At medium and low frequencies, inductors

are often manufactured using one of a range

of ferrite pot cores.
The core material of these
inductors is commonly available in several and
the complete pot core assembly comprises a
matched pair of core halves, a single-section
bobbin, a pair of retaining clips and a core
adjuster. Effectively, the coil winding is totally
enclosed in a high permeability ferrite pot. Typical
values of inductance for these components
range between 100H and 100mH with a
typical saturation flux density of 250 mT.
Inductance values of iron cored inductors are
very much dependent upon the applied DC and
tend to fall rapidly as the value of applied DC
increases and saturation is approached. Maximum
current ratings for larger inductors are
related to operating temperatures and should be
de-rated when high ambient temperatures are
expected. Where reliability is important, inductors
should be operated at well below their nominal maximum current ratings.
Finally, ferrite (a high permeability nonconductive
magnetic material) is often used as
the core material for inductors used in highfrequency
filters and as broadband transformers
at frequencies of up to 30 MHz. At these frequencies,
inductors can be realized very easily
using these cores with just a few turns of wire
(Figure 5.114)!
DC GENERTOR&MOTOR
An e.m.f. will be induced across the ends of a
conductor when there is relative motion between
it and a magnetic field. The induced voltage will
take its greatest value when moving at right angle
to the magnetic field lines and its least value
(i.e. zero!) when moving along the direction of
the field lines

cutting at right
angles through the lines of magnetic flux (see
Figure 5.115) results in a generated e.m.f. and
the magnitude of which will be given by:
E = Blv
If the field is cut at an angle, (rather than
at right angles), the generated e.m.f. will be
given by:
E = Blv sin
where is the angle between the direction of
motion of the conductor and the field lines.
AC GENERATOR

In a simple AC generator a loop of wire rotates

inside the magnetic field produced by two opposite
magnetic poles. Contact is made to the loop
as it rotates by means of slip rings and brushes.

DC GENERATOR
A simpleDCgenerator uses an arrangement similar
to that used for an AC generator but with the
slip rings and brushes replaced by a commutator
that reverses the current produced by the
generator every 180

The denser the field

the greater the output voltage will be
DC MOTOR

A simple DC motor consists of a very similar

arrangement to that of the DC generator that we
met earlier. A loop of wire that is free to rotate
is placed inside a permanent magnetic field (see
Figure 5.124). When a DC current is applied to
the loop of wire, two equal and opposite forces
are set up which act on the conductor in the
directions indicated in Figure 5.124.
The direction of the forces acting on each arm
of the conductor can be established by again
using the right-hand grip rule and Flemings
left-hand rule. Now because the conductors are
equidistant from their pivot point and the forces
acting on them are equal and opposite, they
form a couple. The moment of this couple is
equal to the magnitude of a single force multiplied
by the distance between them and this
Figure 5.124 Torque on a current-carrying loop
suspended within a magnetic field.

moment is known as torque, T. Now,

T = Fd
where T is the torque (in Newton-metres, Nm),
F is the force (in N) and d is the distance (in m).
We already know that the magnitude of the
force F is given by F =BIl; therefore, the torque
produced by the current carrying thus the torque
expression can be written:
T = BIld
where T is the torque (in Nm), B is the flux
density (in T), I is the current (in A), l is the
length of conductor (in m) and d is the distance
(in m).
In a practical situation the conductor would
be wound to form a coil. If the coil has N turns
and each loop of the coil has a length, l, then

the torque produced will be given by:

T = BlINd
(You can more easily remember this as
BLIND!)
In real motors, this rotating coil is known as
the armature and consists of many hundreds of
turns of conducting wire. This arrangement is
needed in order to maximize the force imposed
on the conductor by introducing the longest
possible conductor into the magnetic field.
Now returning to the simple motor illustrated
in Figure 5.125, we know that when current
is supplied to the armature (rotor) a torque is
produced. In order to produce continuous
rotary motion, this torque (turning moment)
must always act in the same direction.
Therefore, the current in each of the armature
conductors must be reversed as the conductor
passes between the north and south magnetic
field poles. The commutator acts like a rotating
switch, reversing the current in each armature
conductor at the appropriate time to achieve this
continuous rotary motion. Without the presence
of a commutator in aDCmotor, only a half-turn
of movement is possible
The torque produced by a DC motor is directly
proportional to the product of the current flowing
in the rotating armature winding.

