Liquefied petroleum gas

Liquefied petroleum gas

Liquefied petroleum gas, also called LPG, GPL, LP Gas, liquid
petroleum gas or simply propane, is a flammable mixture of
hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles. It
is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant,
replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the
ozone layer. When specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred
to as autogas.
Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily
propane (C3H8), primarily butane (C4H10) and, most commonly, mixes
including both propane and butane, depending on the season in
winter more propane, in summer more butane. In the United States,
primarily only two grades of LPG are sold, commercial propane and
HD-5. These specifications are published by the Gas Processors
Association (GPA)[1] and the American Society of Testing and
Materials (ASTM)[2]. Propane/butane blends are also listed in these
specifications. Propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons
are usually also present in small concentrations. HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG, and
is utilized as an autogas specification. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be detected easily.
The international standard is EN 589. In the United States, tetrahydrothiophene (thiophane) or amyl mercaptan are
also approved odorants[3], although neither is currently being utilized.
LPG is synthesised by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is almost entirely derived from fossil fuel
sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted from petroleum or natural gas
streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first
commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively
cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions. As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards,
but it can cause air pollution. LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1MJ/kg compared with 42.5MJ/kg for
fuel oil and 43.5MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline).[4] However, its energy density per volume unit of 26
MJ/l is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil, as its liquid density is almost half.
As its' boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at normal temperatures and pressures
and is usually supplied in pressurised steel vessels. They are typically filled to between 80% and 85% of their
capacity to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid. The ratio between the volumes of the vaporized gas
and the liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure, and temperature, but is typically around 250:1. The
pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its vapour pressure, likewise varies depending on composition and
temperature; for example, it is approximately 220 kilopascals (unknown operator: u'strong'psi) for pure butane at
20 C (unknown operator: u'strong'F), and approximately 2.2 megapascals (unknown operator: u'strong'psi)
for pure propane at 55 C (unknown operator: u'strong'F). LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas, and thus
will flow along floors and tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. There are two main dangers from this. The
first is a possible explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is right and if there is an ignition source. The second is
suffocation due to LPG displacing air, causing a decrease in oxygen concentration. Fortunately, LPG is not toxic, so
there is no danger of poisoning. In addition, odorants are mixed with all LPG so that leaks can be detected more
easily.
Large amounts of LPG can be stored in bulk cylinders and can be buried underground.

Liquefied petroleum gas

Uses
Rural heating
Predominantly in Europe and rural parts of the United States, LPG
can provide an alternative to electricity and heating oil (kerosene).
LPG is most often used where there is no access to piped natural
gas.
LPG can be used as a power source for combined heat and power
technologies (CHP). CHP is the process of generating both
electrical power and useful heat from a single fuel source. This
technology has allowed LPG to be used not just as fuel for heating
and cooking, but also for de-centralised generation of electricity.
LPG can be stored in a variety of ways. LPG, as with other fossil
fuels, can be combined with renewable power sources to provide
greater reliability while still achieving some reduction in CO2
emissions.

Cylinders with LP gas in India

Motor fuel
When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often
referred to as autogas or auto propane. In some countries, it has been
used since the 1940s as a petrol alternative for spark ignition engines.
Two recent studies have examined LPG-fuel-oil fuel mixes and found
that smoke emissions and fuel consumption are reduced but
hydrocarbon emissions are increased.[5][6] The studies were split on
CO emissions, with one finding significant increases,[5] and the other
finding slight increases at low engine load but a considerable decrease
at high engine load.[6] Its advantage is that it is non-toxic,
non-corrosive and free of tetra-ethyl lead or any additives, and has a
high octane rating (102-108 RON depending on local specifications). It
burns more cleanly than petrol or fuel-oil and is especially free of the
particulates from the latter.
LPG has a lower energy density than either petrol or fuel-oil, so the
equivalent fuel consumption is higher. Many governments impose less
LPG filling connector on a car
tax on LPG than on petrol or fuel-oil, which helps offset the greater
consumption of LPG than of petrol or fuel-oil. However, in many
European countries this tax break is often compensated by a much higher annual road tax on cars using LPG than on
cars using petrol or fuel-oil. Propane is the third most widely used motor fuel in the world. 2008 estimates are that
over 13 million vehicles are fueled by propane gas worldwide. Over 20 million tonnes (over 7 billion US gallons) are
used annually as a vehicle fuel.
Not all automobile engines are suitable for use with LPG as a fuel. LPG provides less upper cylinder lubrication than
petrol
or
diesel,
as
a

