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Title:MAKING SENSE OF FLAKE SCATTERS: LITHIC TECHNOLOGICAL STRATEGIES AND

MOBILITY.
Pub:American Antiquity
Detail:Frank L. Cowan. 64.4 (Oct 1999): p593. (8547 words)
Abstract:
Recent theoretical developments in the organization of lithic technology provide powerful tools for
learning about prehistoric settlement systems and the roles of sites within settlement systems. Strong
relationships between mobility and the designs and production methods of stone tools provide a means for
testing hypotheses about the functional and organizational roles of sites: this is especially important for
learning about "plow zone lithic scatters'" and other small, poorly preserved sites. Subsistence-settlement
models for three periods of western New York prehistory imply different roles for small sites in the
interior of the region. These hypotheses are tested by the analysis of dominant tool-production methods.
Strong differences in stone tool assemblages indicate major differences in site roles, but greater analytical
detail and discriminatory power are obtained from the analysis of tool-production methods from flakes.
Full Text:COPYRIGHT 1999 Society for American Archaeology
Two distinctly different trajectories of stone tool production dominated the prehistoric lithic industries of
North America. One is the production of unretouched or minimally retouched flake tools from simple
cores, while the second is the extensive shaping of bifacial tools. Each production trajectory has
advantages and limitations, and the characteristics of each have important implications for understanding
the organization of prehistoric societies.
Mobility is a powerful conditioner of technological strategies; different mobility strategies affect the
ranges of tool design and production options employed by tool users (e.g., Binford 1979; Kelly 1988;
Nelson 1991; Odell 1998; Parry and Kelly 1987: Shott 1986). Strong relationships between technology
and mobility make it possible to use variability in tool design and production as clues to the organization
of prehistoric settlement systems and to the organizational roles of sites within settlement systems.
Technological evidence is particularly important for understanding poorly preserved archaeological
deposits where stone tools and production debris often are the only surviving evidence of site function.
This study examines the organizational roles of small sites within Late Archaic, Early Woodland, and Late
Woodland settlement systems in western New York by focusing on the technological correlates of
mobility. Subsistence-settlement models for these culture-historical periods imply that small sites in the
interior of the region played different roles during each period and that the use of these sites entailed
different pattern of mobility. Since mobility places constraints on technological options, predictions can be
made for the kinds of tool-production and -use strategies that predominated in each context. These
hypotheses are tested by analyses of the chipped stone artifact and flake assemblages from 45 small site
components. Strongly patterned differences among periods in assemblage content and flake assemblage
characteristics permit interpretation of the functional roles of many small, poorly preserved sites.
Tool-Production Trajectories and Mobility
The principal functional characteristic of any stone tool lies in the form of the tool edge that contacts and
alters the worked materials (Nelson 1991:66). The functional edges must be effective for carrying out the
tasks for which the tools were intended. Other formal properties of tools, however, may vary quite
considerably. This is evident in the marked lack of congruence between archaeologically defined classes
of tools, distinguished by morphological characteristics, and their actual functions, identified by usewear
patterns (e.g., Ahler 1971; Odell 1981, 1988, 1989, 1996, 1998). Some tool forms were capable of