In order to avoid the need for a large permanent

magnet, a separate field winding can be used in
a DC machine (i.e. a motor or generator). This
field winding is energized with DC. In the case of
a DC generator, this current can be derived from
the output of the generator (in which case it is
referred to as self-excited ) or it can be energized
from a separate DC supply

One other application of the motor principle

is used in simple analogue measuring instruments.
Some meters, including multimeters used
to measure current, voltage and resistance, operate
on the principle of a coil rotating in a
magnetic field
SERIES MOTOR
In the series-wound DC motor the field winding
is connected in series with the armature and
the full armature current flows through the field
winding (see Figure 5.130). This arrangement
results in a DC motor that produces a large

starting torque at slow speeds. This type of

motor is ideal for applications where a heavy
load is applied from rest. The disadvantage of
this type of motor is that on light loads the
motor speed may become excessively high. For
this reason this type of motor should not be
used in situations where the load may be accidentally
removed
SHUNT WOUND MOTOR
In the shunt-wound DC motor the field winding
is connected in parallel with the armature
and thus the supply current is divided
between the armature and the field winding
This arrangement results in a DC
motor that runs at a reasonably constant speed
over a wide variation of load but does not perform
well when heavily loaded
SERIES SHUNT COMPOUND MOTOR
The compound-wound DC motor has both
series and shunt field windings (see Figure
5.134) and is therefore able to combine some of
the advantages of each type of motor
Starter-generator
Starter-generators eliminate the need for separate
starter motors and DC generators. They
usually have separate field windings (one for the
starter motor and one for the generator) together
with a common armature winding.
When used
for starting, the starter-generator is connected
as a series-wound DC motor capable of producing
a very high starting torque.
when
used as a generator the connections are changed
so that the unit operates as shunt-wound generator
producing reasonably constant current over
a wide range of speed.
In the start condition, the low-resistance
starter field and common armature windings
of the starter-generator are connected in seriesacross theDCsupply via a set of
contactors. This
arrangement ensures that a torque is produced
that is sufficient to start an aircrafts turbine
engine.
When the engine reaches self-sustaining speed,
the current is broken through the first set of
contactors and a second set of contactors operate,
removing the external DC power supply
from the starter-generator and reconnecting the
arrangement so that the armature voltage generated
is fed to the higher-resistance shunt field
and the aircrafts main voltage regulator.

 The advantage of this arrangement is not only

that the starter-generator replaces two individual
machines (i.e. a starter and a generator)
with consequent savings in size and weight,
but additionally that only a single mechanical
drive is required between the engine and the
starter-generator unit.

The disadvantage of this

arrangement is that the generator output is difficult
to maintain at low engine revolutions per
minute (rpm) and therefore starter-generators
are mainly found on turbine powered aircraft
that maintain a relatively high engine rpm
AC THEORY
Pulse waveforms
are often categorized as either repetitive or nonrepetitive
(the former comprises a pattern of
pulses which regularly repeats whilst the latter
comprises pulses which constitute a unique
event).
5.14.3 Frequency and periodic time
The frequency of a repetitive waveform is the
number of cycles of the waveform that occur in
unit time. Frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz).
A frequency of 1 Hz is equivalent to one cycle
per second. Hence, if a voltage has a frequency
of 400 Hz, then 400 cycles will occur in every
second (Figure 5.139).
The periodic time (or period) of a waveform is
the time taken for one complete cycle of the wave
The relationship between
periodic time and frequency is thus:
t=1
f
or f = 1
t
where t is the periodic time (in s) and f is the
frequency (in Hz)
5.14.4 Average, peak, peak-to-peak
and r.m.s. values
The average value of an AC which swings symmetrically
above and below zero will obviouslybe zero when measured over a long period of
time. Hence average values of currents and voltages
are invariably taken over one complete
half-cycle (either positive or negative) rather
than over one complete full-cycle (which would
result in an average value of zero).
The peak value (or maximum value or amplitude)
of a waveform is the measure of an extent
of its voltage or current excursion from the resting

value (usually zero). The peak-to-peak value

for a wave which is symmetrical about its resting
value is twice its peak value.
The r.m.s. or effective value of an alternating
voltage or current is the value which would
produce the same heat energy in a resistor as
a direct voltage or current of the same magnitude.
Since the r.m.s. value of a waveform
is very much dependent upon its shape, values
are only meaningful when dealing with a
waveform of known shape. Where the shape
of a waveform is not specified, r.m.s. values
are normally assumed to refer to sinusoidal
conditions.
For a given waveform, a set of fixed relationships
exist between average, peak, peaktopeak and r.m.s. values. The required multiplying
factors are summarized below for
sinusoidal voltages and currents
Given Wanted quantity
quantity
Avg. Peak Peak-to- r.m.s.
peak
Average 1 1.57 3.14 1.11
peak 0.636 1 2 0.707
Peak-to-peak 0.318 0.5 1 0.353
r.m.s. 0.9 1.414 2.828 1
From the table we can conclude that, e.g.:
Vav = 0.636 Vpk
Vpkpk = 2 Vpk
Vr.m.s. = 0.707 Vpk
relationships apply to the corresponding
AC, thus:
Iav = 0.636 Ipk
Ipkpk = 2 Ipk
Ir.m.s. = 0.707 Ipk
Expression for a sine wave
voltage
We can derive an expression for the instantaneous
voltage, v, of a sine wave in terms of its
peak voltage and the sine of an angle, . Thus:
v = Vpk sin
The angle, , will in turn depend on the exact
moment in time, t, and how fast the sine
wave is changing (in other words, its angular
velocity, ).
Hence:
v = Vpk sin(t) (1)
Since there are 2 radians in one complete revolution
or cycle of voltage or current, a frequency
of one cycle per second (i.e. 1 Hz) must be
the same as 2 radians per second. Hence, a
frequency, f , is equivalent to:
f=
2

