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1. Quick and simple techniques to allow a proposal to proceed with a reasonable degree of comfort in the
integrity of the design
2. More detailed techniques which allow for more accurate design predictions at contract stage.
It should be noted that hydraulics is never an exact science, and whilst the calculations given are acceptable to
most practitioners, if it is desired to offer guaranteed figures, the services of an expert should be employed. It
is desirable that persons carrying out tender stage design should be as familiar with the contract stage
calculation requirements as possible, to allow an appreciation of the requirements of the engineer carrying out
the more detailed calculations.
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Calculation of channel headlosses is a bit trickier than pipework calculations, not least because of variation in
depth of flow.
For tender purposes, it usually suffices to assume depth of flow is set by the depth over the outlet weir, if an
outlet weir is present. If there is no outlet weir, calculation of depth of flow is more complicated, and it is
suggested that 100 mm of water depth be allowed for tender purposes.
Setting flow velocity at less than or equal to 1.5 m.s-1 at this depth should result in reasonable losses down the
channel.
Allowing a 50 mm fall from the weir edge, or invert of the channel to the next water surface is usually sufficient
to account for head loss.
1.1.4 Weirs
Calculation of depth of flow over a weir is mostly dependent on the shape of the weir.
Experiments carried out have yielded the recommendation that 6 l.s-1.m-1be allowed for broad-crested weirs,
and 4 l.s-1.m-1 for sharp-crested weirs.
These flows gave depths of the order of 10 -15 mm over the weir. The recommendations contained in
Appendix III are to be followed wherever possible.
1.1.5 Nozzles
Experiments with PEM and OESA nozzles have shown that variability between literature and actual values and
between batches of nozzles can be considerable.
These manufacturers also change specifications of nozzles without notice, and supply nozzles to differing
specifications from those in the catalogue.
We therefore recommend that at least 25% be added to manufacturers recommended head requirements for
nozzles at the tender stage.
1.2 Water Quality
1.2.1 Chemical Composition
The following substances are undesirable components of water to be used for water features:
Sulphides or other odorous compounds
Iron, manganese, and other coloured inorganic compounds
Organic contaminants, especially humic and fulvic acids, which either lead to significant oxygen demand,
or add colour and or odour.
Water should not have a highly aggressive nature, as measured by Langelier index. (See Appendix I for
details)
It may be assumed that all supplies from potable sources are suitable in these respects.
Any concerns over the level of any of these contaminants should be expressed at tender stage.
1.2.2 Clarity
The most important parameter with respect to the visual impact on the feature is the clarity of the water. Unlike
industrial applications, however, no performance standards are stated, and the clarity of the water is an
aesthetic rather than a scientific measurement.
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The water used is to be free of coloured compounds, whether organic, or inorganic. The suspended solids
level is assumed to be the factor determining clarity of the water.
The filters will remove only gross suspended solids. Any fine or colloidal solids will require additional treatment,
as will any of the above undesirable contaminants.
Sand Filtration equipment to reduce suspended solids content is usually provided to address the need to
maintain clarity of feature water. Manufacturers usually specify the type and size of unit to be used, but some
rules of thumb may prove useful for giving a rough idea of likely sizes for these filters, in order to allow layout
to proceed.
The volume of water to be treated in an hour may be determined by allowing all of the water in the system to be
passed through treatment in a time period of between two and six hours. To determine this flowrate, firstly
calculate the volume of all of the water vessels, channels and pipes in the system. If there are a lot of weirs in
the system, the head of water over the weirs may be a significant proportion of this volume. If there are a large
number of nozzles, water in the air may provide a significant part of the volume. These two items are however
usually insignificant contributors to the total volume. This total volume of water (v) is to be treated in x hours,
and filter flowrate is therefore v / x. x can be of the order of 2 - 6 hours for tender purposes.
How quickly we turn the system around is a factor of degree of contamination, amongst other things - outdoor
systems receiving leaf debris, and street litter will require quicker turnovers.
High Rate Sand Filter sizes may be roughly estimated by allowing a flow per unit area of the filter of say 30
m3.m-2.h-1, a figure far in excess of those used for more conventional Rapid Sand Filters, but conservative in
these applications.
Sand filters have to be periodically cleaned by means of back-washing. Filter back-washing is likely to result in
wash water flowrates to drain of the order of the feed flow rate at the flow per unit area given. Where air scour
is used to supplement the water, similar flowrates (in m3.h-1) are used. Filters are back-washed much less
frequently than in municipal water treatment, usually at weekly, rather than daily intervals. The actual washing
frequency is however dependent on incoming water quality, flowrates per unit area, and dosing rates.
Any guarantee figures should be referred to an expert.