Liquefied petroleum gas

consequence LPG fueled engines are more prone to wearing valves if

not suitably modified. Many modern common rail diesel engines
respond well to LPG use as a supplementary fuel. This is where LPG is
used as fuel as well as diesel. Systems are now available that integrate
with OEM engine management systems.

White bordered green diamond symbol used on

LPG-powered vehicles in China

Refrigeration
LPG is instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, usually by means of a gas absorption refrigerator.
Blended of pure, dry propane (refrigerant designator R-290 ) and isobutane (R-600a) the blend"R-290a"has
negligible ozone depletion potential and very low global warming potential and can serve as a functional
replacement for R-12, R-22, R-134a,and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional
stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.[7]
Such substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air conditioning systems, on the grounds that
using flammable hydrocarbons in systems originally designed to carry non-flammable refrigerant presents a
significant risk of fire or explosion.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]
Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very
few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons.[16][17] One
particular test was conducted by a professor at the University of New South Wales that unintentionally tested the
worst case scenario of a sudden and complete refrigerant loss into the passenger compartment followed by
subsequent ignition. He and several others in the car sustained minor burns to their face, ears, and hands, and several
observers received lacerations from the burst glass of the front passenger window. No one was seriously injured.[18]

Cooking
According to the 2001 Census of India, 17.5% of Indian households or 33.6
million Indian households used LPG as cooking fuel in 2001, which is supplied
to their homes by Indian Oil which is known as Indane.[19] 76.64% of such
households were from urban India making up 48% of urban Indian households as
compared to a usage of 5.7% only in rural Indian households. LPG is subsidised
by the government. Increase in LPG prices has been a politically sensitive matter
in India as it potentially affects the urban middle class voting pattern.
LPG was once a popular cooking fuel in Hong Kong; however, the continued
expansion of town gas to buildings has reduced LPG usage to less than 24% of
residential units.
LPG is the most common cooking fuel in Brazilian urban areas, being used in
virtually all households. Poor families receive a government grant ("Vale Gs")
used exclusively for the acquisition of LPG.

Truck carrying LPG cylinders to

residential consumers in Singapore

Liquefied petroleum gas

Security of supply
Because of the natural gas and the oil-refining industry, Europe is almost self-sufficient in LPG. Europe's security of
supply is further safeguarded by:
a wide range of sources, both inside and outside Europe;
a flexible supply chain via water, rail and road with numerous routes and entry points into Europe;
As of early 2008, world reserves of natural gas from which most LPG is derived stood at 6,342.411 trillion
cubic feet. Added to the LPG derived from cracking crude oil, this amounts to a major energy source that is virtually
untapped and has massive potential. Production continues to grow at an average annual rate of 2.2%, virtually
assuring that there is no risk of demand outstripping supply for the foreseeable future.

