Composites Groover

02.01.
2014
COMPOSTES
Groover
Composite Material Defined

A materials system composed of two or more
distinct phases whose combination
produces aggregate properties that are
different from those of its constituents
Examples:
Cemented carbides (WC with Co binder)
Plastic molding compounds with fillers
Rubber mixed with carbon black
Wood (a natural composite as
distinguished from a synthesized
composite)
2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
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Our Classification of Composite Materials

1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) - mixtures of
ceramics and metals, such as cemented
carbides and other cermets
2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) - Al2O3
and SiC imbedded with fibers to improve
properties
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) - polymer
resins imbedded with filler or reinforcing agent
Examples: epoxy and polyester with fiber
reinforcement, and phenolic with powders
Functions of the Matrix Material

Primary phase provides the bulk form of the
part or product made of the composite material
Holds the imbedded phase in place, usually
enclosing and often concealing it
When a load is applied, the matrix shares the
load with the secondary phase, in some cases
deforming so that the stress is essentially born
by the reinforcing agent
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The Reinforcing Phase

Function is to reinforce the primary phase
Imbedded phase is most commonly one of the
following shapes:
Fibers
Particles
Flakes
Also, secondary phase can take the form of an
infiltrated phase in a skeletal or porous matrix
Example: a powder metallurgy part
infiltrated with polymer
Physical Shapes of Imbedded Phase

Figure 9.1 Possible physical shapes of imbedded phases in
composite materials: (a) fiber, (b) particle, and (c) flake.
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Fibers
Filaments of reinforcing material, usually circular
in cross-section
Diameters from less than 0.0025 mm to about
0.13 mm, depending on material
Filaments provide greatest opportunity for
strength enhancement of composites
Filament form of most materials is
significantly stronger than the bulk form
As diameter is reduced, the material
becomes oriented in the fiber axis direction
and probability of defects in the structure
decreases significantly
Continuous vs. Discontinuous Fibers

Continuous fibers - very long; in theory, they
offer a continuous path by which a load can be
carried by the composite part
Discontinuous fibers (chopped sections of
continuous fibers) - short lengths (L/D =
roughly 100)
Whiskers = discontinuous fibers of hair-like
single crystals with diameters down to about
0.001 mm (0.00004 in.) and very high
strength
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Fiber Orientation Three Cases

One-dimensional reinforcement, in which
maximum strength and stiffness are obtained in
the direction of the fiber
Planar reinforcement, in some cases in the
form of a two-dimensional woven fabric
Random or three-dimensional in which the
composite material tends to possess isotropic
properties
Fiber Orientation
Figure 9.3 Fiber orientation in composite materials: (a)

one-dimensional, continuous fibers; (b) planar,
continuous fibers in the form of a woven fabric; and (c)
random, discontinuous fibers.
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Materials for Fibers

Fiber materials in fiber-reinforced composites
Glass most widely used filament
Carbon high elastic modulus
Boron very high elastic modulus
Polymers - Kevlar
Ceramics SiC and Al2O3
Metals - steel
Most important commercial use of fibers is in
polymer composites
Particles and Flakes

A second common shape of imbedded phase
is particulate, ranging in size from microscopic
to macroscopic
Flakes are basically two-dimensional
particles - small flat platelets
Distribution of particles in the composite matrix
is random
Strength and other properties of the
composite material are usually isotropic
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The Interface
There is always an interface between
constituent phases in a composite material
For the composite to function, the phases must
bond where they join at the interface
Figure 9.4 Interfaces between phases in a composite material: (a)

direct bonding between primary and secondary phases.
Other Composite Structures

Laminar composite structure conventional
Sandwich structure
Honeycomb sandwich structure
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Laminar Composite Structure