There is a number of other filter types which are used for this application, Rapid Sand Filters and pre-coat
filters being the most common alternatives. These have the disadvantage of increased space requirements,
and more troublesome operation respectively. Note that (confusingly) Rapid Sand Filters are not as rapid as
high-rate filters, and are sometimes known in this industry as standard rate filters.
1.2.3 Biological Quality
In addition to the chemical and physical considerations outlined above, prevention of the growth of organisms
in the water is required.
Of particular concern in water features is the Legionella organism. This bacterium can cause serious
pneumonia type illness in susceptible organisms, can survive in water kept below 60oC, and is transmitted well
by any fine dispersion of water, such as those generated by sprays, jets and the like. Following the rules for
maintenance and cleaning of features to prevent build up of bacterial films, continuous disinfection of feature
water and periodic high level disinfectant dosing are usually sufficient to control this hazard.
Lesser problems of water odour and appearance, as well as staining of water feature surfaces may also result
from biological growth. The control measures suggested above would also inhibit the growth of organisms
which may have these adverse aesthetic effects.
Filtration to maintain clarity also removes biological material from the system, and is the major factor in
prevention of growth of algae within the feature, other than disinfectant dosing. Specific algaecides may be
added to the feature, but they may well come with problems resulting from interaction with disinfectants, and
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the feature water. It is therefore highly unusual to add such algaecides on a regular basis.
The most commonly used disinfectant agents are Bromine and Chlorine. They have common advantages as
follows:
being highly lethal to the vast majority of organisms
being available in reasonably easy to handle forms
being relatively inexpensive
having a persistent residual disinfectant action, preventing growth of organisms throughout the system
Disinfection by means of bromine is favoured over chlorine, mainly because it is simpler to control, by virtue of
its wider effective pH spectrum. A side effect of the use of bromine is oxidation of organic contaminants and
removal of ammonia from the system. Bromine dosing is usually based on systems dissolving bromine
containing solid tablets. Manufacturers will be responsible for sizing the systems, but to allow for adequate
feed pump capacity, one manufacturer recommends the provision of a flow to the brominator of 1 l.min-1 per
10,000 litres of feature capacity. Brominator capacities of approximately 1 Kg of tablets per 7.5 m3 of feature
capacity are usual, to give reasonable filling intervals.
Ultraviolet light is also used as a disinfection method. High rates of disinfection are possible with UV, but it
leaves no residual disinfectant in the water, unlike chlorine or bromine.
Ozone is a highly reactive form of Oxygen that is gaining in popularity for swimming pool water treatment. Like
UV, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water, and therefore the possibility of growth of organisms within
the body of the feature is a concern. This is often overcome in swimming pools by being used in tandem with
Chlorine dosing. The advantages of Ozone in the swimming pool application do no apply to water feature use.
Ozone is very toxic to humans, stringent and costly provision for avoidance of Ozone poisoning must
therefore be incorporated within the design.
There are a couple of other minor techniques for disinfection that have come from developments to answer the
requirements of the US and USSR space programmes for water recycling. The US programme devised a
technique where disinfectant metal ions are introduced into the water by electrolysis of the water using precious
metal electrodes. Use of this technique is practically limited to small domestic pools, as the effective agent is
precious metal ions. The Russians apparently developed electrolysis of salt through a semi-permeable
membrane. This system is sold as Enigma in the UK. The mode of action of this system is production of
hypochlorous acid. There may be trace levels of other oxidised compounds, but these are insignificant with
respect to the disinfecting effect of the system. There is no proof whatever of any effects over and above that
explainable by the action of hypochlorous acid (the effective agent in standard chlorine disinfection). The
system is more expensive than all other chlorine dosing systems.
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2.1.2 Channels
Calculation of channel head losses will be required at contract stage.
The Standard Channel Headloss Calculation Spreadsheet (available from Expertise Limited) may be used for
these calculations. In addition to the straight run head losses calculated by the spreadsheet, shock losses from
bends, contractions and expansions may be calculated thus:
Entry B1 > B2
Entry B1 < B2
Bend
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% Turbidity remaining
at equilibrium
58
16
0.5
0.08
0.02
0.01
It is suggested that for most applications, a turnover rate of 4 will suffice, removing 98% of turbidity at
equilibrium. Higher rates would only be required when there is an unusually high load of incoming turbidity.
In the event that the turbidity is not filterable, advice should be sought from a water treatment expert on how to
render the turbid components removable.
2.2.3 Biological Quality
The importance of the maintenance of water quality has already been emphasised. Common practice has been
to leave this area to the manufacturers of chemical dosing systems. It may be however that on some bigger
systems, concerns over areas such as pH stability have resulted in the use of pH dosing plant in addition to the
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