Comparison with natural gas

LPG is composed primarily of propane and butane, while natural gas is composed of the lighter methane and ethane.
LPG, vaporised and at atmospheric pressure, has a higher calorific value (94MJ/m3 equivalent to 26.1kWh/m3) than
natural gas (methane) (38MJ/m3 equivalent to 10.6kWh/m3), which means that LPG cannot simply be substituted
for natural gas. In order to allow the use of the same burner controls and to provide for similar combustion
characteristics, LPG can be mixed with air to produce a synthetic natural gas (SNG) that can be easily substituted.
LPG/air mixing ratios average 60/40, though this is widely variable based on the gases making up the LPG. The
method for determining the mixing ratios is by calculating the Wobbe index of the mix. Gases having the same
Wobbe index are held to be interchangeable.
LPG-based SNG is used in emergency backup systems for many public, industrial and military installations, and
many utilities use LPG peak shaving plants in times of high demand to make up shortages in natural gas supplied to
their distributions systems. LPG-SNG installations are also used during initial gas system introductions, when the
distribution infrastructure is in place before gas supplies can be connected. Developing markets in India and China
(among others) use LPG-SNG systems to build up customer bases prior to expanding existing natural gas systems.

Environmental effects
Commercially available LPG is currently derived from fossil fuels. Burning LPG releases CO2, an important
greenhouse gas, contributing to global warming. LPG does, however, release less CO2 per unit of energy than that of
coal or oil. It emits 81% of the CO2 per kWh produced by oil, 70% of that of coal, and less than 50% of that emitted
by coal-generated electricity distributed via the grid. Being a mix of propane and butane, LPG emits less carbon per
joule than butane but more carbon per joule than propane.
LPG can be considered to burn more cleanly than heavier molecule hydrocarbons, in that it releases very few
particulates.

Liquefied petroleum gas

Fire risk and mitigation

Since LPG turns gaseous under ambient temperature and pressure, it must be
stored in special pressure vessels. If the containers are cylindrical and horizontal,
they are referred to as "cigars" or "bullets", whereas circular ones are "spheres".
LPG containers that are subjected to fire of sufficient duration and intensity can
undergo a boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE). Due to the
destructive nature of LPG explosions, the substance is classified as a dangerous
good.[20] This is typically a concern for large refineries and petrochemical plants
that maintain very large containers. The remedy is to equip such containers with
a measure to provide a fire-resistance rating. Large, spherical LPG containers
may have up to a 15cm steel wall thickness. Ordinarily, they are equipped with
A spherical gas container typically
an approved pressure relief valve on the top, in the centre. One of the main
found in refineries
dangers is that accidental spills of hydrocarbons may ignite and heat an LPG
container, which increases its temperature and pressure, following the basic gas
laws. The relief valve on the top is designed to vent off excess pressure in order to prevent the rupture of the
container itself. Given a fire of sufficient duration and intensity, the pressure being generated by the boiling and
expanding gas can exceed the ability of the valve to vent the excess. When that occurs, an overexposed container
may rupture violently, launching pieces at high velocity, while the released products can ignite as well, potentially
causing catastrophic damage to anything nearby, including other containers. In the case of "cigars", a midway
rupture may send two "rockets" going off each way, with plenty of fuel in each to propel each segment at high speed
until the fuel is spent.
Mitigation measures include separating LPG containers from potential sources of fire. In the case of rail transport,
for instance, LPG containers can be staggered, so that other goods are put in between them. This is not always done,
but it does represent a low-cost remedy to the problem. LPG rail cars are easy to spot from the relief valves on top,
typically with railings all around.
In the case of new LPG containers, one may simply bury them, only leaving valves and armatures exposed, for easy
maintenance. Great care must be taken there though, as mechanical damage can occur to the primers, which can
result in hazardous corrosion of the containers. For the buried container, only the exposed parts need to be treated
with approved fireproofing materials, such as intumescent and or endothermic coatings, or even fireproofing plasters.
The rest are amply protected by soil. Speciality removable covers exist for easy access to the dials and components
that must be accessed for proper maintenance and operation of the equipment. LPG containers are subject to
significant motion due to expansion, contraction, filling and emptying; even with very thick steel walls. This
operational motion makes the burial option less attractive in the long run, because it is difficult to detect mechanical
damage to the outer waterproofing of the vessel through soil. A small stone scraping back and forth across the
epoxy-painted hull can jeopardise the waterproofing and be the cause for corrosion.
Whilst one may calculate and justify on paper the use of inorganic plasters to cover entire spheres, it can be difficult
to keep plasters operable for extended periods of time. Major errors have also been made in the past in this field, as
the presumption was that the steel substrate would be adequately protected from rusting through the use of alkaline
plasters. The alkalinity in such plasters is due to the presence of cement stone. This alkalinity, however, does not
typically have a permanent character, which means that waterproofing with high quality epoxy primers is very
important. Also, exterior waterproofing of the plaster is required by some fireproofing plaster vendors, as reduced
alkalinity in exposed plasters can have a deleterious effect on the cement stone, which binds the plaster in the first
place. By contrast, the intumescent and endothermic coatings are usually epoxy based to begin with, meaning that
corrosion of the substrate is no problem whatsoever.