Two or more layers bonded together in an
integral piece
Example: plywood, in which layers are the
same wood, but grains are oriented
differently to increase overall strength
Figure 9.7 Laminar composite

structures: (a) conventional
laminar structure.
Sandwich Structure: Foam Core

Relatively thick core of low density foam
bonded on both faces to thin sheets of a
different material
Figure 9.7 Laminar

composite structures:
(b) sandwich structure
using foam core.
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Sandwich Structure: Honeycomb Core

Alternative to foam core
Foam or honeycomb achieve high ratios of
strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight
Figure 9.7 Laminar

composite structures:
(c) sandwich structure
using honeycomb core.
Other Laminar Composite Structures

Automotive tires - multiple layers of rubber
bonded together with reinforcing agent
FRPs - multi-layered, fiber-reinforced plastic
panels for aircraft, boat hulls, other products
Printed circuit boards - layers of reinforced
copper and plastic for electrical conductivity
and insulation, respectively
Snow skis - layers of metals, particle board,
and phenolic plastic
Windshield glass - two layers of glass on
either side of a sheet of tough plastic
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Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

Metal matrix reinforced by a second phase
Reinforcing phases:
1. Particles of ceramic
These MMCs are commonly called

cermets
2. Fibers of various materials
Other metals, ceramics, carbon, and

boron
Cermets
MMC with ceramic contained in a metallic matrix
The ceramic often dominates the mixture,
sometimes up to 96% by volume
Bonding can be enhanced by slight solubility
between phases at elevated temperatures
used in processing
Cermets can be subdivided into
1. Cemented carbides most common
2. Oxide-based cermets less common
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Figure 9.8 Photomicrograph (about 1500X) of cemented

carbide with 85% WC and 15% Co (photo courtesty of
Kennametal Inc.).
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

Ceramic primary phase imbedded with a
secondary phase, usually consisting of fibers
Attractive properties of ceramics: high stiffness,
hardness, hot hardness, and compressive
strength; and relatively low density
Weaknesses of ceramics: low toughness and
bulk tensile strength, susceptibility to thermal
cracking
CMCs represent an attempt to retain the
desirable properties of ceramics while
compensating for their weaknesses
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Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

Polymer primary phase in which a secondary
phase is imbedded as fibers, particles, or
flakes
Commercially, PMCs are more important than
MMCs or CMCs
Examples: most plastic molding
compounds, rubber reinforced with carbon
black, and fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs)
FRPs are most closely identified with the term
composite
Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs)

PMC consisting of a polymer matrix imbedded
with high-strength fibers
Polymer matrix materials:
Usually a thermosetting plastic such as
unsaturated polyester or epoxy
Can also be thermoplastic, such as nylons
(polyamides), polycarbonate, polystyrene,
and polyvinylchloride
Fiber reinforcement is widely used in rubber
products such as tires and conveyor belts
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Fibers in PMCs
Various forms: discontinuous (chopped),
continuous, or woven as a fabric
Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass,
carbon, and Kevlar 49
Less common fibers include boron, SiC, and
Al2O3, and steel
Glass (in particular E-glass) is the most
common fiber material in today's FRPs
Its use to reinforce plastics dates from
around 1920
Common FRP Structure

Most widely used form of FRP is a laminar
structure
Made by stacking and bonding thin layers of
fiber and polymer until desired thickness is
obtained
By varying fiber orientation among layers, a
specified level of anisotropy in properties
can be achieved in the laminate
Applications: boat hulls, aircraft wing and
fuselage sections, automobile and truck body
panels
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FRP Applications
Aerospace much of the structural weight of
todays airplanes and helicopters consist of
advanced FRPs
Example: Boeing 787
Automotive some body panels for cars and
truck cabs
Low-carbon sheet steel still widely used due
to its low cost and ease of processing
Sports and recreation
FRPs used for boat hulls since 1940s
Fishing rods, tennis rackets, golf club shafts,
helmets, skis, bows and arrows
Figure 9.11 Composite materials in the Boeing 757 (photo courtesy

of Boeing Commercial Airplane Co.).
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Guide to Processing Composite Materials