Hz
Making the subject of the equation gives:
= 2f (2)
By combining equations (1) and (2) we can
obtain a useful expression that will allow us to
determine the voltage (or current) at any instant
of time provided that we know the peak value
of the sine wave and its frequency:
v = Vpk sin(2ft)
THREE PHASE SUPPLY
The most simple method of distributing an AC
supply is a system that uses two wires. In fact,
this is how AC is distributed in your home (the
third wire present is simply an earth connection
for any appliances that may require it for
safety reasons). In many practical applications,
including aircraft, it can be advantageous to use
a multi-phase supply rather than a single-phase
supply (here the word phase simply refers to an
AC voltage source). The most common system
uses three separate voltage sources (and three
wires) and is known as three phase. The voltages
produced by the three sources are spaced equally
in time such that the phase angle between them
is 120 (or 360/3). The waveforms for a threephase
supply are shown in Figure 5.142 (note
that each is a sine wave and all three sine waves
have the same frequency and periodic time)
AC flowing through pure
resistance
Ohms law is obeyed in an AC circuit just as it
is in a DC circuit. Thus, when a sinusoidal voltage,
V, is applied to a resistor, R (as shown in
Figure 5.143), the current flowing in the resistor
will be given by:
I=V
R
This relationship must also hold true for the
instantaneous values of current, i, and voltage,
v, thus:
i=v
R
and since v=Vmax sin t
i = Vmax sin(t)
R
The current and voltage in Figure 5.143 both
have a sinusoidal shape and since they rise and
fall together, they are said to be in-phase with
one another. We can represent this relationship
by means of the phasor diagram shown in Figure
5.144. This diagram shows two rotating
phasors (of magnitude I and V) rotating at an
angular velocity, . The applied voltage (V) is
referred to as the reference phasor and this is
aligned with the horizontal axis

Phasor diagrams provide us with a quick way of

illustrating the relationships that exist between
sinusoidal voltages and currents in AC circuits
without having to draw lots of time-related waveforms.
Figure 5.145 will help you to understand
how the previous phasor diagram relates to
the time-related waveforms for the voltage and
current in a resistor.

A good way of remembering leading and lagging

phase relationships is to recall the word CIVIL,
as shown in Figure 5.150. Note that, in the case
of a circuit containing pure capacitance (C) the
current (I) will lead the voltage (V) by 90 whilst
in the case of a circuit containing pure inductance
(L) the voltage (V) will lead the current (I) by 90

5.15.3 Inductive reactance

Inductive reactance is directly proportional to
the frequency of the applied AC and can be
determined from the following formula:
XL = 2fL
where XL is the reactance (in _), f is the
frequency (in Hz) and L is the inductance (in H).
Since inductive reactance is directly proportional
to frequency (XL f ), the graph of inductive
reactance plotted against frequency takes
the form of a straight line (see Figure 5.151)
Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional
to the frequency of the applied AC and can be
determined from the following formula:
XC = 1
2fCwhere XC is the reactance (in _), f is the
frequency (in Hz) and C is the capacitance (in F).
Since capacitive reactance is inversely proportional
to frequency (XL 1/f ), the graph
of inductive reactance plotted against frequency
takes the form of a rectangular hyperbola (see
Figure 5.152
When alternating voltages are applied to capacitors
or inductors the magnitude of the current
flowing will depend upon the value of capacitance
or inductance and on the frequency of the voltage.
In effect, capacitors and inductors opposethe flow of current in much the same way as a
resistor. The important difference being that the
effective resistance (or reactance) of the component

varies with frequency (unlike the case of a

conventional resistor where the magnitude of the
current does not change with frequency