Liquefied petroleum gas

Fireproofing, not unlike all passive fire protection products, is subject to stringent Listing and approval use and
compliance. The problem with this is though, that exterior structures of this nature are not subject to the building
code or the fire code, meaning that one still sees the majority of LPG containers without any fireproofing at all, as
there are often no local regulations, let alone any Authority Having Jurisdiction, apart from an insurance inspector, to
force owners to use the proper mitigation methods. Insurance companies are also in a competitive quandary, where
such items are concerned, as they compete not only on the basis of rates, but also on the strictness of the demands by
their inspectors. LPG vessel fireproofing tests are varied. The only realistic exposure offered is done at the
Braunschweig test facility of "BAM" [21] Berlin. BAM's procedure is to expose a small LPG container to the
hydrocarbon test curve and to quantify the results. North American methods are based on UL1709 [22]. While
UL1709 uses the correct time/temperature curve for testing, it is limited to testing steel columns (not even beams),
whereas BAM actually exposes a real LPG container that has been fireproofed. No matter the fireproofing method
one uses, it is very important to pay close attention to listing and approval use and compliance and to be sure that the
product one chooses has undergone product certification, whereby the original test included the environmental
exposures that the product will be exposed to during operations. Particularly with organic products, such as the
endothermic and intumescent ones, one must closely review the ageing criteria and be able to quantify how long the
product is expected to be operable for. This is where UL1709 "shines". Anything that can withstand the full battery
of environmental exposures prior to the actual fire test, is a very tough product indeed. The idea is to rule out
conditions that may render the product inoperable before it is ever exposed to a fire. By using products that have
received the appropriate environmental tests FIRST, and the fire expose afterwards, using the very same test sample
with all the applicable exposures, one can then demonstrate due diligence, but not otherwise. Likewise, the DIBt [23]
ageing qualifications for intumescents have proven to be very reliable. With close attention to the bounding and
coverage of ageing and environmental exposures, it is absolutely possible to buy a lot of time for firefighting
measures to relieve the LPG containers of the energy exposure from accidental fires and thus reduce the likelihood
of a BLEVE to the maximum possible extent.
In June 2009, a freight train carrying LPG derailed in the rail station of Viareggio, Italy. 29 people were killed and
over 30 people were injured.