The two phases are typically produced
separately before being combined into the
composite part
Processing techniques to fabricate MMC
and CMC components are similar to those
used for powdered metals and ceramics
Molding processes are commonly used for
PMCs with particles and chopped fibers
Specialized processes have been
developed for FRPs
SHAPING PROCESSES FOR

POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES
A polymer matrix composite (PMC) is a composite
material consisting of a polymer imbedded with a
reinforcing phase such as fibers or powders
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Starting Materials for PMCs

Open Mold Processes
Closed Mold Processes
Filament Winding
Pultrusion Processes
Other PMC Shaping Processes
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PMC Shape Processing

Many PMC shaping processes are slow and
labor intensive
In general, techniques for shaping composites
are less efficient than for other materials Why?
Composites are more complex than other
materials, consisting of two or more phases
For FRPs, there is the need to orient the
reinforcing phase
Composite processing technologies have
not been the object of refinement over as
many years as processes for other materials
Categories of FRP Shape Processes

Open mold processes - some of the original
FRP manual procedures for laying resins and
fibers onto forms
Closed mold processes - much the same as
those used in plastic molding
Filament winding - continuous filaments are
dipped in liquid resin and wrapped around a
rotating mandrel, producing a rigid, hollow,
cylindrical shape
Pultrusion - similar to extrusion only adapted to
include continuous fiber reinforcement
Other - operations not in previous categories
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Starting Materials for PMCs

In a PMC, the starting materials are:
A polymer
A reinforcing phase
They are processed separately before
becoming phases in the composite
Polymer Matrix
Thermosetting (TS) polymers are the most
common matrix materials
Principal TS polymers are:
Phenolics used with particulate
reinforcing phases
Polyesters and epoxies - most closely
associated with FRPs
Thermoplastic molding compounds include
fillers or reinforcing agents
Nearly all rubbers are reinforced with carbon
black
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Reinforcing Agent
Possible geometries - fibers, particles, and
flakes
Possible materials - ceramics, metals, other
polymers, or elements such as carbon or boron
Particles and flakes are used in many plastic
molding compounds
Of most engineering interest is the use of fibers
as the reinforcing phase in FRPs
Combining Matrix and Reinforcement

1. The starting materials arrive at the fabrication
operation as separate entities and are
combined into the composite during shaping
Filament winding and pultrusion, in which
reinforcing phase = continuous fibers
2. The two component materials are combined
into some starting form that is convenient for
use in the shaping process
Molding compounds
Prepregs
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Molding Compounds
FRP composite molding compounds consist of
the resin matrix with short randomly dispersed
fibers, similar to those used in plastic molding
Most molding compounds for composite
processing are thermosetting polymers
Since they are designed for molding, they must
be capable of flowing
Accordingly, they have not been cured prior
to shape processing
Curing is done during and/or after final
shaping
Prepregs
Fibers impregnated with partially cured TS resins
to facilitate shape processing
Available as tapes or cross-plied sheets or
fabrics
Curing is completed during and/or after
shaping
Advantage: prepregs are fabricated with
continuous filaments rather than chopped
random fibers, thus increasing strength and
modulus
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Open Mold Processes

Family of FRP shaping processes that use a
single positive or negative mold surface to
produce laminated FRP structures
The starting materials (resins, fibers, mats, and
woven rovings) are applied to the mold in
layers, building up to the desired thickness
This is followed by curing and part removal
Common resins are unsaturated polyesters
and epoxies, using fiberglass as the
reinforcement
Open Mold FRP Processes

1.
2.
3.
Hand lay-up
Spray-up
Automated tape-laying machines
The differences are in the methods of applying
the laminations to the mold, alternative curing
techniques, and other differences
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Hand Lay-Up Method

