Evaluation of plant groups and vegetation types for use on green roofs

This work contributes to an established program which uses a standard methodology to screen and
evaluate plants and vegetation types for green roof use (of all types), according to substrate depth,
substrate type, irrigation regime etc. Specific genera, vegetation types and habitats, or geographic
regions can form the basis of studies in this area. This is an on-going program that can accommodate a
number of separate studies.
Green roofs and biodiversity
Green roofs represent an opportunity to create habitat and promote biodiversity (both floral and faunal) in
dense urban development. Many different approaches have been promoted as to how this is best
achieved (though, for example, use of recycled, reclaimed substrates, spontaneous colonization of
vegetation, use of native species or local provenance plant material). This study will test such assertions,
concentrating on both floral and invertebrate diversity.
LANDSCAPE-LAND USE PLANNING NEWSLETTER, SUMMER 2008

Landscape Planning and Land Use Planning: Definitions, History and Roles
by Mark ORourke, ASLA

Land use illustration for the City of San Luis Obispo, California. The planning
established
the first form based zoning ordinance in the Central Coast.
Image courtesy of Rick Engineering Company.
In assessing the data from the PPN survey, the Co-chairs recognized a need to explore,
discuss, and clarify landscape planning, land use planning, and their relationship.
This piece defines these specialties, and describes how they developed, how they are
similar and differ, and how they have evolved.
Common Roots of Landscape Planning and Land Use Planning

Landscape planning and land use planning are two separate though complementary
fields. The roots of landscape architecture are embedded in both landscape planning
and land use planning. Frederick Law Olmsted was a landscape planner (the Emerald
Necklace) and a land use planner (Riverside, IL). Today, many landscape architects
practice both landscape planning and land use planning.

Definition, History and Focus of Landscape Planning

Landscape planning can be defined as the scientific study of landscapes to assess past,
current, and future capabilities to support different land uses that also accounts for
environmental and ecological health. It has evolved into a scientific discipline practiced
by landscape architects, planners, and natural resource scientists. In practice,
landscape architects who use McHargian overlay analysis and assessment as part of
their design process are doing landscape planning.
Landscape planning can be traced to ancient architects and builders. Marcus Vitruvius
Pollio (born c. 8070 BC, died after c. 15 BC) wrote about the importance of
microclimates, vegetation, and hydrology in the planning of new settlements and cities.
The modern practice of landscape planning can be traced from Olmsted with his holistic
approach to planning park systems. Patrick Geddes (18541932), the first bio- and
socio-regional planner, and Warren Manning (18601938), a pioneer of early overlay
analysis, were great influences in the modern development of landscape planning.
In the 1960s, an evolution in landscape planning occurred in concert with a new and
vital environmental awareness. Ian McHarg (19202001) reintroduced the concept of
overlay analysis with an emphasis on ecology and conservation of natural resources.
The evolution of overlay analysis by McHarg was instrumental in the design and
development of geographic information systems (GIS) as an invaluable analysis and
assessment tool in all fields of planning. The field of landscape planning has evolved
into a first step in the regional or land use planning process. In the United States, it is
more frequently practiced by natural resource scientists in the fields of hydrology,
forestry, geology, and watershed management. However, academically, landscape
architects are very involved in the multidisciplinary process of the analysis and
assessment of landscapes.
Definition, History and Focus of Land Use Planning
Land use planning is analogous to regional planning, community planning, urban planning, and any other
planning exercise that ultimately plays a role in defining how land is used.
Within the professional planning community, the term land use planning is not commonly used. This is the
result of the evolution of planning from strictly planning land use to a more equal concern with economic
development, environmental justice, and social and economic equity. In the last two decades, the
planning profession has again been more focused on land use planning, but has changed the terminology
to Smart Growth, Sustainable Planning, Regionalism, etc. The tools for land use planning are zoning
laws, subdivision and land use laws, and stormwater laws and regulations. Land use planners have also
been involved in the transfer of development rights, purchase of development rights, farmland and
forestry preservation programs, and additional programs to help guide land development. They also
determine appropriate land uses based on ecological carrying capacity, historic land use, future regional
development pressure, and economic development needs.
Current and Future Uses of Landscape Planning and Land Use Planning
Landscape planning and land use planning are synergistic in that landscape planning informs the policymaking and legal structure of comprehensive land use planning. Some examples where this occurs are