References
[1] "Liquefied Petroleum Gas Specifications and Test Methods" (https:/ / www. gpaglobal. org/ publications/ view/ id/ 36/ ). Gas Processors
Association. . Retrieved 5/18/2012.
[2] "ASTM D1835 - 11 Standard Specification for Liquefied Petroleum (LP) Gases" (http:/ / www. astm. org/ Standards/ D1835. htm). American
Society for Testing & Materials. .
[3] 49CFR173.315(b)(1)Note 2
[4] Horst Bauer, ed. (1996). Automotive Handbook (4th ed.). Stuttgart: Robert Bosch GmbH. pp.238239. ISBN0-8376-0333-1.
[5] Zhang, Chunhua; Bian, Yaozhang; Si, Lizeng; Liao, Junzhi; Odbileg, N (2005). "A study on an electronically controlled liquefied petroleum
gas-diesel dual-fuel automobile". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 219 (2):
207. doi:10.1243/095440705X6470.
[6] Qi, D; Bian, Y; Ma, Z; Zhang, C; Liu, S (2007). "Combustion and exhaust emission characteristics of a compression ignition engine using
liquefied petroleum gasfuel-oil blended fuel". Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2): 500. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2006.06.013.
[7] "European Commission on retrofit refrigerants for stationary applications" (http:/ / ec. europa. eu/ environment/ ozone/ pdf/
hcfc_technical_meeting_summary. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 30 July 2009.
[8] "U.S. EPA hydrocarbon-refrigerants FAQ" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ ozone/ snap/ refrigerants/ hc12alng. html). United States Environmental
Protection Agency. . Retrieved 30 July 2009.
[9] Compendium of hydrocarbon-refrigerant policy statements, October 2006 (http:/ / www. vasa. org. au/ pdf/ memberlibrary/ hydrocarbons/
hc_white_paper. pdf)
[10] "MACS bulletin: hydrocarbon refrigerant usage in vehicles" (http:/ / www. autoacforum. com/ MACS/ HCwarning. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved
30 July 2009.
[11] "Society of Automotive Engineers hydrocarbon refrigerant bulletin" (http:/ / www. sae. org/ news/ releases/ 05hydrocarbon_warning. htm).
Sae.org. 27 April 2005. . Retrieved 30 July 2009.
[12] "Shade Tree Mechanic on hydrocarbon refrigerants" (http:/ / www. shadetreemechanic. com/ cc_hydrocarbon_refrigerants. htm).
Electromechanics.com. 27 April 2005. . Retrieved 30 July 2009.

Liquefied petroleum gas

[13] "Saskatchewan Labor bulletin on hydrocarbon refrigerants in vehicles" (http:/ / www. labour. gov. sk. ca/ Default.
aspx?DN=2fb5ac24-d90e-4408-bf40-559793bd8e96). Labour.gov.sk.ca. 1 January 1996. . Retrieved 30 July 2009.
[14] VASA on refrigerant legality & advisability (http:/ / www. vasa. org. au/ content/ refriggas/ index. php#Bookmark 2)
[15] "Flammable Refrigerant Alert" (http:/ / www. energy. qld. gov. au/ zone_files/ petroleum_pdf/ safety_alert025. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 30
July 2009.
[16] "New South Wales (Australia) Parliamentary record, 16 October 1997" (http:/ / www. parliament. nsw. gov. au/ prod/ parlment/ HansArt.
nsf/ V3Key/ LA19971016015). Parliament.nsw.gov.au. 16 October 1997. . Retrieved 30 July 2009.
[17] "New South Wales (Australia) Parliamentary record, 29 June 2000" (http:/ / www. parliament. nsw. gov. au/ prod/ parlment/ hansart. nsf/
V3Key/ LC20000629051). Parliament.nsw.gov.au. . Retrieved 30 July 2009.
[18] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080719142356/ http:/ / www. vasa. org. au/ pdf/ memberlibrary/ hydrocarbons/ maclaine-cross. pdf VASA
news report on hydrocarbon refrigerant demonstrations (from the Internet Archive; retrieved 24 May 2012)
[19] "Indian Census" (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ). Censusindia.gov.in. . Retrieved 30 July 2009.
[20] The Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations (http:/ / www. desktoplawyer. co. uk/ dt/ browse/ law/ index.
cfm?fs=lga& sid=75858& aid=35391). Retrieved on 27 June 2007.
[21] http:/ / www. bam. de/
[22] http:/ / ulstandardsinfonet. ul. com/ scopes/ 1709. html
[23] http:/ / www. dibt. de/

External links
WLPGA (http://www.worldlpgas.com) World LP Gas Association
PERC (http://www.propanecouncil.org) Propane Education & Research Council
NPGA (http://www.npga.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=1) National Propane Gas Association, USA
Propane 101 (http://www.propane101.com) Explaining propane and LP Gas fundamentals

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