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2.1
INTRODUCTION
All soils and many rocks consist of solid particles and voids. In soils, the
voids are lled with air and water, are distributed in a more or less uniform
manner, and are almost always interconnected. This is also true of
sandstone and siltstone. In solid rock there are no uniformly distributed
voids. In a large mass of solid rock, the void spaces, if any, are due to
fractures and ssures of various sizes, and are also lled with air and water,
and sometimes with sand, silt and clay. In soluble minerals such as
limestone, solution cavities of various sizes are found, both lled and empty.
The void ratio of a soil, e, is dened as the quotient of the volume of
voids divided by the volume of solids in a soil mass:
e Vv =Vs
2:1
Figure 2.1 is a pictorial representation of the void ratio. Void ratios for
granular soils range from 0.4 to 0.8. Clays and clayey soils will range from
0.5 to 1.5 or 2.0. Soils with high organic content, peats and mucks, may have
void ratios as high as 4 or 5.
Porosity, n, is dened as the quotient of the volume of voids divided by
the total volume of a soil (or rock) mass. Thus, for any soil or rock the
porosity must be less than one.
n Vv =V
2:2
2.3
The density of a soil or rock is expressed as its weight per unit volume. In
soils work, it is general practice and more convenient to use dry densities,
that is, dry weight per unit volume.
Probably the most important index to the behavior of granular
materials (sands and coarse silts) is the relative density. The volume of voids
in a soil mass will vary with the different possible arrangement of grains
within the mass. The void ratio cannot be greater than the value that would
cause the individual grains to lose contact with each other, and natural soils
do not approach this value too closely. The least density a sand can have is
approximately equal to the density resulting when the dry sand is poured
slowly into a container with minimum free fall. This is considered to be its
minimum possible density. If the container is now vibrated gently until its
reducing volume stabilizes, the sand is now considered to be at its maximum
density. The relative density, DR , is a comparison of the natural density of a
soil with its loose and dense states. The comparison is made in terms of the
void ratio:
DR :
emax e
emax emin
2:3
where e is the natural, or in place void ratio. For surface and shallow soils,
eld density tests dene the natural void ratio. For deep deposits values are
inferred from other tests. Table 2.1 shows shows relationships between
Degree of density
Loose
Medium
Dense
0 to 1/3
1/3 to 2/3
2/3 to 1
descriptive terms for density and Standard Penetration Test (SPT) data.
These numbers should be used as guides only, since blow count will vary
with grain shape and size, and also with grading. (Granular soils of the same
general classication, such as ne sands, may have a wide spread of grain
sizes. The range of grain sizes is dened by a factor called the uniformity
coefcient, CU :
CU D60 =D10
2:4
Where D60 and D10 are the grain sizes of which 60% and 10% of the soil is
ner.)
Density and relative density are important factors in determining the
need for, and possible effectiveness of, various soil stabilization methods,
since both of these properties are related to shear strength, settlement and
permeability. Some typical properties for natural soils are shown in
Table 2.2.
Specic Gravity
The specic gravity, G, of any substance is the ratio of the dry weight of a
given volume of that substance divided by an equal volume of water. For
soils, which may contain many different minerals, specic gravity is an
average value of the various particles composing the soil.
Over 1000 minerals have been identied as rock constituents. Since
soils are formed from rocks, many of these can also be identied in soils.
The specic gravity of different soil minerals raages from as low as 2.3 to as
high as 5.2. Most soil masses consist of minerals ranging from 2.4 to 3.0, and
the specic gravity of soils will almost always fall within this range. Quartz
has a specic gravity of 2.65, and the many granular soils consisting mainly
of quartz particles will thus have a specic gravity very close to this value.
Clay minerals are generally heavier than quartz, and specic gravities of 2.9
are not uncommon.
Table 2.3 lists densities and specic gravities of common rocks and
minerals.