the New Jersey Pinelands Commission, New Jersey Highlands Council, and the Cape Cod Commission.
They all have conservation of water resources as the basis for making revolutionary land use planning
changes in their regions.
The future of land use planning and smart growth is tied to comprehensive landscape planning in concert
with economic development and socio-economic equity planning. With the new found awareness of
stormwater and water quality issues in the planning community as a result if the EPAs NPDES Phase II,
the planning community is turning to landscape planners to provide a scientific rationale for smart growth
that encompasses the stormwater and water quality goals of the EPA and state stormwater regulators.
Mark ORourke, ASLA is a landscape architect and landscape planner, and is a graduate student at the
University of Massachusetts-Amherst. He can be reached at: morourke@larp.umass.edu

The role of Landscape Architects in Urban Design Alison Peters and Ashley
Scott
The Role of Landscape Architects in Urban Design Projects
Landscape Architects must rise to the challenge and fulfil the roles, identified in the report produced
by the Urban Task Force, of designing spatial masterplans and preparing strategies for open space and
the public realm. Spatial awareness in conjunction with the design, planning, management and
professional skills of Landscape Architects, coupled with their ability to work well within multidisciplinary teams, mean that they are well positioned to take on this role. An example is exhibited in
the design process of a city where Landscape Architects played a significant role.
Putrajaya, Malaysia's new city, is being designed and built as the federal government's administrative
centre, housing the government departments and the associated populations. Landscape Architects
involved in the project had the initial task of determining the underlying concepts for the functions and
appearance of the open space and public realm and determining their distribution throughout the city.
The brief was to provide a unique physical identity for the city which was to feel Malaysian without
artifice (gimmick).

Green Continuum
The primary concept was termed the 'Green Continuum' which was inspired by Malaysia's rainforest
heritage (refer to the box) and site context. In broad terms it' aimed to provide continuous green on
various planes including an interlinked network of open space, forming a secondary pedestrian
network, and a near continuous cover of vegetation throughout the city.

The Open Space Framework

In order to distribute the open space in the city, Christaller's model of

urban hierarchical order was adapted and refined. Christaller(1) postulated
that the more important a city's economic function, the larger the city's
population. He added that cities were spaced to perform functions without
severe competition from the others. This is referred to as 'distance
interval'.
A similar approach was applied to the Open Space Framework. If the open
space was likened with a city then active and passive leisure facilities
could be depicted as its economic functions. The open space would be
larger the greater it's provision of park facilities. The greater the number
of facilities provided the larger the attraction and vice versa. Therefore
smaller open spaces (City Parks), with fewer facilities, would serve a
smaller proportion of the population without competing with the larger
open spaces (Metropolitan Parks). The diagram illustrates the application
of Christaller's model to the distribution and size of open space in a newly
planned city (Diagram 1).
The theory was applied to open space thus:
Distribution. Open spaces were spaced at even distances according to size
of open space and size or catchment of population that it served .
Facilities. The size of the open space roughly related to the breadth and
depth of sport, leisure and rest facilities provided in the open space.

Interconnections
A further layer of the 'Green Continuum' was the provision of interconnections between the open
spaces. Visual interconnections aim to provide a clearer image of the city and, if visually stimulating,
encourage movement from one space to another. Physical connections between the open spaces allow
pedestrian and cycle movement within the city and out to the areas beyond the city. This pedestrian
and cycle movement system utilising Green Corridors was intended to be dominant over the footpath
at the sides of roads. Such legibility and permeability ensure the full integration of the built
environment of the city with the natural environment further reinforcing the Open Space Framework
spatial structure.

Retention of Existing Landscape Features

Unique physical identity was also to be achieved through respecting the natural setting with the
existing and proposed distinctive physical forms including:

the retention of the existing rolling hills terrain,

retention of native vegetation and strategic plantation vegetation to create maturity,
utilisation of water catchment with the retention of existing streams and water catchments
and the creation, by damming, of artificial lakes, and
employment of the prominent vistas in order to take advantage of the rich visual quality.

Respect for site context therefore contributed to attaining Malaysian identity.

Greening the City

The effective use of large trees and palms whose canopies and crowns, over time,
join together to provide a strong 'green' visual impact aimed to further reinforce
the 'Green Continuum'.