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performing a wide range of functional tasks, while formally different tool types were often used to
perform similar tasks. Much of that formal/functional variability appears to relate to the contexts in which
the tools were designed to be employed (e.g., Binford 1979; Keeley 1982; Kelly 1988: Nelson 1991; Parry
and Kelly 1987).
The simplest method of stone tool production is the detachment of flake tools from cores of suitable stone.
Unretouched or minimally retouched flakes are effective tools, and their production requires low
investment in time, raw material quality, and technical skill development. Tool use life is short, however,
and the method is consumptive of lithic materials. Unless flake tools are large, they have a limited
capacity to perform a wide range of tasks. Unless extensively retouched, they may be difficult to half into
preexisting tool handles (Keeley 1982). Unretouched flake edges are fragile and easily damaged in transit,
and cores large enough to accommodate extended periods of use are heavy and cumbersome (Kuhn 1994;
Nelson 1991). Despite low production costs, the use of flake tools from cores is not well suited to highly
mobile tool users (Nelson 1991: Parry and Kelly 1987).
Bifacial tool shaping, in contrast, is a much more expensive means of tool production. It requires higher
quality raw materials, more advanced flint-knapping skills, and an appreciable time investment for the
production of each tool. Tool use life is long, however, since a bifacial tool may be resharpened many
times without changing the form of the functional edge (e.g., Sollberger 1971). It is resistant to damage
and has sufficient mass to allow for repairs. Experiments by Odell and Cowan (1986:207-208), for
example, indicate that extensively shaped bifacial projectile points are less susceptible to damage and are
more readily repaired than are unretouched flake projectile points. Bifacial tool designs may thus prolong
use life and conserve raw material resources. Bifacial tool-production methods can combine flake
production and diverse tool functions in one portable core/tool (Kelly 1988; Nelson 1991). A biface has
sequential functional utility throughout the reduction process. The bifacial edge is functionally versatile
and can be flexibly modified to suit a variety of specific tool requirements (Nelson 1991). For example,
Odell (1998) found that, in a series of Illinois assemblages spanning the Holocene, bifaces were
consistently employed for a wider range of functional activities on a wider range of worked materials than
any other technologically defined class of stone tools. Bifacial tools are readily shaped for ease of hafting
(Keeley 1982), and the ease of handling and added leverage of halted bifaces more than adequately
compensate for the fact that bifacial tools may not have the sharpness of unmodified flakes. Despite high
initial production costs, extensively shaped bifacial tools appear to be well suited for portability and
extensive or frequent mobility.
Table 1 summarizes some costs and benefits of alternative tool-production strategies as they relate to the
mobility of the tool user. Relationships between the costs and benefits of tool- production methods and
mobility imply that tool assemblages and production debris should differ among sites depending upon the
kinds and levels of mobility that characterized the use of those sites. Appreciation of these relationships
may allow for the recognition of different patterns of settlement mobility and different functional roles of
sites within settlement systems.
Table 1. Chipped Stone Tool-Production Methods: Costs and Benefits.

Costs and benefits

Flake Tools
from Cores

Production costs
Tool use life
Raw material consumption
Multifunctional utility
Hafting costs
Portability

Low
Short
High
Low
High
Low

Bifacial Tools
High
Long
Low
High
Low
High

Settlement Models and the Roles of Small, Interior Sites

Prehistoric subsistence-settlement models are not well developed in western New York, and few of the

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models have been extensively tested. Archaeological deposits in western New York are seldom well
preserved, due to the region's relatively stable land surfaces, poor preservation of organic materials, and
long history of agricultural tillage. Most of the known prehistoric sites are "plow zone lithic scatters."
Nonetheless, it is possible to sketch the probable outlines of the dominant settlement systems for the Late
Archaic, Early Woodland, and Late Woodland periods (Cowan 1994:10-66). This analysis focuses on the
roles of small sites located in the interior of the region at distances at least 10 km from the Great Lakes
and the region's largest rivers, such as the Niagara and the Genesee [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1
OMITTED]. Expectations for the functional roles of small sites in the interior of western New York and
the levels of mobility associated with each are summarized in Table 2 for three culture-historical periods.
Late Archaic (ca. 3500-1000 B.C.) populations appear to have employed a residentially mobile "foraging"
system (sensu Binford 1980). Populations probably aggregated at favorable fishing locations near the
Great Lakes and their largest tributaries throughout the warm seasons of the year when such locations
would have provided the greatest quantity and diversity of aquatic, terrestrial, and avian resources
(Cleland 1982; Ellis et al. 1990; Ritchie 1969; Ritchie and Funk 1973). The region's larger Late Archaic
sites tend to cluster around the larger estuaries of the Great Lakes, the falls and rapids of major rivers, and
the shallows of smaller lakes, all highly productive fishing locations.
During the late fall and winter, however, the attractions of shoreline locations on large water bodies
diminish greatly, both in absolute abundance and relative to resource abundance in the interior. While
white-tailed deer often inhabit fiver and lake shoreline areas from the spring through the early autumn
seasons, their winter habitats are likely to be in less exposed inland thickets where they are sheltered from
wind (Rue 1978:294, 304). Shoreline locations are also exposed and uncomfortable for human populations
during the winter. Populations probably dispersed as small family groups hunted and trapped in the
sheltered interior portions of the region. Late Archaic sites within the interior are consistently small in size
and sparse in content, suggesting relatively short periods of occupation by small social groups. A relatively
high degree of residential mobility would be expected for the cold seasons of the year in the absence of
storable food surpluses sufficient for overwintering and given the dispersed nature of wintertime
resources. Similar seasonal shifts in settlement structure were common strategies among ethnohistorically
known Algonquian populations in the Northeast (e.g., Callender 1978; Day and Trigger 1978: Rogers and
Rogers 1959; Snow 1978; Trigger 1978).
Table 2. Expected Roles and Mobility Levels for Small, Interior
Sites in Western New York.
Period