Water Content
Most soils have some amount of water in the soil voids. The water may be
gravitational, capillary, or hygroscopic. The basis for distinction is the force
that inuences the water behavior. Stabilization methods are concerned
mainly with gravitational water, generally present beneath the soil surface in
areas requiring stabilization. The topography of the surface below which
water is continuous is called the water table or the phreatic line.
TABLE 2.2
Description
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Porosity,
n
(%)
Void
ratio,
e
Water
contents
wsat.
(%)
46
34
40
30
20
55
37
66
75
84
0.85
0.51
0.67
0.43
0.25
1.2
0.6
1.9
3.0
5.2
32
19
25
16
9
45
22
70
110
194
Unit weight
g/cm3
lb/ft3
gd
gsat.
gd
gsat.
1.43
1.75
1.59
1.86
2.12
1.89
2.09
1.99
2.15
2.32
1.77
2.07
1.58
1.43
1.27
90
109
99
116
132
118
130
124
135
145
110
129
98
89
80
TABLE 2.3
Rock
Nepheline syenite
Syenite
Granite
Diorite
Gabbro
Gypsum
Rock salt
Coal
Oil shale
30 gal/ton rock
Dense limestone
Marble
Shale, Oklahoma
1000 ft depth
3000 ft depth
5000 ft depth
Quartz, mica schist
Amphibolite
Rhyolite
Dry
(kN/m3)
2.7
26.5
2.6
25.5
2.65
26.0
2.85
27.9
3.0
29.4
2.3
22.5
2.1
20.6
0.7 to 2.0
(density varies with the ash content)
1.6 to 2.7
(density varies with the kerogen content, and
therefore with the oil yield in gallons per ton)
2.13
21.0
2.7
20.9
2.75
27.0
2.25
2.52
2.62
2.82
2.99
2.37
22.1
24.7
25.7
27.6
29.3
23.2
Dry
lb/ft3
169
162
165
178
187
144
131
Halite
Gypsum
Serpentine
Orthoclase
Chalcedony
Quartz
Plagioclase
Chlorite and illite
Calcite
Muscovite
Biotite
2.12.6
2.32.4
2.32.6
2.52.6
2.62.64
2.65
2.62.8
2.63.0
2.7
2.73.0
2.83.1
133
168
172
Dolomite
Anhydrite
Pyroxene
Olivine
Barite
Magnetite
Pyrite
Galena
2.83.1
2.93.0
3.23.6
3.23.6
4.34.6
4.45.2
4.95.2
7.47.6
140
157
163
176
187
148
2:5
(It is necessary to heat a soil sample to slightly above the boiling point of
water to remove all the water and have dry soil.)
Water contents are expressed as percentages, and thus may exceed
100%. Sands, coarse silts, and ne gravels will have water contents up to 20
to 30%. Fine silts may be higher. Clays may have water contents of 100 to
200%. Mucks, peats, and other soils with high organic content may have
even higher values.
2.4
PERMEABILITY
All soils and rock masses consist of solid particles (or fragments) and voids.
In soils, the voids are distributed in a more or less uniform manner
throughout the total volume, and the voids are always interconnected. This
is also true of many sandstones and siltstones. However, in solid rock there
are no uniformly distributed voids. In a large rock mass the voids, if any, are
due to fractures and ssures of various sizes, which may follow a pattern or
be totally random. Fluids will ow through interconnected voids and
ssures. Flow through interconnected voids will be either turbulent (water
particle paths are irregular and haphazard), or laminar (water particle paths
are parallel to the container walls and each other). These concepts are not
strictly applicable to soil voids, but the type of ow is important in grouting
operations, since grout will displace groundwater with little mixing during
laminar ow, and will mix with groundwater during turbulent ow. Flow
will always be turbulent in gravels, and always laminar in silts. For sands,
the type of ow is related to density and gradients. Turbulent ow may be
expected for gradients above 0.2 in the loose state, and 0.4 in the dense state.