Trees provide shade, colour and fresh air and can provide a lasting visual
impression in the memory of residents and visitors of the city. Therefore the visual
benefits of a 'continuous green' not only include calming, on both the eye and
senses, but also a means of providing visual delight. In addition there are the
microclimatic benefits of tree cover in the form of cooling the air by providing
shade, reducing noise and improving air quality due to the effects of leaves. The
'Green Continuum' in terms of the relationship between built form and open space,
as well as the means of 'greening' the open areas of the city, were to be achieved
in a variety of ways as illustrated in the diagram (Diagram 2).
This concept was determined to be achievable for many disciplines such as
planning, in terms of land use; architecture in terms of specific site planning;
transport with non-vehicular movement; and landscape with the creation of threedimensional volumes, a viable active public realm and an extensive tree planting
programme.

Urban Forest
Malaysia is covered with some of the oldest rainforest in the world and it is the true natural heritage of
Malaysia being the original home of its people. Looking to the future a young tree in the present shall
eventually become the heritage for future generations. The forest can therefore be a metaphor for
both past and future as well as providing a strong sense of Malaysian identity. The application of the
Urban Forest to Putrajaya, in the form of a Green Continuum, draws on the diversity and essence of
the rainforest and weaves it into the fabric of the orderly and functional city.
In fulfilling the objectives to provide a network of interlinked open spaces and to provide a substantial
vegetative cover the concept of the Urban Forest provides another layer in the design of the city. The
concept of Urban Forest is expressed in an urban setting as an extensive tree cover utilising
predominantly native trees. Public open spaces are the obvious setting for large scale tree planting.
However private grounds and gardens can also contribute. Also of primary importance are street trees
which can be planned in advance to accommodate large quantities of trees.
The role of the Landscape Architect, when involved in designing both a new city or revitalising an
existing city, is very much in the realms of urban design. As learnt from the Putrajaya experience the
world's cities tangibly benefit from Landscape Architect led masterplans and urban design.
The currently reported shortage of Urban Designers and the lack of emphasis on training in urban
design demands that Landscape Architects seize the opportunities for further broadening their scope.
After all, what are Landscape Architects if they are not designers of spatial masterplans and strategists
for open space and the public realm?

Tehran, the City of River Valleys, Needs a

Landscape Ecological Approach to the
Design and Planning of Its Waterways
Posted on July 16, 2014 by Kaveh Samiei

About the Writer:

Kaveh Samiei
Kaveh Samiei is founder, principal architect and landscape designer at AAG in Tehran, and faculty member in
school of architecture and urban planning at the University of Semnan. He works and researches on the frontier
between architecture and landscape architecture.

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A goal of landscape ecological urbanism might be to design and plan cities to increase, rather than
to decrease, ecosystem services. This suggests exciting new areas of research in landscape and
urban planning, from ways to measure landscape.
Frederick Steiner, Landscape ecological urbanism: Origins and trajectories. (Steiner, 2011)
Cities should be an extension of our natural environment. But nature has rules by which it operates,
and these must be built into urban designs that mesh the organic and inorganic parts of the city
(Samiei, 2013).
During recent years, the municipality of Tehran began to work on rehabilitation of river valleys.
Three projects now are completed or near completion. This great movement can improve and
develop the quality and quantity of Tehran environment, which is in a dangerous and catastrophic
condition but only if planners, designers and other decision makers pay attention to all aspects of
rehabilitation, especially ecological and environmental principles like connectivity, coherent
hydrology, compatible plantation, controlled interfering, considering buffer zones and so on. The
river valleys often are a neglected part of Tehrans urban landscape and most of them have tragic
stories and inelegant features. Planning for their conservation and restoration should start for the
remaining and unprotected rivers quickly because Tehran is the city of river valleys!

