1.

INTRODUCTION OF GRAPH
The paper written by Leonhard Euler on the Seven Bridges of Knigsberg and

published in 1736 is regarded as the first paper in the history of graph theory. This
paper, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the knight problem, carried on
with the analysis situs initiated by Leibniz. Euler's formula relating the number of edges,
vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized
by Cauchy and L'Huillier, and is at the origin of topology.
More than one century after Euler's paper on the bridges of Knigsberg and
while Listing introduced topology, Cayley was led by the study of particular analytical
forms arising from differential calculus to study a particular class of graphs, the trees.
This study had many implications in theoretical chemistry. The involved techniques
mainly concerned the enumeration of graphs having particular properties. Enumerative
graph theory then rose from the results of Cayley and the fundamental results published
by Plya between 1935 and 1937 and the generalization of these by De Bruijn in 1959.
Cayley linked his results on trees with the contemporary studies of chemical
composition. The fusion of the ideas coming from mathematics with those coming from
chemistry is at the origin of a part of the standard terminology of graph theory. In
particular, the term "graph" was introduced by Sylvester in a paper published in 1878
in Nature.
One of the most famous and productive problems of graph theory is the four
color problem: "Is it true that any map drawn in the plane may have its regions colored
with four colors, in such a way that any two regions having a common border have
different colors?" This problem was first posed by Francis Guthrie in 1852 and its first
1

written record is in a letter of De Morganaddressed to Hamilton the same year. Many

incorrect proofs have been proposed, including those by Cayley, Kempe, and others.
The study and the generalization of this problem by Tait,
Heawood, Ramsey and Hadwiger led to the study of the colorings of the graphs
embedded on surfaces with arbitrary genus. Tait's reformulation generated a new class
of problems, thefactorization problems, particularly studied by Petersen and Knig. The
works of Ramsey on colorations and more specially the results obtained by Turn in
1941 was at the origin of another branch of graph theory, extremal graph theory.
The four color problem remained unsolved for more than a century. A proof
produced in 1976 by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken, which involved checking the
properties of 1,936 configurations by computer, was not fully accepted at the time due
to its complexity. A simpler proof considering only 633 configurations was given twenty
years later by Robertson,Seymour, Sanders and Thomas.
The autonomous development of topology from 1860 and 1930 fertilized graph
theory back through the works of Jordan, Kuratowski and Whitney. Another important
factor of common development of graph theory and topology came from the use of the
techniques of modern algebra. The first example of such a use comes from the work of
the physicist Gustav Kirchhoff, who published in 1845 his Kirchhoff's circuit laws for
calculating the voltage and current in electric circuits.
The introduction of probabilistic methods in graph theory, especially in the study
of Erds and Rnyi of the asymptotic probability of graph connectivity, gave rise to yet
another branch, known as random graph theory, which has been a fruitful source of
graph-theoretic results
2

2.0

TYPE OF GRAPH
2.1

HISTOGRAM

In statistics, a histogram is a graphical display of tabulated frequencies, shown

as bars. It shows what proportion of cases fall into each of severalcategories: it is a form
of data binning. The categories are usually specified as non-overlapping intervals of
some variable. The categories (bars) must be adjacent. The intervals (or bands, or bins)
are generally of the same size.
Histograms are used to plot density of data, and often for density estimation:
estimating the probability density function of the underlying variable. The total area of a
histogram used for probability density is always normalized to 1. If the length of the
intervals on the x-axis are all 1, then a histogram is identical to a relative frequency plot.

An alternative to the histogram is kernel density estimation, which uses

a kernel to smooth samples. This will construct a smooth probability density function,
which will in general more accurately reflect the underlying variable.
The histogram is one of the seven basic tools of quality control, which also
include

the Pareto

chart, check

sheet, control

chart, cause-and-effect

diagram, flowchart, and scatter diagram.