5.15.5 Impedance
Circuits that contain a mixture of both resistance
and reactance (either capacitive reactance
or inductive reactance or both) are said to
exhibit impedance. Impedance, like resistance
and reactance, is simply the ratio of applied
voltage to the current flowing. Thus:
Z=V
I
where Z is the impedance in ohms (_), V is the
alternating p.d. in volts (V) and I is the AC in
amperes (A
Because the voltage and current in a pure reactance
are at 90 to one another (we say that they
are in quadrature) we can not simply add up the
resistance and reactance present in a circuit in
order to find its impedance. Instead, we can use
the impedance triangle shown in Figure 5.153.
The impedance triangle takes into account the
90 phase angle and from it we can infer that the
impedance of a series circuit (R in series with X)
is given by:
Z=
R2 + X2
where Z is the impedance (in _), X is the reactance,
either capacitive or inductive (expressed
in _) and R is the resistance (also in _).
We shall be explaining the significance of the
phase angle, , later on. For now you simply
need to be aware that is the angle between the
impedance, Z, and the resistance, R. Later on
Figure 5.153 The impedance triangle.
Resistance and reactance combine together to
make impedance. In other words, impedance
is the resultant of combining resistance and
reactance in the impedance triangle. Because
of the quadrature relationship between voltage
and current in a pure capacitor or inductor, the
angle between resistance and reactance in the
impedance triangle is always 90

Resistance and inductance

in series
When a sinusoidal voltage, V, is applied to
a series circuit comprising resistance, R, andinductance, L (as shown in Figure 5.155),
the
current flowing in the circuit will produce separate
voltage drops across the resistor and inductor
(VR and VL, respectively). These two voltage
drops will be 90 apart with VL leading VR
Resistance and capacitance

in series
When a sinusoidal voltage, V, is applied to
a series circuit comprising resistance, R, and
inductance, L (as shown in Figure 5.158) the
current flowing in the circuit will produce separate
voltage drops across the resistor and capacitor
(VR and VC, respectively). These two voltage
drops will be 90 apart with VC lagging VR.

Question Number. 21. A shunt is used with.

Option A. an ammeter.
Option B. a voltmeter.
Option C. an ohmmeter.
Correct Answer is. an ammeter.
Explanation. A shunt is used to change the working range of an ammeter, by 'shunting'
around the ammeter, a major portion of the
current being measured.
Question Number. 22. If a load in series has a current passing through it, the magnetic
field can be worked out by using.
Option A. the corkscrew rule.
Option B. left hand rule.
Option C. right hand rule.
Correct Answer is. the corkscrew rule.
Explanation. NIL
Question Number. 24. In conventional flow, the left hand rule applies to.
Option A. generators.
Option B. batteries.
Option C. motors.
Correct Answer is. motors.
Explanation. Remember MG - the British car manufacturers (MG left to right) - or
remember geneRIGHTer.
Question Number. 28. To determine the direction of the magnetic field around a
conductor you would use.
Option A. Fleming's right hand rule.
Option B. Fleming's left hand rule.
Option C. the corkscrew rule.
Correct Answer is. the corkscrew rule.
Explanation. NIL.
Question Number. 30. Self induced emf in a coil supplied with a current varying at a
uniform rate can be found by.
Option A. -L d / dt
Option B. -N dI / dt
Option C. -L dI / dt
Correct Answer is. -L dI / dt.
Explanation. NIL.

Question Number. 32. Magnetomotive force can be found by.

Option A. I * N.
Option B. Blv.
Option C. N/I.
Correct Answer is. I * N.
Explanation. MMF (symbol H) = amps * turns (units are ampere turns).
Question Number. 34. The direction of induced conventional current in a wire rotating in
a magnetic field can be determined by.
Option A. cork screw rule.
Option B. Fleming's right hand rule.
Option C. Fleming's left hand rule.
Correct Answer is. Fleming's right hand rule.
Explanation. NIL.
Question Number. 35. How would you find the direction of the electron flow in an
armature located in a magnetic field?.
Option A. Flemings left hand rule.
Option B. Flemings right hand rule.
Option C. Maxwells corkscrew rule.
Correct Answer is. Flemings left hand rule.
Explanation. Assuming conventional current flow
Question Number. 45. One volt is induced into a circuit with a current varying at 1 amp
per second. The circuit has.
Option A. 1 ampere turn.
Option B. 1 Tesla.
Option C. 1 Henry.
Correct Answer is. 1 Henry.
Explanation. 1 Henry = 1 Volt per Amp per Second
Question Number. 13. Conventional current flow inside a battery is from.
Option A. either anode to cathode or cathode to anode, depending on the active elements.
Option B. cathode to anode.
Option C. anode to cathode.
Correct Answer is. anode to cathode.
Explanation. The cathode is positive. Conventional current flows from positive to
negative on the external circuit, but to close the
circuit must flow negative to positive INSIDE the battery.