Tehran takes advantage of having this potential,but the approach and the circumstances and specific
plans for carrying out rehabilitation projects are critical. Bringing the dream of a significant urban
project into being needs the consideration all aspects of multipurpose and multilayered planning.
River valleys as ecological elements have always had key roles in creating mutual relations between
man-made city spaces and nature. River valleys play important roles in the provision of fresh water
resources, natural green and blue corridors for climate moderation, green open spaces, biodiversity,
parks, recreational areas, as well as places for public services. Investigations of the current condition
of Tehrans River valleys indicate that not only do they not increase the quality of environment, in
fact they play a negative role (Bemanian, 2008).
Tehran, the capital and largest city in Iran, has experienced rapid growth, especially in the past three
decades. Tehran has more than 12 million inhabitants and despite all the efforts by responsible
organizations to improve environmental conditions, it is contaminated with various environmental
pollutants and its ecological structure has experienced numerous degradations. Recent development
of parks and public green space has not been able to restore an ecological network fragmented by
unplanned and uncontrolled growth (Bahrami et al., 2012).
The ecological landscape of Tehran
Greater Tehran consists of three sections: mountainous, piedmont and desert. The mountainous
section includes peaks over 1800 meters. In this section, due to the height and legal restrictions, there
are no residences or construction. Thus Tehran has physically developed in the other two
sections. The southern parts of the city have grown along a wide, flat desert. The city, however,
cannot expand along the plain due to the high levels of Ground water and the arid zone. So the city
can only expand in the western direction due to its suitable geographical condition and new
residential estates have mostly developed in this direction. The topographical conditions of the city
directly influence the spatial texture of the city, especially in the northern side (Tehran Atlas, 2014).
From the south toward the north, the altitude increases, from 900 meters in low areas to 1800 meters.
This difference in height results in differences in weather, better vegetation and beautiful countryside
in the north. As one moves from the south to the north, where are many changes in the natural
environmental conditions, property value, access to services and social conditions.

Geomorphology of Tehran. Source: atlas.tehran.ir

The Alborz mountain chain in the north of the City, the river valleys of the Darabad, Golab Dare,
Farahzad, Kan, Evin and the low hills and urban forest parks (e.g., Lavizan, Sorkhe hesar, chitgar,
Quchak) are examples of primary landscape elements which are intrinsically linked with Tehran
ecological network, and provide an essential sense of place which can be appreciated from many
vantage points within the city. There are other more local landscape elements that can help give areas
a sense of place and which can be referred to as secondary landscape elements (Bahrami and K.V.).
Among other landscape features are natural and manmade patches, which give Tehran its unique
characteristics and residential and touristic values. One of its most important natural patches
are northern heights which endow the city with a special natural characteristic.
Today, Tehran has lost many of its natural patches due to rapid growth. Urban constructions have
also caused the gradual destruction of natural patches, which were situated along geological
corridors, near local water resources. The development of manmade natural patches has also shown
that even though the number of parks and green patches has been increased, these newly natural
patches have not been made sustainable. They have shown little efficiency due to their small size and
lack of ecological integration. These patches have been made without paying attention to landscape
capabilities and water and soil resources. As a result, most of the newly-established green patches
have been built on uncultivated hills and lands without suitable water and soil resources. In Tehran,
there has always been a shortage of water, and because of this, water has often been taken from other
areas, thus causing the eventual destruction of more natural landscapes. Unfortunately, the newlyestablished green patches have not been able to perform as ecological substitutions (Barghjelveh and
Sayad, 2011).
The natural-built matrix of Tehrans landscape varies from the natural mountains to the urban
context. There are patches of nature in the center and an agricultural landscape and the desert edge in
the south. The protected lands and forests in the east change to the very densely built areas in the

center and also to open and built green areas in the west. Tehrans metropolitan matrix is
defragmented by natural and built corridors, which provide the basis for a heterogeneous
combination of natural and built patches that form the urban landscape structure and define its
functions and transformations (Aminzadeh and Khansefid, 2009).
Therefore, with the increase of urban constructions and the continuous destruction of landscapes
natural resources, there are no more valuable areas in Tehran that can be considered as natural
patches. Except for large patches dispersed in the northern foothills and the margins of the city,
which are ecologically disconnected, natural patches within the landscape are small ones. It is worth
noting that patches near the natural corridors are ecologically historic as well as valuable in terms of
extent. These areas are not only considered as landscapes micro-scale ecological patches, but due to
their expanse and the presence of hydro-corridors, they are also able to act at the landscapes macroscale ecological activities. These patches are also important in terms of having access to citys
recreational potentials as well as different urban land uses and functions. These characteristics and
capabilities add to the ecological importance of these patches.
Thus, the river valley corridors and remnant natural patches in the middle and built green patches in
the east and west of the Tehran are considered as main structural elements in Tehran urban ecological
system (Bahrami and K.V.).