Functional Roles

Mobility Levels

Late Woodland

Logistical Camps
Seasonal Base Camps

High
Low

Early Woodland

Logistical Camps

High

Late Archaic

Residential Camps

Moderate

It is likely that Early Woodland Meadowood phase (ca. 900-400 B.C.) populations also made seasonally
differentiated use of the regional landscape, although there are some indications that Early Woodland
populations may have been more territorially entrenched and may have employed somewhat smaller
ranges than preceding Late Archaic populations (Cowan 1994:44-58). The largest sites, those having the
greatest densities of artifacts and features and which include heavy, fragile, and relatively nonportable
vessels of Vinette 1 pottery, are all located adjacent to productive fishing locations; "the site distribution
of the Meadowood phase indicates a preference for relatively flat terrain and propitious fishing grounds
on sizable streams and small lakes" (Ritchie 1969:181). The establishment of formal cemeteries near such
locations suggests the overt assertion of community rights to geographically restricted resource areas
(Charles and Buikstra 1983:119-120; Goldstein 1980:8), and a wide array of mortuary treatments within
cemeteries, including multiple burials of dissimilarly treated individual remains, suggests that seasonally

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dispersed populations often curated deceased members for later burial in community cemeteries near
recurrently occupied aggregation sites (Spence et al. 1990).
Granger (1978b) argues that the Early Woodland Meadowood phase settlement systems in western New
York included seasonally alternating base camp settlements, supplemented by special-purpose chert
quarry and mortuary sites. Although Granger termed the larger sites "maintenance" sites and the
somewhat smaller residential camps "extractive" sites, it appears that he envisioned both site types as
seasonal base camps, albeit variable in the sizes of co-residential populations and seasons of use. If the
Early Woodland settlement system was organized around seasonally differentiated residential base camps,
a large number of small "logistical" sites (Binford 1980) must have existed for provisioning those base
camps. In fact, small, briefly occupied Early Woodland sites are relatively abundant in the interior of the
region, away from large bodies of water. The use of such small logistical camps would have entailed high
levels of mobility.
With the development of agricultural systems capable of generating large quantities of storable produce,
year-round village settlements of aggregated populations became possible by the prehistoric Iroquoian
Late Woodland period (ca. A.D. 1300-1550). Iroquoian settlement systems are relatively well known in
western New York, although most archaeological research has focused on the large villages (e.g., Allen
1988; Engelbrecht 1972, 1974, 1978, 1984; Hunt 1990b; Schock 1974; White 1961, 1963; Wray 1973;
Wray et. al 1987).
Less well studied are the numerous small camps that must have been associated with those villages. The
support of long-term villages required an increased role for complex logistical systems to provide a wide
range of nonagricultural resources to village residents. Such a settlement strategy implies varied roles for
small sites as compared to those of residentially mobile settlement systems.
At least two general categories of small Late Woodland sites are expected. Logistical camps would have
been used by special-purpose task groups to acquire the forest and aquatic resources needed to provision
the villages and other residential bases. Very long-range logistical forays by Iroquoian people are well
known in the ethnohistorical literature (Fenton 1978:297). Logistical sites should have been functionally
diverse, with camps being used for different purposes at different times of the year. The task groups using
those sites would have been small and highly mobile.
A second category of small Late Woodland sites is also expected. These are seasonal base camps, used
during the warm seasons by small family groups growing crops at moderate distances from the main
villages. Early seventeenth-century observers (e.g., Talbot 1949:69; Trigger 1990:33) noted that many
Hurons left the villages for the summer to tend dispersed com fields, and there are many historical
references to small Iroquoian "cabin" sites situated at varying distances from the major villages (e.g.,
Gehring and Starna 1988). Such sites served logistical functions in that they were used for resource
acquisition to support the village-based populations. Nonetheless, these small sites may have been
continuously occupied throughout the growing season, and their residents often were logistically
supported. Mobility would have been low for the users of these sites.
Small prehistoric sites located in the interior of the western New York region are expected to have played
quite different roles in the subsistence-settlement systems of which they were a part. One of the
characteristics distinguishing the varied roles of these sites would have been the kinds and levels of
mobility associated with their use.
Technological Expectations for Small, Interior Sites
Differences in the organizational roles of sites and the levels of mobility of their users suggest marked
differences in tool-production strategies. If the subsistence-settlement models outlined above are correct,
we should be able to make specific predictions about the predominant tool-production and -use strategies
that characterized the use of those sites (Table 3).
If the interior Late Archaic sites were relatively short-term residential camps, technological compromises