Open mold shaping method in which successive
layers of resin and reinforcement are manually
applied to an open mold to build the laminated
FRP composite structure
Labor-intensive
Finished molding must usually be trimmed with
a power saw to size outside edges
Oldest open mold method for FRP laminates,
dating to the 1940s when it was first used for
boat hulls
Hand Lay-Up Method
Figure 15.4 Hand lay-up : (1) mold is treated with mold release agent; (2) thin gel
coat (resin) is applied, to the outside surface of molding; (3) when gel coat has
partially set, layers of resin and fiber are applied, the fiber is in the form of mat
or cloth; each layer is rolled to impregnate the fiber with resin and remove air;
(4) part is cured; (5) fully hardened part is removed from mold.
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Products Made by Hand Lay-Up

Generally large in size but low in production
quantity - not economical for high production
Applications:
Boat hulls
Swimming pools
Large container tanks
Movie and stage props
Other formed sheets
The largest molding ever made was ship hulls
for the British Royal Navy: 85 m (280 ft) long
Spray-Up Method
Liquid resin and chopped fibers are sprayed onto
an open mold to build successive FRP
laminations
Attempt to mechanize application of resin-fiber
layers and reduce lay-up time
Alternative for step (3) in the hand lay-up
procedure
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Spray-Up Method
Figure 15.5 Spray-up method
Products Made by Spray-Up

Boat hulls, bathtubs, shower stalls, automobile
and truck body parts, recreational vehicle
components, furniture, large structural panels,
and containers
Movie and stage props are sometimes made
by this method
Since products made by spray-up have
randomly oriented short fibers, they are not as
strong as those made by lay-up, in which the
fibers are continuous and directed
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Automated Tape-Laying Machines

Automated tape-laying machines operate by
dispensing a prepreg tape onto an open mold
following a programmed path
Typical machine consists of overhead gantry to
which the dispensing head is attached
The gantry permits x-y-z travel of the head, for
positioning and following a defined continuous
path
Figure 15.6 Automated tape-laying machine (photo

courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron).
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Curing in Open Mold Processes

Curing is required of all thermosetting resins

used in FRP laminated composites
Curing cross-links the polymer, transforming it
from its liquid or highly plastic condition into a
hardened product
Three principal process parameters in curing:
1. Time
2. Temperature
3. Pressure
Closed Mold Processes

Performed in molds consisting of two sections
that open and close each molding cycle
Tooling cost is more than twice the cost of a
comparable open mold due to the more
complex equipment required in these
processes
Advantages of a closed mold are: (1) good
finish on all part surfaces, (2) higher production
rates, (3) closer control over tolerances, and
(4) more complex three-dimensional shapes
are possible
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Classification of Closed Mold Processes

Three classes based on their counterparts in

conventional plastic molding:
1. Compression molding
2. Transfer molding
3. Injection molding
The terminology is often different when
polymer matrix composites are molded
Compression Molding PMC Processes

A charge is placed in lower mold section, and the
sections are brought together under pressure,
causing charge to take the shape of the cavity
Mold halves are heated to cure TS polymer
When molding is sufficiently cured, the mold
is opened and part is removed
Several shaping processes for PMCs based on
compression molding
The differences are mostly in the form of the
starting materials
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Transfer Molding PMC Processes

A charge of thermosetting resin with short fibers is
placed in a pot or chamber, heated, and
squeezed by ram action into one or more mold
cavities
The mold is heated to cure the resin
Name of the process derives from the fact that
the fluid polymer is transferred from a pot into a
mold
Injection Molding PMC Processes

Injection molding is noted for low cost
production of plastic parts in large quantities
Although most closely associated with
thermoplastics, the process can also be
adapted to thermosets
Processes of interest in the context of PMCs:
Conventional injection molding
Reinforced reaction injection molding
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Filament Winding
Resin-impregnated continuous fibers are wrapped
around a rotating mandrel that has the internal
shape of the desired FRP product; the resin is
then cured and the mandrel removed
The fiber rovings are pulled through a resin bath
immediately before being wound in a helical
pattern onto the mandrel
The operation is repeated to form additional
layers, each having a criss-cross pattern with the
previous, until the desired part thickness has
been obtained
Filament Winding
Figure 15.8 Filament winding.