River valleys as natural corridors

Tochal peak is 3900 meters in altitude. Its main ridges overlook the southern slopes and Tehran
plain, and forms small drainage basins. The rivers flowing in these basins are the life veins of the
city. Water constantly flows in these basins and probably the main reason why Tehran developed is
its hydromorphological conditions influenced by its northern heights. The most important basin,
which covers the southern slopes of the northern heights of the city, include: Kan, Farahzad, Darakeh
and Darband basins.
The seven northsouth river valleys are characteristic of natural corridors of Tehrans landscape
structure. They are fertile habitats that support a variety of flora and fauna and play significant roles
as catchments and as places for energy and wind flows to remove air pollutions from the city
environment, providing opportunity for connection with the natural uplandlowland context. Upland
areas benefit from much better conditions than lowlands due to less environmental destruction caused
by urban development. The natural hydrological corridors along the river valleys face more
destructive factors and have less ecological functions from north to south because of their structural
modifications. Natural corridors connect many natural and built patches scattered along them. These
corridors are mostly oriented in a northsouth direction. The eastwest ecological connections are
restricted due to the morphological structure of city (Aminzadeh and Khansefid, 2009).
The rivers and streams that run through these mountain valleys and inside the city are among the
advantages of Tehrans landscape, and their ecological potential creates desirable urban patches
within the manmade urban fabric. In addition to the provision of open spaces, concentration of main
views and circulation of pure air, these natural corridors are among the major elements of Tehrans
comprehensive plan to revive its landscape. In order to create continuous and expansive natural
patches and assure spatial interconnection between natural greens and manmade spaces, these
corridors are considered the main natural elements of Tehrans sustainability development plan.
Tehrans natural corridors, which run in main routes, do not have ecological buffers and as a result
their ecological functions as connecting routes are limited. Even, constructed urban corridors
(including riverside corridors and greenways) have urban functions due to being connected to urban
zones. Thus, these corridors have special characteristics in terms of having important ecological and
societal advantages in different landscape scales. The recreational potentials of these landscapes are
also considerable. They are remarkable areas not only because they are rich ecological resources
providing large green patches, but also because they are important cultural sites that provide the
landscapes historic identity. Sometimes these areas along with their manmade urban elements
benefit from the landscapes natural characteristics and become considered historic urban elements
that define cultural functions. However, other times they remain poor in terms of plantation, and
though they have the spatial capability to benefit from landscapes natural patches and corridors,
nonetheless, they remain in need of good ecological connectivity. The vicinity of historic urban
structures with valuable natural sites helps to protect the socio-ecological identity of the landscape.
All these factors allow the manmade identity of the landscape to be in harmony with its natural and
historic characteristics (Barghjelveh and Sayad, 2011).

A river valley corridor network may provide the needed spatial design closely adapted to ecological
network layouts that also assure regional scale vertical connectivity within the upland-lowland
context of the closed water basins continuum system of Tehran.

Tehrans landscape network: natural & manmade corridors and patches. Source: Google Earth.

Rehabilitated river valleys: Kan and Farahzad projects

Recently, parts of Kan and Farahzad river valleys have been rehabilitated by the municipality of
Tehran. Studying these two projects helps is understand the view point of those who have designed
and planned them and finally gives a critical assessment of their method of river valley rehabilitation.
Images from Kan river valley in 2008 and Farahzad river valley in 2004 shows the primary condition
of two river valleys site before starting site rehabilitation.
There are, at a minimum, two scales for analyzing urban river valleys projects: first, metropolitan
scale and secondly, regional and local scale. In metropolitan scale, as landscape planning principles
say, river valleys are important part of urban ecological network; they have potentials for connecting
other forms of landscape ecology elements like urban patches. Therefore the river valleys of Tehran
are the best options for doing the role of patch connectors in order to improving and restoring
Tehrans ecological network.

By looking carefully at Tehrans ecological map and considering rehabilitation of Kan and Farahzad
river valleys, it seems there has been no attempt at making connectivity to other patches or corridors!
Also the density in some parts, particularly along two river valleys misses the chance for extending
them into urban fabric in future. The other problem is many existing bridges of east- west highways,
which usually cut the river valleys corridors and decline the ecological function.
Landscape planning should minimize isolation of natural landscape remnants and maximize linkages
to provide for flows of energy, mineral nutrients, and species. An example of this would be to
minimize barriers between the river valley and adjacent vegetation patches. (Baschak and Brown,
1995) It is apparent, as humans engage in landscape planning and design to restore previously altered
ecosystems or protect existing fragments of natural systems, that the most effective way to restore or
retain ecological integrity is to ensure that these elements are connected as part of a larger system.
(Cook, 2000)
In local scale, the first comparisons between two images (after and before) rehabilitation show the
obvious differences in land and river form related to direct interfering in natural features of river. In
other hand, the urban river has been transformed to a big urban gutter! Even the inner sides and the
bed of rivers are covered by concrete that have extremely impressed the hydrological function of
river.
Rivers provide their regions with some natural benefits of critical importance and therefore that must
be protected. Natural characteristics of river like meanders, backwaters, wetlands, and gradually
sloped banks have important ecological functions. There are also benefits for inhabitant such as
cleaner water and flood storage. It might not be possible to restore these features in many urban
areas, but even a little effort can bring about a positive effect. Environmental improvements can be
achieved on even the most heavily impacted rivers.