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must be expected. Mobility would have been moderately high, but residential camps were also places
where wide ranges of functional activities took place and where all members of the co-residential group
engaged in activities requiring stone tools. Tool- production methods are likely to have been eclectic,
reflecting diverse tool needs and toolmaking skills and at least some possibility of stockpiling cores and
raw materials. Such moderately mobile Late Archaic residential camps are expected to have emphasized
the use of bifacial tools, but toolmaking also should have involved a moderate but consistent use of cores.
Table 3. Expected Tool-Production and -Use Strategies.

Site Roles

Predominant ToolProduction Strategies

Late Woodland

Logistical Camps
Seasonal Base Camps

Bifaces
Cores

Early Woodland

Logistical Camps

Bifaces

Residential Camps

Biface Emphasis and

Moderate Core Use

Period

Late Archaic

If the small Early Woodland sites examined in this study were special-purpose logistical sites, on-site
activities would have focused on resource procurement tasks, and maintenance tasks requiring diverse
toolkits would have been infrequent. The archaeological residues should reflect technological strategies
that facilitated high levels of mobility. Stone tool assemblages are expected to be dominated by bifacial
tools, tool production should have emphasized the use of readily transported tool preforms, and flake
assemblages should be dominated by the by-products of bifacial tool manufacture.
Small Late Woodland sites are expected to have been highly variable in function, structure, and content,
and stone tool-production and -use strategies should have varied with the functional and organizational
requirements for the use of those sites. Small Late Woodland sites should exhibit a technological
dichotomy, depending on whether the sites were seasonal base camps or the short-term camps of
extensively mobile task groups engaged in logistical procurement activities. Seasonal base camps should
be dominated by flake tools and cores; short-term logistical camps should be dominated by bifacial tools
and the residues of bifacial tool production.
Site Sample
Forty-five small site components in western New York were selected to test hypotheses about the roles of
small, interior sites in their respective settlement systems (Cowan 1994). The sites included 19 Late
Archaic components, 8 Early Woodland components, and 18 Late Woodland components. The selected
sites are located in the interior of western New York, at least 10 km from Lakes Erie and Ontario and
from the Niagara and Genesee Rivers (Figure 1). The available information for each site is the product of
cultural resource management studies conducted between 1970 and 1993. The kinds and qualities of site
information are varied, reflecting project-specific contractual limitations as well as the limitations of the
surviving archaeological record. Although a few of the Late Woodland sites are reasonably well preserved
and were extensively excavated during intensive data recovery projects, most of the sites are plow zone
"lithic scatters," and none of the Late Archaic and Early Woodland sites exhibit the artifact abundance
and contextual preservation that would have made them attractive for traditional archaeological research.
Chronological control over site components is the thorniest problem faced by archaeologists dealing with
surfaces that have been stable for long periods of time. All the sites in this sample are located on land
surfaces accessible to artifact deposition from the early Holocene to the present. Nonetheless, site
components were selected that appear to reflect single periods of use, based on careful evaluations of
temporally diagnostic artifacts and/or radiocarbon-dated features. While the artifact samples from
individual sites may not be presumed to result from single-use occupational episodes, there is no evidence
they reflect multiple temporal components.