Simple steps of drawing histogram :
1. Make two axis, x-axis and y-axis which will be represented as various value
2. Plot the points according the value of x-axis and y-axis
3. Draw a bar for each representing point

2.2

PIE CHART

A pie chart (or a circle graph) is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating
relative magnitudes or frequencies. In a pie chart, the arc length of each sector (and
consequently its central angle and area), is proportional to the quantity it represents.
Together, the sectors create a full disk. It is named for its resemblance to a pie which
has been sliced.
Simple steps of drawing pie chart :
1. Make a circle
2. A circle must be divided as it has 360 degree
3. Each section is represented by percentage values
4. The percentage is depend on the exact values

2.3 SCATTER PLOT GRAPH

A scatter plot is a type of mathematical diagram using Cartesian coordinates to

display values for two variables for a set of data.
The data is displayed as a collection of points, each having the value of one
variable determining the position on the horizontal axis and the value of the other
variable determining the position on the vertical axis. A scatter plot is also called
a scatter chart, scatter diagram and scatter graph.

3.0

RESULTS OF SURVEY ON FAVOURITE TELEVISION PROGRAMME BY

TRAINING TEACHERS AT IPGKKB

TELEVISION
PROGRAMME

CLASS
INTERVAL

FREQUENCY

MIDPOINT

PERCENTAGE
(%)

ENTERTAINMENT

1-10

14

5.5

28

SPOT

11-20

16

15.5

32

NEWS

21-30

25.5

18

DRAMA

31-40

35.5

14

CARTOON

41-50

45.5

3.1

BAR CHART
RESULT OF SURVEY ON FAVOURITE TELEVISION PROGRAMME

18
16
14

FREQUENCY

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
ENTERTAINMENT

SPOT

NEWS

DRAMA

CARTOON

FAVOURITE TELEVISION PROGRAMME

3.2

PIE CHART

RESULT OF SURVEY ON TELEVISION FAVOURITE

PROGRAMME

14% 8%

18%
32%

28%

MARK
SPOT
ENTERTAINMENT
NEWS
DRAMA
CARTOON

3.3

SCATTER PLOT

RESULT OF SURVEY ON TELEVISION FAVOURITE

PROGRAMME
18

16

FREQUENCY

14

12

10

0
0

10

20

30

MID POINTS

MARK::::

ENTERTAINMENT
SPOT
NEWS
DRAMA
CARTOON
9

40

50

4.0

ESSAY: HOW CAN STSTISTIC BE APPLIED IN DAILY LIFE

ABDULLAH MUNIR BIN MOHD YUSOFF

Statistics is used to compare two or more frequency distribution taken from

different population to see if there are any differences between them.
The statistics uses the following measures for the comparisson. They are mean,
median and mode. Mean is the average of all the observations. Median is the middle
most value of the observations and mode has the maximum frequencies
In our daily life, we dont have time to go pondering over tons and tons of material.
to condense all this material into a smaller space, and for quicker veiwing, we put it in
the forms of graphs or charts.
firstly, mean is just an average. if you have a whole list of, say, salaries, and you
want to know an average salary. that where your mean comes in. Mean can be used to
see the average mark of the class obtained. This average helps to see how many
students are above average, how many are average students and how many are below
averages. The teacher tries to help the average and below average students to score
more grades in future.
In a factory, the mean of the wages helps the authorities to know if the workers
welfare is maintained. It also helps to compare the salaries of the employees of the
different companies. In sales, the average sales in the district helps the sales manager
to plan for increasing the sales in the future. The governemnt takes the average income
and expense of the citizens to know whether the citizens rights are maintained.
The family finds the average of their expenses to balance their finance.
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The average production of agricultural commodities, the industrial goods, the average
exports and imports help the country to see their developments.
secondly median is the middle value of any given data. if again, you have a list of
salaries given, and you want to know a middle figure, to know a basic number. say, a
person want to know how many people can be fitted on a boat. to find out the individual
space, he finds the median. Median is the middle value. It helps us to see both the
sides of the middle value. It divides the information into two equal parts, one part lesser
than median and the other more than the median. Median is calculated after arranging
the information in ascending orer or descending orer.
Median also used to find the students who score less or more than the middle
value. Median is calculated to find the distribution of the wages. It is calculated to find
the height of the players, in the points scored by players in a series of matches., to find
the middle value of the ages of the students in a class .Median also determines the
poverty line.
The meaning of mode is the class with the highest frequency. that appears the
most number of times. if you have a huge list, of say, the brand of toothpaste people
use.it is because everyone needs it. so no complications over when a person doesn't
use this item.If you have a long list, and you dont feels like counting each one
individually, find the mode. It also can be used to calculate the frequency of the arrival
of the public transport, the frequency of the games won by a team of players, the
frequency of the needs of an infant.