Permeameters are used in the laboratory to measure permeability.
Typical arrangement of equipment is shown in Figure 2.2. Fixed head
devices, shown on the left, are used with granular materials. Falling head
devices, shown on the right, are used with silts and clays, when the discharge
is so small it cannot be measured accurately. It is then more feasible to
measure the water owing into the sample (which in a fully saturated sample
must be equal to the volume of discharge), by using a small, graduated
standpipe. If this value is also too small to be measured accurately, better
results may be obtained from a consolidation test.
Laboratory tests on granular materials are always made on disturbed
samples, since it isnt possible to reproduce the natural stratication (it is
FIGURE 2.2 (a) Fixed head permeameter. (b) Falling head permeameter.
Porosity
Soils
0.6 to 0.8
0.25 to 0.45
0.6 to 0.8
0.25 to 0.45
0.6 to 0.9
0.25 to 0.5
0.6 and
above
0.6 and
above
0.25 up
Gravel and
coarse
sand
Medium and
ne sand
Very ne
sand
Silts
0.25 up
clays
Grain size
(mm)
Permeability
(cm/s)
0.5 and
over
101 and
over
0.1 to 0.5
101 to
103
103 to
105
105 to
107
107 and
less
0.05 to 0.1
0.5 and
less
0.05 and
less
2:6
TABLE 2.5
Values of Constants
to Be Used in Hazens Equation
Cu D60 =D10
11.9
22.9
34.9
59.9
1019.9
> 20
C
110
100
90
80
70
60
2.5
SHEAR STRENGTH
FIGURE 2.5
The actual value of NH is not known, but if the soil has not failed it can be
plotted as shown as long as the Mohr circle of stress does not touch the
failure line. If some event such as nearby excavation occurs, the soil mass
will tend to expand horizontally, and the magnitude of NH will decrease.
The circle will thus grow in size until it touches the failure line. At this point
failure is incipient. The value of NH cannot decrease any further since this
FIGURE 2.6
soils.
would induce a shear failure (the Mohr theory assumes that all soil failures
are shear failures). The minimum value that NH can attain without a failure
occurring is shown on the diagram as PA, the active pressure. In a similar
fashion, if the soil mass were made to compress latterally, the maximum
value that NH can reach without failure occurring is shown as PP, the passive
pressure. The same phenomena occur in cohesive soils, and from geometry
the relationships are shown in Figure 2.7.
The measure of a soils ability to support loads is called its bearing
capacity. Many formulae exist for determining this property. The
derivations all assume a homogeneous, elastic material (which soil is not),
and most consider a long footing, rather than square or rectangular, so that
the problem is simplied to a two-dimensional analysis. The equations in
common use today were derived by Karl Terzaghi many decades ago. Their
continued use is testimony to their general applicability.
Terzaghi assumed that a soils response to a surface load could be
divided into three zones, as shown in Figure 2.8. Zone I moves down,
causing Zone II to rotate about the footing edge. Zone III resists the
movement of Zone II. It can be inferred that the soils response to the load
mobilizes shear resistance along the bottom boundaries of Zones II and III.
A more detailed description of the soils assumed response can be found in
soil mechanics texts.
Terzaghi derived two sets of equations to apply to conditions he called
local and general shear, as dened by the shapes of the load settlement
curves shown in Table 2.6. The equations involved three factors related only
FIGURE 2.7
FIGURE 2.8
TABLE 2.6
to the friction angle. These factors are also shown in Table 2.6. The
equations are shown in Table 2.7.
2.6
CONSOLIDATION CHARACTERISTICS
Though modications to the original theory to account for threedimensional drainage have been proposed, the Terzaghi theory remains
the conventional basis for consolidation testing to predict settlement
amounts and rates. (Many eld conditions in which the horizontal extent
of both the ne-grained stratum and the area of applied loads greatly exceed
the stratum thickness are essentially conditions for one-dimensional
consolidation). Derivation of the theory is given in detail in most Soil
Mechanics books. Test procedures are described in detail in ASTM
Standard D2435.