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Chert Resources
Technological decision-making must take into account the availability, abundance, qualities, and
geographical distributions of necessary raw materials. Onondaga chert is the primary chert resource in the
sampling region, although other lesser-quality cherts can be found in small amounts in glacial gravels and
in portions of the dolomitic Niagara escarpment. The chert-bearing Onondaga Limestone Formation forms
a prominent east-west escarpment that runs along the north shore of Lake Erie and across much of
western New York State, bisecting the study area [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED]. Several
prehistoric chert quarries occur within the study area (e.g., Cowan and Fletcher 1991; Perrelli et al. 1993;
Prisch 1976; Wray 1948). Northward of the Onondaga escarpment, chert resources are absent from the
glacial lake plains and scarce on the Niagara escarpment. Glacially transported chert gravels are rare in
the clay-rich lake plains south of the Onondaga escarpment, although chert does occur as a minor
constituent in till and outwash gravels well to the south of the escarpment. With some exceptions (e.g.,
Granger 1978b: 139-141; Hunt 1990a), most of the glacially transported chert pebbles are small in size
and/or poor in quality. Pebble chert resources were not ignored by prehistoric toolmakers within the
region, but the majority of chert artifacts and flakes examined in this study appear to have been derived
from Onondaga escarpment sources. All archaeological components in this study are situated within 40
km of the Onondaga escarpment, and analysis indicates that proximity of sites to chert outcrops is not
determinative of the technological strategies addressed in this study (Cowan 1994:200-212).
Chipped Stone Tools and Cores
Given the culture-historically differentiated settlement system models outlined above, theoretical
expectations suggest strong and systematic differences in the strategies of chipped stone tool production
and use among the three periods (Table 3). Figure 2 compares the composition of combined site
assemblages of the Late Archaic, Early Woodland, and Late Woodland periods for four general classes of
shaped chert artifacts: projectile points, bifaces, various other retouched pieces, and cores. Substantial
differences in the aggregated assemblages are clearly evident ([X.sup.2] = 760.14; df = 6; p [much less
than] .001). Differences among the combined assemblages are largely accounted for by differences in the
proportions of bifaces and cores.
The combined Late Archaic sample of 376 artifacts from 19 site components [ILLUSTRATION FOR
FIGURE 2 OMITTED] shows the most even distribution of artifacts among classes for the three periods,
suggesting a diverse strategy of tool production. Bifaces are the predominant class of chipped stone
artifacts (42 percent). Including halfed bifaces or "points," bifacial tools account for over one-half of the
artifacts in the sample, and bifacial tools occur at all Late Archaic sites. However, although cores account
for only 25 percent of the total Late Archaic sample, they also are well represented and were recovered
from all Late Archaic components yielding reasonably large samples of artifacts (12 or more shaped
artifacts).
The Late Archaic assemblage appears to represent technological strategies adapted to mobility, but where
the frequency of mobility was not so extreme as to preclude the use of a variety of tool-production
options. Such a mixed strategy is consistent with the interpretation that small Late Archaic sites in the
interior were relatively mobile residential camps.
The Early Woodland sample (132 artifacts from 8 components) is absolutely dominated by bifaces (78
percent of the aggregated assemblage), and bifaces were recovered from all Early Woodland sites. Cores,
on the other hand, are very rare. There are only five cores among the Early Woodland artifacts, compared
with over 100 bifaces. It is notable that all the Early Woodland cores were recovered from a single site,
that site being located much closer to Onondaga chert outcrops than the others.
The Early Woodland assemblages exhibit an extreme reliance on bifaces with relatively little use of
production alternatives. The strategy is consistent with expectations for task-specific groups engaged in
highly mobile logistical activities.
The aggregated Late Woodland assemblage (1,305 artifacts from 17 components) is almost the converse
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of the Early Woodland sample. Flake cores dominate the assemblage, accounting for three-quarters of the
shaped chert artifacts. Bifaces, on the other hand, are very rare, amounting to less than 5 percent of the
combined Late Woodland total. Despite their low frequencies, however, bifaces must have played some
consistently important role in Late Woodland technological strategies, since they were recovered from all
but 2 (89 percent) of the studied sites.
The character of the Late Woodland assemblages, considered in aggregate, is that which would be
expected for long-term base camps where diverse tool forms were necessary and where tool production
and use was not restricted by the necessity of tool portability.
A Late Woodland chert quarry assemblage is excluded from the combined Late Woodland totals in Figure
2. Chert quarries might be expected to have quite different proportions of artifact classes than other sites,
and the sample does not include functionally equivalent Late Archaic or Early Woodland sites. In fact,
however, inclusion of the quarry assemblage in the sample would make little difference in the overall
proportions of artifact classes. The chert quarry is included in later discussions of unretouched flake
assemblage characteristics.
Figure 2 demonstrates that the tool-production strategies employed at small, interior sites of the Late
Archaic, Early Woodland, and Late Woodland periods were very different. Within each period, chipped
stone tools were produced both by extensive bifacial shaping and the simple detachment of useable flakes
from unshaped cores, but the use of these distinct methods differed in frequency among culture-historical
periods in this site sample. Bifacially shaped tools were clearly the predominant tool form during the two
earlier periods, while they appear to be relatively rare at small Late Woodland sites. Production of simple
flake tools from cores was the predominant strategy at most Late Woodland sites, and the low incidence
of marginally retouched tools (relative to cores) suggests that most cores were used to create unretouched
flake tools.
Differences among the aggregated chipped stone assemblages of the three culture-historical periods
indicate distinct tool-production strategies that accommodated the requirements of different mobility