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Filament Winding Machine
Figure 15.10 Filament winding machine (photo courtesy

of Cincinnati Milacron).
Pultrusion Processes
Similar to extrusion (hence the name similarity)
but workpiece is pulled through die (so prefix
"pul-" in place of "ex-")
Like extrusion, pultrusion produces continuous
straight sections of constant cross section
Developed around 1950 for making fishing
rods of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)
A related process, called pulforming, is used to
make parts that are curved and which may
have variations in cross section throughout
their lengths
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Pultrusion
Continuous fiber rovings are dipped into a resin
bath and pulled through a shaping die where
the impregnated resin cures
The sections produced are reinforced
throughout their length by continuous fibers
Like extrusion, the pieces have a constant
cross section, whose profile is determined by
the shape of the die opening
The cured product is cut into long straight
sections
Pultrusion Process
Figure 15.11 Pultrusion process

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Pulforming
Pultrusion with additional steps to form the length
into a semicircular contour and alter the cross
section at one or more locations along the
length
Pultrusion is limited to straight sections of
constant cross section
There is also a need for long parts with
continuous fiber reinforcement that are curved
rather than straight and whose cross sections
may vary throughout length
Pulforming is suited to these less regular
shapes
Pulforming Process
Figure 15.12 Pulforming process (not shown in the

sketch is the cut-off of the pulformed part).
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Other PMC Shaping Processes

Centrifugal casting
Tube rolling
Continuous laminating
Cutting of FRPs
In addition, many traditional thermoplastic
shaping processes are applicable to FRPs with
short fibers based on TP polymers
Blow molding
Thermoforming
Extrusion
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Composites Groover

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Composites Groover

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02.01.

Composite Material Defined

Our Classification of Composite Materials

Functions of the Matrix Material

The Reinforcing Phase

Physical Shapes of Imbedded Phase

Continuous vs. Discontinuous Fibers

Fiber Orientation Three Cases

Figure 9.3 Fiber orientation in composite materials: (a)

Materials for Fibers

Particles and Flakes

Figure 9.4 Interfaces between phases in a composite material: (a)

Other Composite Structures

Laminar Composite Structure

Figure 9.7 Laminar composite

Sandwich Structure: Foam Core

Figure 9.7 Laminar

Sandwich Structure: Honeycomb Core

Figure 9.7 Laminar

Other Laminar Composite Structures

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

These MMCs are commonly called

Other metals, ceramics, carbon, and

Figure 9.8 Photomicrograph (about 1500X) of cemented

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)

Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs)

Common FRP Structure

Figure 9.11 Composite materials in the Boeing 757 (photo courtesy

Guide to Processing Composite Materials

SHAPING PROCESSES FOR

Starting Materials for PMCs

PMC Shape Processing

Categories of FRP Shape Processes

Starting Materials for PMCs

Combining Matrix and Reinforcement

Open Mold Processes

Open Mold FRP Processes

Hand Lay-Up Method

Hand Lay-Up Method

Products Made by Hand Lay-Up

Figure 15.5 Spray-up method

Products Made by Spray-Up

Automated Tape-Laying Machines

Figure 15.6 Automated tape-laying machine (photo

Curing in Open Mold Processes

Curing is required of all thermosetting resins

Closed Mold Processes

Classification of Closed Mold Processes

Three classes based on their counterparts in

Compression Molding PMC Processes

Transfer Molding PMC Processes

Injection Molding PMC Processes

Figure 15.8 Filament winding.

Filament Winding Machine

Figure 15.10 Filament winding machine (photo courtesy

Figure 15.11 Pultrusion process

Figure 15.12 Pulforming process (not shown in the

Other PMC Shaping Processes

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