Consolidation tests are made on undisturbed samples whose water
content, specic gravity and initial void ratio have been determined. Static
loads are instantaneously applied, and maintained until consolidation has
decreased to negligible amounts. Consolidation versus time data are
accumulated during this period. Data from one of a series of increasing
loads are plotted to give a curve such as shown in Figure 2.9.
Soil samples are generally taken vertically; consolidation samples are
taken from a horizontal slice. The coefcient of consolidation from such a
test is based on vertical ow, which is applicable for much eld work. (For
projects using, for example, vertical sand drains, much of the ow is in the
FIGURE 2.10
2:7
in which
T is a dimensionless number called the time factor and is equal to
0.85 for 90% consolidation
t is the time for 90% consolidation (from Figure 2.8)
H is the distance of one-directional ow
The results of a series of increasing loads are plotted to give a curve
such as shown in Figure 2.10. When the loads on the soil before and after
construction have been determined, these can be related to the initial and
nal void ratios. Settlement can then be predicted:
S Hei ef =1 ei
2:8
2.7
STRESS TRANSMISSION
When a load is applied to the surface of a large mass of uniform soil, the
induced stresses propagate in all directions and attenuate with distance from
the point of load application. Except for directly beneath the load, where
stress can be calculated by dividing the load by the application area, the
actual value of stress cannot be found by simple arithmetic. This is because
the size of the stressed area is not known, and the stress intensity over the
stressed area varies.
In a uniform soil, if overstress (failure) does not occur directly at the
point of load application, it is reasonable to assume failure will not occur
elsewhere within the soil mass. However, soils are often stratied, with
weaker soils underlying the surface strata, and other structures often lie
within the range of inuence of new loading. Therefore, it is necessary to be
able to compute stresses at many locations within a loaded soil mass.
Theoretically, the stresses due to applied loads never attenuate to zero,
as distance from the point of loading increases. From a practical point of
view, however, the stresses reduce to negligible values at some arbitrary
distance from the point of load application. This is often taken as the locus
of points where the applied stress is reduced by 90%. The volume of soil
lying within the (three-dimensional) 10% isobar is called the pressure bulb.
It extends in a roughly circular or spherical shape to a depth of
approximately twice the smaller dimension of the loaded area, as shown
in Figure 2.11.
Equations have been derived to dene the vertical and shear stresses at
any depth below and any radial distance from a point load. The best known
and probably the most used are the Boussinesq equations, which assume an
elastic, isentropic material, a level surface and an innite surface extension
in all directions. Although these conditions cannot be met by soils, the
equation for vertical stress is used with reasonable accuracy with soils whose
stress-strain relationship is linear. This normally precludes the use of the
equation for stresses approaching failure. In its most useful form the
equation reduces to:
sz
Q
KB
z2
in which
sz is the vertical stress
Q is the total applied load
z is the depth below the load
KB is the Boussinesq pressure coefcient
2:9
FIGURE 2.11
FIGURE 2.12
The total stress at any point below the soil surface consists of the
contribution from the applied load plus the stress due to the weight of
material above the point (overburden). This consists of the dry unit weight
of material above the water table, plus the submerged unit weight of
material below the water table.
2.8
FIGURE 2.13
Group
A. Sedentary
soils
None
Geological
class
1. Residual
2. Cumulose
B. Transported 1. Water
soils
(a) Alluvial
(b) Marine
(c) Lacustrine
2. Ice
3. Wind
4. Gravity
5.
Remarks
Formed by rock weathering in place.
Examples: Silty sand, sandy clay, or silty
clay derived from sandstone.
Marsh or swamp deposits (peats and
mucks).
River depositssoils mixed, sorted, and
deposited according to size.
Fine-grained deposition in salt water.