strategies. However, there are marked sample size variances from one site to another in this sample. Some
site assemblages include hundreds of shaped chert artifacts, but 18 components (40 percent) each yielded
fewer than 10 chipped stone artifacts. Such sample-size variances limit our ability to recognize and
interpret variability among small sites within culture-historical periods. This is especially problematic for
the Late Woodland sample, where two distinct tool-production strategies were predicted on the basis of
modeled expectations of site function. We must turn to a class of artifacts that is abundant at all sites to
overcome the sample-size problems inherent in the study of small sites.
Flake Assemblage Characteristics
Flakes are abundant at even the smallest sites. Flakes provide evidence for the production methods and
stages of manufacture of the artifacts from which the flakes were detached, evidence that is explicable in
terms of the mechanics of tool production (see Amick and Mauldin 1989; Shott 1994; Morrow 1997 for
recent overviews of flake analysis). Flakes provide strong evidence for technological strategies, evidence
that is not dependent upon good site preservation or large samples of shaped artifacts.
Flake samples from 45 site components were analyzed using a suite of nominal and metric variables
designed to obtain information about the forms of the cores, tool-blanks, and tools from which flakes were
detached and the nature of the reduction process. Two multistate variables describe the flake's dorsal
surface, three multistate variables describe striking platform preparation, and two continuous variables,
maximum dimension and thickness, measure flake dimensions. Flakes with maximum dimensions less than
10 mm were excluded from analysis to minimize size-related biases resulting from different recovery
techniques or varied field conditions. Variable definitions, sampling, and analytical procedures are
described and discussed in detail in Cowan (1994:110-125).
Seven measures were chosen to summarize the general character of the 45 flake assemblages and permit
intersite comparisons among the sampled sites. These measures include the proportions of flakes bearing
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cortex on dorsal surfaces, proportions of flakes with angular or irregular dorsal surface cross-sections,
proportions of flakes with cortical striking platform remnants, proportions of flakes with platform edge
(core face) trimming, proportions of flakes with platform-edge grinding or abrasion, median flake
thicknesses, and median maximum-dimension-to-thickness ratios. These measures demonstrated wide
variability among the 45 small site components, but systematic differences among culture-historically
grouped sites were also observable in variable-by-variable comparisons.
Flake Assemblage Index
Analytical comparisons of large numbers of flake assemblages by multiple variables are rendered less
cumbersome, more comprehensible, and more robust by a simplification of these data. A single set of
index values that summarizes the overall multi variate trends of the characteristics of these flake
assemblages was obtained by performing a principal components analysis of the summarized flakeassemblage data, using the seven technologically sensitive variables listed above. The first factor of an
unrotated principal components analysis tends to provide a "general factor" (Hair et al. 1987:241-243)
that accounts for the largest amount of variance and provides the single best summary of linear
relationships among the data. The first principal components factor scores for the 45 sites vary around a
mean value of zero (0), and, in this sample, have values that range from -5.83 to 3.49. This set of factor
scores provides an excellent summary index of the flake assemblage characteristics, accounting for threequarters of the observed variability in the original data set (eigenvalue = 5.084).
The lowest flake assemblage index values (negative factor scores) represent flake assemblages dominated
by thick, cortical flakes with angular dorsal surfaces and little platform surface- or platform-edge
preparation. The highest positive values indicate the converse characteristics, assemblages dominated by
relatively thin flakes that are infrequently cortical, have smoothly contoured dorsal surfaces, and exhibit
considerable investment in the preparation of the striking platform prior to flake detachment. These
associations suggest a progression running from flake assemblages dominated by chert procurement
activities, such as the testing of raw materials and shaping of cores at the Late Woodland chert quarry, to
the use of cores for the production of flake tools and blanks, to flake assemblages dominated by the
careful thinning and shaping of extensively shaped bifacial tools.
This interpretation of the flake assemblage index (factor) scores is supported by Figure 3, in which index
values are plotted against the proportions of bifacially flaked artifacts (points and bifaces) in the shaped
artifact assemblages of the 27 site assemblages that yielded 10 or more shaped chert artifacts. A
significant linear relationship exists between the multivariate index of flake assemblage characteristics and
the proportions of bifacial tools in the shaped tool assemblages (F = 76.19; df = 1, 25; p [much less than]
.001). Three-quarters ([r.sup.2] = .753) of the variability among flake assemblage index values can be
accounted for by variability in the proportions of bifacially shaped tools in the assemblages. The strength
of this relationship indicates that the multivariate index provides a strong measure of tool-production
activities, a measure useful even for sites that yielded very small samples of shaped artifacts.
Flake Assemblage Comparisons by Period
The flake assemblage index scores permit determination of the predominant tool-making strategies
employed at individual sites, regardless of the adequacy of the samples of shaped chert artifacts. Late
Archaic components are predicted to have been camps where bifacial tool- production methods
predominated, but where alternative tool-making methods were also employed. The flake assemblage
index scores should reflect mixed technological strategies with mid-range values. Early Woodland index
scores should have high values, indicating a reliance on bifacial tool production. The Late Woodland
index scores should exhibit a wide range and tendencies toward a bimodal distribution, reflecting camps
where core-flaking predominated and others where bifacial tool production predominated.
Figure 4 compares the flake assemblage index score distributions among the Late Archaic, Early
Woodland, and Late Woodland components. The flake assemblage index scores have been rounded to
integers in Figure 4 to facilitate graphical comparisons. The rounded index values for the entire sample of

