Lecture 10

Strain Measurement

A body subjected to external forces is in a condition of both stress and

strain.

The effects of stress, i.e. change of shape of the body, involve change in
the fundamental quantity, length, which can be measured.

Thus provided there is a known relationship between stress and strain, the
stresses occurring in a body can be computed if sufficient strain information
is available.

Types of strain gauges used in engineering are listed as under:

Gauge Type
Bonded wire, bonded foil,
semiconductor

Effect of Strain
Change of electrical resistance.

Continued
Photoelastic

Fringe displacement.

Extensometers

These include a variety of

methods for measuring extension,
i.e. mechanical, optical,
pneumatic, inductance,
capacitance, and acoustic
responses.

Requirements for Accurate Strain Measurement

Ideally gauges used for measuring strain should conform to the following
requirements:
(1)

The gauge should be small in size and easy to attach to the

specimen or component, its profile should be as low as possible so
that it will respond in unison with the changes in the surface to
which it is fixed.

(2)

The gauge should be highly sensitive in the direction of the

measured strain but of low sensitivity in the transverse plane. The
strain-resistance characteristics should be linear.

(3)

Calibration should be easy and once done should remain stable

with time, dynamic loading, changes of temperature, pressure, and
humidity.

Continued

(4)

Speed of response should be high so that time lag is negligible.

(5)

Gauges should be inexpensive, reliable, and readily available.

There should be a variety of types and sizes to suit a wide range of
applications.

(6)

Immersion in liquids should not modify performance.

(7)

The evaluation of complex strain patterns should be obtainable

from as small a number of strain measurements as possible.

Bonded resistance strain gauges fulfill many of these requirements.

Bonded Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge

Resistance strain gauges have characteristics that make them the

most versatile existing devices for strain measurement:
(1) Gauge length is small up to 0.127 mm although those in most
common use range from about 5 mm to 12 mm. The backing
to which the gauge is fixed increases the overall length.
(2) Weight is negligible and attachment to the tested body is fairly
easy.
(3) Strain sensitivity is quite low, e.g. a constantan wire gauge of
100 resistance would show an increase of approximately
0.25 on low carbon steel strained to the elastic limit.

Continued
(4) Temperature, pressure, and humidity, behavior in liquid
environment etc. all effect performance but protection or
compensation can usually be provided.
(5) Strain gauges can indicate static, transient, and dynamic
strain (up to 50,000 Hz), and remote indication and recording
presents little difficulty.

Strain Gauge Alloys

For static strain measurement: 55% Copper + 45% Nickel = Copel

or Constantan

For dynamic strain measurement: 52% Iron + 36% Nickel + 8%

Chromium + 0.5% Molybdenum = Iso-elastic

Shape or Form of Strain Gauges

Metal resistance strain gauges are made in two basic forms, wire and foil.

The foil types, which are pressed from thin sheet foil, have the advantage
that the gauge can take almost any shape that can be drawn. They also
have a low profile, very good linear cross-sensitivity, and because the grid is
rectangular in form and very thin, heat is dissipated more readily than from
the wire gauges.

On the other hand wire gauges are embedded in plastic cement and
sandwiched between thin paper or plastic insulators, and are sometimes
encapsulated to give added protection. They have been largely superseded
by the foil type.

Further three much less widely used types are wrap-round, single wire, and
woven type gauges.)

Figure 1 Metal Resistance Strain Gauges: (a) Flat Grid Wire Gauge
(b) Etched Foil Gauge.

Gauge Factor or Strain Sensitivity

The electrical resistance of a metal can be given by R = L/A, where

is electrical resistivity.

The gauge factor K is the ratio of change of resistance R/R to the

change of gauge length L/L, thus K = LR/RL, where R is the
nominal resistance of the gauge.

The gauge factor is supplied by the manufacturer and many range

from 1.7 to 4 depending largely on the length of the gauge.

For most foil and wire gauges the value of K is about 2.

Reference/Further Reading

C. V. Collet, A. D. Hope, Engineering Measurements, Pitman, London,

1983.