Fine-grained deposition in fresh water
lakes.
Unstratied heterogeneous mixture of
boulders, gravel, sand, silt, and clay.
Sand.
Windblown silt.
Talusaccumulation of fallen rock and rock
debris at base of steep slopes.
Organic MatterOrganic matter consists of either partly decomposed vegetation, as in peats, or of nely divided vegetable matter,
as in organic silts.
ROCK PROPERTIES
There are many different classes of rock, and even within one class
properties may vary over a wide range. For example, common sandstones
may have porosities as low as 5% and as high as 20%, and compressive
strengths ranging from several thousand to 30,000 psi. Detailed and complex
rock classication systems will have minimum value to those engaged in
rock stabilization (limited in practice to grouting and bolting). Porosity and
permeability are important to the grouter but these properties should be
determined by testing the specic site materials. Strength is important in
rock tunnel stabilization, particularly in relation to the stand-up time before
stabilization becomes effective. This is indicated in Figure 2.14. Values of
TABLE 2.9
rock properties for many specic rock formations can be found in most texts
dealing with rock mechanics and geology.
When a horizontal opening is created in a solid or ssured rock
formation, tensile stresses are generated in the roofs of these openings. In a
solid formation, the opening may remain stable for various lengths of time.
In a ssured formation, or even in a solid formation of weak rock, the
opening may cave immediately, or in a short period of time. Rock bolts are
widely used in mine tunnels (drifts) as a major means of roof support.
Range of pi
080 psi
50200 psi
0400 psi
100500 psi
5003000 psi
FIGURE 2.14
Mechanical rock bolts are steel rods tted with expanding end pieces
which are anchored into a drilled hole. The exposed end of the rod is
threaded, and tted with a large plate (which acts as an oversized washer),
and a heavy nut with which tension is applied to the bolt. The applied
tension then compresses the rock, reducing or eliminating the tendency to
spall or cave. Mechanical rock bolts come in a number of different
conguration and lengths, but they all function in the same manner. They
must be spaced so that the zones of compression of adjacent bolts overlap.
Rock bolts have a long history of use, particularly in coal mines.
A more recent development consists of bonding a rebar to a drilled
hole (generally along its full length) using polyester or other high strength
resins. Although these rebars will not pick up tension until the rock mass
FIGURE 2.15
2.10
SUMMARY
Soil and rock properties must be known in order to assess the possible need
for stabilization, and the results of stabilization efforts. While such needs
may often be readily determined by a site inspection, it is still necessary to
FIGURE 2.15
Continued.
REFERENCES
Detailed information on all the topics covered in this chapter can be found
in most college text books dealing with soil mechanics, rock mechanics, and
geology.
2.12
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
PROBLEMS
A glass graduate is lled to the 50 cc mark with water. A 100 gram
sample of sand and silt is dropped into the graduate, raising the water
level to 88 cc. What is the specic gravity of the soil?
A partially saturated granular soil weighs 115 pcf in its wet condition,
and has a 10% water content. Estimate the void ratio and porosity.
How much would the soil weigh if it were fully saturated? What would
be its submerged unit weight?
A boring log denes a specic stratum of soil as narrowly graded
sand-silt mix with no clay. Estimate the permeability using several
different sources.
A 20-foot-thick clay stratum is overlain by several feet of sand, and
underlain by a thick deposit of coarse to ne sand. Laboratory
consolidation tests show Cv 0.02 in2/minute, for the proposed future
loading conditions. Estimate the time for 90% consolidation.
Footings for a long structure are four feet by four feet, spaced 10 feet
center to center, and will carry a load of 4000 psf. The bases of the
footings are six feet above a thick stratum of very stiff clay. A 12-inchdiameter pipeline rests on the surface of the clay and runs parallel to
the footings, directly beneath the outer edge of the footings. What
pressure will be transmitted to the pipeline opposite the center of the
footings? What pressure will be transmitted midway between footings?