11

The mode is also seen in calculation of the wages, in the number of telephone
calls received in a minute by the telephone department, the frequency of the visitors,
the frequency of the patients visiting the hospitals, the mode of travel and so on.
So, we can conclude that the Statistics has universal applicability. All activities in
daily life of human beings are connected with statistical data. Statistical knowledge is
very essential for a good citizen of any country.

MUHAMMAD ZAKWAN BIN MAT ZAKI

AHMAD IZZUDIN BIN ABDULLAH

5.0

THE MOST SUITABLE CHART FOR OUR DATA

The pie chart and the bar graph are the most suitable type of graph to

show the district particle.Out from that it cannot used to represent the continuous things
such height,weight and so on. A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars
with lengths proportional to the values that they represent. The bars can also be plotted
horizontally. A bar chart is very useful if you are trying to record certain information
whether it is continuous or not continuous data.
The histogram need the class interval in order to present the data that had been
obtained.We need to describe the data and look back if there is any mistake that we
might done before.The histogram cannot represent the unnumbered problem such as
we want to find out the graph about human feeling for everyday.The data that we
obtained cannot be represent in the form of histogram,but in the form of pie chart is
better.
12

A scatter plot can suggest various kinds of correlations between variables with a
certain confidence interval. Correlations may be positive (rising), negative (falling), or
null (uncorrelated). If the pattern of dots slopes from lower left to upper right, it suggests
a positive correlation between the variables being studied. If the pattern of dots slopes
from upper left to lower right, it suggests a negative correlation. A line of best
fit (alternatively called 'trendline') can be drawn in order to study the correlation between
the variables. An equation for the correlation between the variables can be determined
by established best-fit procedures. For a linear correlation, the best-fit procedure is
known as linear regression and is guaranteed to generate a correct solution in a finite
time. Unfortunately, no universal best-fit procedure is guaranteed to generate a correct
solution for arbitrary relationships.
A scatter plot is also very useful when we wish to see how two comparable data
sets agree with each other. In this case, an identity line, i.e., a y=x line, or an 1:1 line, is
often drawn as a reference. The more the two data sets agree, the more the scatters
tend to concentrate in the vicinity of the identity line; if the two data sets are numerically
identical, the scatters fall on the identity line exactly.
One of the most powerful aspects of a scatter plot, however, is its ability to show
nonlinear relationships between variables. Furthermore, if the data is represented by a
mixture model of simple relationships, these relationships will be visually evident as
superimposed patterns.The scatter diagram is one of the basic tools of quality control
In conclusion, to find out the best way to represent our data is by recheck and
think the compatibility of represent it.We might think the things is right but somehow we
might get wrong.
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6.0

REFLECTION
First and foremost, praise to The Almighty God for giving us good health and

safety while finishing this math assignment for this semester. We have face many
problems when do this assignment. First, I do not know what to do and write. We
always make group discussion in order to complete our task.
Find the information using internet also give us obstacle. The obstacles that we
must face is we found that when using this way, we got many pages that related to this
topic but, for find the accurate and suitable page, we must read all pages. Not only that,
when we found the information, it give problem in downloading them. But, all of that not
break up our spirit to finish the assignment.
We also read more books to find research about the topic. Although, we had got
articles from internet but we also use books to gain more knowledge. Not only that, this
assignment gives us a lot of knowledge and grows the positive attitude in our heart such
as working as a group. Besides that, we wish we can read the notes once and

14

immediately understand and grabbed the point easily. We also hope that we could
express better in understanding problem solving.
Although we face many obstacles in completing this task, we felt very satisfied
and really thankful. We also feel very relief and happy when finish this assignment and
hope this assignment will satisfy our lecturer and get better result in coming exam.We
would like to express our gratitude upon many people who help us to finish up this
assignment. Then before we end this reflection we want to apologize if there is any
mistake and unsuitable part of this assignment we hope all the best for the rest of us.

7.0

BIBILIOGRAPHY

Books
Chow Chin Mun, Quick Revision SPM Mathematic,2007, Penerbitan
Pelangi,Selangor Darul Ihsan
Dr.Pouline Wong Mee Kiong,Quick Revision SPM Additional
Mathematic,2007,Penerbitan Pelangi,Selangor Darul Ihsan

Internet source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(mathematics)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pie_chart
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatter_plot

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8.0 APPENDIX
16

17

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