PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATIONS

Principles of Communication
Communication is the process of transmission of signals from place to place. It involves various steps
including, reception, processing, propagation, receiving and interpreting. From the time of sending a
person thousands of kilometers to this period communication has developed. In every walk of life
communication plays an important role. Advancement of technology and the need for quick transmission
of signals has improved the field of communication.
Basic Elements of a Communication System :
Transmitter, channel and a receiver form basic elements of a communication system. From the transmitter
signal is sent and the receiver receives the signal. The media responsible for carrying the infromation
between the transmitter and receiver is called channel. Transmitter and receiver are transducers which
convert signal from one form to another, so that carrying, processing or receiving the information
becomes easier. Design : The following factors arc to be kept in mind while the communication system
is being designed (i) Form of conveying the information,
(ii). Use of information by transmitter,
(iii) Feeding the channel with information appropriately, (iv) Effect of channel on information,
(v) Method of presenting the information by the receiver and
(vi) Difference if any between the original and the received signal.
What Signal Means? Signal means the information to be communicated in the electrical form. Signal is
classified into two forms. (i) Analog Signal - Continuous signal having multiple levels
but confined between a maximum and minimum value
(ii) Digital Signal - A discontinuous signal having only two clearly defined levels or values
Sinusoidal Signal Y= A sin(t) or Y = Acos(t) is the simplest form. The range of frequencies f = (/2)]
ranges from 20Hzto 20kHz (Band-width) for audio signals
Digital signals are to have defined values put in coded form which is interpreted by the electronic devices
under use. Analog signals can be made digital and vice-versa. By sampling the analog signal, quantizing
and then coding, it is easier to convert. For conversion it is necessary to do sampling more frequently as
the signal. Nyanist Theorem : Sampling of the analog signal should be done at the rate equal to atleast
twice the maximum frequency present. Digital coding is done by binary digits '0' and 1' to mean
absence / OFF and present /ON respectively.
MODULATION and DE-MODULATION: Modulation is the process of changing the characteristic of
sound energy like Amplitude, Frequency or phase, so that effective transmission can take place. Audio
signal in the frequency range of 20Hz to 20kHz cannot travel to large distances. So a high frequency
carrier wave is used to carry (he audio signal. The characteristic of wave is changed by super-imposing
the signal (audio) on the carrier wave. Since the energy transmitted is a modulated one, there is a need to
de-modulate the signal before one can de-code it.
Modulation is a necessity because: (i) Low frequency signals die out in small distances in air media.
(ii) At low frequencies, radiation is not possible due to poor efficiency.
(iii) The length of antenna to be used depends on the wavelength and so is large at low frequencies.
(a) Amplitude Modulation: Modulation Factor(dcgrce of modulation /Modulation index)
It is defined as the ratio of change of amplitude of carrier wave to the amplitude of audio signal
Modulation factor = Amplitude change of Carrier wave/ Amplitude of Audio Signal
ma determines the strength and quality of the transmitted signal
Amplitude modulation of two waves fc and fs, results in two side-band frequencies (fc +fs) and (fc-fs)
called as upper and lower side bands. The bandwidth required k)v A.M. is twice the frequency of the
modulating signal. The amplitude of the un-modulated carrier wave is made proportional to the
instantaneous strength of the modulating signal as a result of amplitude modulation.
Noisy reception, low efficiency, small operating range and lack of quality are some limitations of
amplitude modulation.(b) Frequency Modulation: When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in
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PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATIONS
reference to the frequency of signal, it is called frequency modulation. Modulation factor is defined as the
ratio of the maximum change in frequency () of carrier to the frequency of modulating signal (fm) (i.e.)
mr = /fm FM signal gives noiseless, high fidelity reception with higher efficiency. FM is having some
limitations namely, (i)Requirement for wider band (ii) Complex modulation and de-modulation
techniques (iii) Range of reception is very small. Limited to line of sight distance.
(c) Phase Modulation: The phase of the carrier wave is altered in accordance with the modulating
signal. Deviation in phase is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and is
independent of frequency. (d) Pulse Modulation : Modulation of a radio frequency carrier by the use of
short pulses is called pulse modulation. It is based on sampling of the information signal at periodic
intervals at about twice the maximum frequency or about 8000 times per second . There arc various
systems in pulse modulation namely. (i) Pulse-amplitude Modulation (PAM)
(ii) Pulse-position
Modulation (PPM) (iii) Pulse-duration Modulation (PDM) (iv) Pulse-code Modulation (PCM)
MODULATOR and DE-MODULATOR MODEM : An electronic device which modulates E.M.
Wave at the transmitter and demodulates the incoming signal at the receiver. It takes signal from a i;.put
device and converts it into a analog signal before transmission. In the other end (receiver), the carrier
wave is demodulated by the Modem. Modems differ in,
(i)Speed of transmission
(ii) Modulation method (iii) Band-width of operation.
ANTENNA : An antenna is a length of a conductor which converts signal. In a transmitting antenna, the
electrical energy is converted into E.M. Wave, while in a receiving antenna E.M. Waves are converted to
electrical signals. The length of the antenna is to have resonance at the frequency of operation.
Antenna length
= Velocity of E.M.Wave/ Frequency of Signal
Dipole Antenna
-Omni-directional antenna. Dish-type Antenna - Directional antenna.
In dish-type antenna, the diple is placed at the focus of parabolic or spherical dish, to collect E.M.Waves.