Farahzad river valley before (2004)(LEFT) and after (2014)(RIGHT) rehabilitation. Source: Google Earth

Kan river valley before (2008)(LEFT) and after (2014)(RIGHT) rehabilitation. Source: Google Earth.

Farahzad river valley after rehabilitation. Source: www.negahmedia.ir

Kan river valley after rehabilitation. The urban river has been transformed to a big urban gutter! Source: hamshahrionline.ir

Farahzad river valley under construction; imposing too many changes by interfering in land and river form will impress the
ecological function of river valley! Source: www.eshiraz.ir

Protection of natural river features and functions necessitates avoiding the use of new dams and other
engineering solutions, such as a straightening, channelizing, or placing streams in underground pipes
and culverts. It might be possible to fully restore the ecological features and functions in most urban
rivers and streams (Cengiz, 2013).
Imposing excessive hardscapes on natural and morphological forms of the site has eclipsed the
ecological role of river valley in urban fabric. Although each construction project will impose itself
on natural environment, it seems that the designers wanted to recreate the space and rivers site in
order to achieve other goals. Beyond the limit interfering in natural form of land and river and
designing recreational park with maximum use of hardscapes without attention to ecological
properties of site, prove that the rehabilitation have replaced by recreation! However both of the
projects have different characteristics like site topography, river shape and so on, the designers
havent any other target except making a recreational space by the recreation of space!
In fact the ecological potentials of rehabilitating two of the limited natural elements of Tehrans
landscape ecology has been failed and ignored completely!
Hardscapes are such places as roads, parking lots, sidewalks, driveways, paved paths, rooftops, and
other impermeable surfaces that prevent rainwater from filtering through soil and replenishing rivers
and stream as groundwater. Nearly half of all stream flows are provided by groundwater. This
percentage can increase to a much higher level during drought periods (Alley et al., 1999). The urban
rivers are also adversely affected by these impermeable surfaces of hardscapes as they do not absorb
stormwater. In fact, they result in considerable increases in the volume and velocity of rainwater
runoff. Another adverse effect of paved surfaces is their contribution to pollution as they washes
surface oils, fertilizers, heavy metals, bacteria, and other contaminants into river and streams.
Through the reduction of hardscapes and installation of natural landscapes, it can be possible to
restore natural watershed functions, filter pollutant, and prevent erosion of banks and channelization
of streambeds. The replacement of hardscape with soft, permeable surfaces, such as native grasses,
shrubs, and trees in older, industrial or abandoned riverfront areas will improve environment from
both aesthetic and ecological aspects. Planners must minimize the amount of hardscapes if they
cannot be avoided. The reduction of hardscapes in new development projects can offer cost
efficiency for local governments, developers, and homeowners. It is expensive to install and maintain
infrastructure roads, sidewalks, sewer liner, curbs and gutters, and parking spaces (Cengiz, 2013).
Another problem is the lack of attention to native and adaptable plantation. At first view during visits
to both sites, the paucity of varieties and using ornamental and nonnative plants widely prove that
claim! However, as old images show, the vegetation of two sites has been extremely poor. The poor
and incompatible vegetation cant support and protect biodiversity and wildlife habitats across the
river valley and so it will lose its role of it as natural corridor. Unfortunately, most of the potential

