontal chord convergence of cut 2 sidewalls at
springline level were recorded with time (days after cut 2
excavation), as reported in Figure 15. With the exception
of the data recorded at station 0+020m, the incremental
shortening of the horizontal chord up to 84 days after cut
2 sidewall excavation was 0.75mm or less.
While the manual convergence tape readings reported
in Figures 14 and 15 demonstrate a general trend in the
shortening of the horizontal chord with time, the data are
also characterized by a significant degree of day-to-day
variability, which is attributed to the combined effect of
ambient temperature fluctuations within the tunnel, along
with standard operational errors. The relative effects of
these error sources on the convergence measurements
are more pronounced because of the very small absolute
values which were recorded.

Figure 14. Horizontal convergence tape measurements

after central (cut 1) tunnel excavation

MPBXs
In an effort to obtain more reliable tunnel sidewall
convergence measurements, two multi-point borehole
extensometers (MPBXs) were installed at station 0+020m
(two tunnel diameters from the mainland portal), one in
each sidewall, in mid-July of 2013. The MPBXs were
installed within 3m long alcoves excavated from the
central cut 1 sidewall to the final main tunnel sidewall (cut
2) profile.
The MPBX data for the eastern wall has previously
been reported by Hurt, et al. (2014), and is updated in
Figure 16. The overall MPBX was 12m in length, with
values of inward deformation (convergence) measured at
the tunnel sidewall and at 2m, 5m, and 8m behind the
wall, all measured relative to a presumed point of fixity
12m behind the wall.
Very little wall movement
(~0.05mm) was recorded until the east sidewall cut 2
excavation work was completed both up-station and
down-station from the 3m long alcove (centered at station
th
th
0+020m) between August 29 and September 6 , 2013,
which resulted in approximately 0.1mm of immediate
elastic sidewall movement followed by a nominal degree
of time-dependent movement. A second discrete jump in
the tunnel sidewall movement (~0.2mm) was observed
when the invert (cut 3) was excavated between October
18-19, 2013, which was again followed by time-dependent
movement. The tunnel sidewall was pushed back slightly
during the concreting of the permanent tunnel arch in midMarch, 2014, but recovered rather quickly;the MPBX
points within the rock mass have since experienced a
nominal residual effect.
After nearly one year of MPBX measurements, the
total inward movement of the eastern wall was only
0.6mm, with about half of this movement being attributed
to elastic movements induced by the sidewall (cut 2) and
invert (cut 3) excavations. The remaining time-dependent
inward movement of the eastern wall (after completion of
the cut 2 sidewall excavation) of approximately 0.25mm is
generally consistent with the typical post-cut2 shortening

Figure 15. Horizontal convergence tape measurements

after tunnel sidewall (cut 2) excavation

Figure 16. Updated eastern wall MPBX readings

Figure 17. Time-dependent tunnel sidewall swell

deformations - MPBX readings compared to predicted
values (Hurt, et. al., 2014)
of the horizontal chord of less than 0.75mm as indicated
by the manual convergence tape readings (Figure 15).
Figure 17 shows the time-dependent horizontal tunnel
sidewall swell deformations (i.e., total deformation minus
elastic deformation) compared to a FLAC 2D Swello
module prediction using the numerical analysis procedure
of Hawlader, Lee, and Lo (2003). It should be noted that
the tunnel sidewall swelling prediction presented in Figure
17 was made with the aid of a back-analysis of timedependent horizontal free swell measurements obtained
from borehole inclinometers installed in the rock walls of
the mainland shaft, which suggested a horizontal free
swell potential of between 0.3% to 0.4% (per log cycle
time), an in-situ horizontal stress of approximately 5 MPa,
and a critical (swell suppression stress) of about 3 MPa.
The data in Figure 17 show generally good agreement,
with the measured time-dependent MPBX convergence
being somewhat lower than that predicted from the
numerical model.
One reason for this is that the
excavated rock walls inside the tunnel were relatively dry,
as there was very little induced damage to the rock mass
from the roadheader excavation (relative to a drill-andblast excavation, for instance), although the mainland
shaft sidewalls on which the back-analyzed input
parameters were based did have adequate access to
freshwater to facilitate swelling.

The numerical procedure of Hawlader, Lee, and Lo

(2003), which was implemented by Arup using the FLAC
2D Swello module, should be viewed as a major
improvement over the older closed-form solution (Lo and
Yuen, 1981), as it considers the non-linear time- and
stress-dependency of the key swelling parameters,
typically resulting in less conservative (but more realistic)
predictions of tunnel sidewall convergence deformation.
Figure 18 shows the large discrepancy in the closed-form
prediction compared to that of the numerical analysis.
After a period of 100 days, the closed-form method had
predicted sidewall convergence values of between 40 and
140mm (a function of the range of input parameters),
which was far in excess of the refined numerical
prediction (and MPBX observation) of approximately
0.25mm after a similar length of time.
6

SUMMARY

This paper has presented several design and construction

aspects associated with the Billy Bishop City Airport
Pedestrian Tunnel in Toronto, Canada. The tunnel was
constructed in shale bedrock using a unique system of
pre-support consisting of seven interlocking secant drift
bores drilled by tunnel boring machines and backfilled
with mass concrete. The construction monitoring results
demonstrated that the main tunnel cavity excavated
underneath the tunnel arch pre-support was stable. While
the tunnel convergence measurements were far less than
those predicted by a closed form solution for rock swell,
they agreed reasonably well with a non-linear time-step
numerical procedure, with input parameters calibrated
with the observed time-dependent vertical shaft wall
movements.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writers would like to acknowledge the contribution of
a number of individuals to the paper, including Seth
Pollak, Sean Lee, and Amirreza Ghasemi (Arup), as well
as Gary Benner, David Marsland, and Joey DiMillo
(Technicore).
REFERENCES
Hawlader, B.C, Lee, Y.N., and Lo, K.Y. 2003. ThreeDimensional Stress Effects on Time-Dependent
Swelling Behavior of Shaly Rock, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 40, pp. 501-511.
Hurt, J., Lee, S., Ghasemi, A., Pollak, S., and Cushing, A.
2014. Time Dependent Movements on the Billy Bishop
Toronto City Airport Pedestrian Tunnel, Ontario,
Canada. North American Tunneling Conference, Los
Angeles, CA, USA.
Lo, K.Y. and Yuen, C.M.K. 1981. Design of Tunnel Lining
in Rock for Long Term Time Effects. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 18, pp. 24-39.

Figure 18. Comparison of tunnel sidewall swell

deformation predictions closed form solution versus
numerical analysis (Hurt, et. al., 2014)