Such antennas are used in Radars and satellite communication.
FAX (Facsimile Telegraphy) : FAX reproduces a document at a distant place. The original document is
converted into transmittable codes at the transmitting end, and converted back at the receiving end.
Optical scanner, coder, decoder and a printer form part of a FAX.
Satellite Communication : Microwave communication cannot go beyond the line of sight. Atmosphere
cannot reflect back energies beyond the radio-frequency range. So satellite communication is important.
A space craft in an orbit around the earth, fitted with all transmitting and receiving devices transfers signal
from a place to every point on the surface of earth. The communication satellites are placed in an orbit
called 'geo-stationary' orbit or 'parking orbit' at a height of 36,000 km above the surface of earth.
Advantages (i) Large area coverage
(ii) Very reliable
(iii) Cost effectiveness
Disadvantages (i)Not useful for security information (ii) Cost of placing satellites is very high,
(iii)Not many satellites can be placed in geo-stationary orbit.
Remote Sensing : The technique of collecting all information about every object, at large distances
without touching physically is called remote sensing. exploring in-accessible areas and uncovuning the
natural resources and disturbances is done through this technique using satellites. Remote sensing
satellites are placed in Sun-synchronous orbits passes over a particular area of earth at the same focal time
or at the same time as the SUN is at the same place. Remote sensing satellites are used in,
(i) Indentifying the sources and extent of pollution, (ii) Waste-land mapping (iii) Ground-water survey
(iv) Drought assesment (v) Weather monitoring
(vi) Finding potential fishing zones
(vii) Survey of natural forests
(viii) Spying-movement of troops or nuclear tests
Line Communication : Point-to-point communication using a guided medium is called Mine
communication'. Telephone and telegraph lines are examples for line communication. The transmission
character depends on (i) Medium nature and
(ii) Nature of the signal.
Twisted pair, Co-axial Cables and Optical fibres are some guided media used.
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PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATIONS
Twisted Pair: Two insulated copper wires arranged in spiral pattern to reduce electro-magnetic
interference is a twisted pair. Both analog and digital signals are transported as modulated signal. Loss of
energy comes due to (i) Heating of wire (ii) Radiation loss at higher frequencies
(iii) Increase in the resistance. Co-axial Cable : Consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor
surrounding a co-axial single inner conductor. Inner conductor is of copper and the outer conductor is
either a solid or braided mesh of fine wires, made of dielectric Teflon and polyethylene. As the frequency
of operation increases, the dielectric becomes more and more conducting and leads to dielectric loss.
Comparatively they have reduced attenuation and so repeater stations may be placed at about 20 km and
band-width is also large. With digital signals, the band-width can be improved.
Optical Communication using Optical Fibres: A light beam is used as a carrier wave. It carries the
information at a much faster rate than radio-waves and micro-waves. Optical fibres arc disigned for
transmission since, (i) Light is subjected to much absorption in free space (ii) Large interference takes
place It works on the principle of total internal reflection. The design of optical fibre is such that repeated
internal reflection takes place to carry information even through bends and corners. An optical fibre
consists of a glass core surrounded by a large glass cladding protected by a coating. The refractive index
of cladding is less than that of the core for total internal reflection to take place
Advantages of Optical Fibre Communication (i) Thousands of information are carried by thin glass
fibres (ii) Temperature and magnetic field does not affect the fibre communication
(iv) Jamming of information is avoided (v) Rate of communication is improved
(v) Noise free communication
Optical Light Source: Light source used in communication (optical) must have some special characters :
(i) Should be small and can be easily coupled to fibres, (ii) Should be monochromatic of appropriate
wavelength, (iii) Rapid switching between states 0' and Tin digital form is required. LED
- Light
Emitting Diode and LASER - Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation are commonly
used as optical sources.
Principle of LASER Normally the electrons in various atoms remain in the ground state which is highly
stable. By providing energy they are excited and the population in higher unstable orbit is attained. This
process of inverting the population is called polulation inversion. Population inversion is done by
showering energy in the form of light radiations. So the process is called optical pumping. The steps
involved in the LAS ING action is :- Absorption of optical energy Spontaeous emission of electron to
metastable state Stimulated emission of desired frequency. Depending on the active media used
LASERs are of different types namely (i) Ruby Laser (ii) Gas lasers (He and Ne gas)
(iii)
Semi conductor Lasers (Ga As),
Applications of LASER (i) Communication
(ii) Measurement of distance
(iii) Bloodless
knife in the field of medicine (iv) Cutting and welding of metals
(v) Weapons for destruction.
Light Emitting Diode : When forward bias is applied to a pn-junction, holes and electrons are injected
into the other side of the junction recombination of electrons and holes take place. This leads to the
emission of photon - light. The intensity of emitted light is proportional to the forward current conducted
by the junction that controls the number of holes and electrons crossing to recombine.
Important aspects of Optical Fibres (i) Numerical Aperture : Depends directly on the diameter of the
core of optical fibre. It is equal to sine of the critical angle of incidence (i.e.) sin ic =(21-22) where 1
and 2 are the refractive index of the core and cladding respectively,
(ii) Attenuation : Means power loss or loss of information strength. General wavelength range is 1.3 to
1.55 m
(iii) Dispersion : Broadening of pulses happen due to dispersion. Due to this defection of individual
pulses become difficult, there by reducing the distance and speed of transmission.
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