for creating rich green spaces has been missed due to paving for cycling, hiking, camping or parking
lots.
Considering buffer zones for river valleys is another important principle that apparently has been
neglected by designers and planners of the two projects. Buffer zones are areas situated next to a
shoreline, wetland, or stream where development is restricted or prohibited. They facilitate the
protection of ecological integrity of rivers, enhance connections between wildlife habitats, and allow
rivers to function more naturally. A buffer network serves as right-of-way for a river or stream and
it is an indispensable part of the stream ecosystem. Various sizes of buffers help protecting the
natural areas close to rivers and streams, and especially fragile zone like steep slopes and wetlands. A
well designed buffer zone helps protecting the quality of water and habitats for plant and wildlife.
Buffers also provide shadow areas which decrease the temperature of water and thus protect aquatic
habitat. With trees, shrubs, grasses and other native plants, they provide cover and food for birds,
mammals, and other animals along the river. There are also benefits for humans as flourishing
buffers are visually appealing and can often be used as greenbelts, parks and recreation areas. There
is no advantage for biodiversity in keeping manicured lawns, formal landscape designs, and pruned
shrubs as they frequently require the use harmful pesticides, and do not provide the food or shelter
for wildlife (Cengiz, 2013).
Although the recreation feature of these rehabilitation have resulted in satisfied users, their lack to
high quality ecological function will present major challenges in the future.
Other scientific researches (Barghjelveh and Sayad, 2011) also show that in the process of
regenerating the natural environment of Tehans river valleys, including Farahzad River-valley, the
principles of landscape ecology have been disregarded. In effect, no attention has been paid to the
natural and ecologic potentials of these landscapes. In the case of Nahjolbalagheh Garden
[Farahzad river valley], the project has been completed as if its only purpose has been to establish a
beautiful garden. Disregards for the microclimate, the plant and animal diversity, the non-local plant
cultivation incompatible with the context, unfavorable and nonsustainable cycle of matter and
energy, infiltration of pollutants into the ecosystem (especially the ecosystem of river-valleys), and
finally the absence of ecological connectivity to other urban landscapes are issues that may cause
serious local problems and even the ecological destruction of Tehrans landscape in the not so
distant future.

Existing bridges of east- west highways which usually cut the river valleys corridors and decline the ecological function. Source:
Google Earth.

Left: The dominance of ornamental and recreational elements along with poor vegetation. Right: Construction within the
boundary of river valley threats the buffer zone and river scenery! Source: tafrih.ir

Conclusion
Unfortunately, the study and evaluation of Kan and Farahzad river valleys rehabilitation projects
demonstrates the necessity of changing minds and approaches when doing the similar projects in the
future. The necessity comes from missing landscape ecological approach to design and planning in
order to utilizing important potentials of Tehrans river valleys as natural corridors and connectors.
River valleys are significant and inseparable parts of Tehrans landscape ecology and require more
attention during the process of decision making by municipalities, planners and designers.
Based on the potentials and the restrictions of the landscape, the solutions for enhancing the
ecological connectivity of urban natural public spaces are provided through the hierarchy of
landscapes Environmental Equilibrium, Geographical-anthropological Sustainability and Ecoenvironmental-societal Excellence features. By monitoring Tehrans river-valleys content

composition and spatial configuration variables, the functional quality of Tehrans natural resources
is restored (Barghjelveh and Sayad, 2011).
The main focus is the application of the concept of eco-hydrology through the rehabilitation of the
Tehrans river-valleys as an ecological network linking the landscapes highly attractive ecological,
recreational and residential areas. The key element is the ecological management of the Tehrans
river-valleys as the spatial link between geomorphology, vegetation, hydrology and land use, and as
the integrated network between major natural corridors and patches within and outside the city,
connecting natural and manmade green patches in order to improve the ecological networks citywide.
Kaveh Samiei
Tehran
On The Nature of Cities
References
1- Steiner, Frederick (2011): Landscape ecological urbanism: Origins and trajectories, Landscape
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3- Bemanian, Mohammad Reza (2008): The Environmental Planning Revitalization for River
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River-valleys, International Journal Of Architecture and Urban Development Vol.1, No.2, Autumn
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This entry was posted in Design, Development, Ecosystem services, Kaveh Samiei, Middle
East, Water, Wetlands by Kaveh Samiei. Bookmark the permalink.

2 THOUGHTS ON TEHRAN, THE CITY OF RIVER VALLEYS, NEEDS A LANDSCAPE ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE DESIGN AND

PLANNING OF ITS WATERWAYS

1.

Mehdi Mirzaee on July 18, 2014 at 09:11 said:

Hi,
We are working on this issue these days in Tehran Municipality. I think that around
2 weeks later we can prepare the first version of our framework. It will be my
pleasure if you have any comment or idea and share with me. I will inform my
colleagues to contact you, too.
Please do not hesitate to contact me by my email: mmirzaee@abangan.org
Regards.

Reply

2.

Di Lucas on July 17, 2014 at 19:31 said:

sounds familiar

Reply

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