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site components range from -6 to +3. Strong differences among culture-historical periods are readily
evident (the Mood median test, a nonparametric alternative to ANOVA [Minitab 1989], yields a [X.sup.2]
statistic of 10.46; df = 2; p = .006).
Late Archaic components exhibit strong clustering around the mean index value (0), indicating a mixed
technological strategy of bifacial tool production along with the production of simple flake tools from
cores (compare index values with Figure 3). The Late Archaic values approximate a normal distribution,
suggesting a relatively consistent set of tool-production behaviors among components. These results are
congruent with expectations for moderately mobile residential settlements, where the raw material
transport constraints of mobility were balanced against the tool-production needs of whole social groups
and wide ranges of residential site activities.
The Early Woodland values cluster at the high end of the range of index values. These components are
dominated by very thin biface thinning flakes resulting from thinning and shaping Meadowood bifaces
(Granger 1978a, 1981; Ritchie 1969:183) from flake blanks and bifacial preforms. Six of the eight
components in the sample exhibit index values beyond the range of other periods. These results are what
would be expected for short-term sites used by highly mobile task groups whose tool needs could be met
with a few general-purpose tools.
The Late Woodland components exhibit, by far, the greatest range of flake assemblage index values,
ranging from -6 to +2 on the index scale. The lowest values of the index scale of flake assemblage
characteristics are those of a Late Woodland chert quarry (-6) and a Late Woodland site midden dump
(-5). Even discounting the flake assemblage values for the chert quarry and midden dump components,
archaeological contexts unique to the Late Woodland sample, the Late Woodland index values of -4 to +2
still exceed the ranges of Late Archaic or Early Woodland index values. Seven components exhibit index
values lower than those of any other period, a finding congruent with the very high proportions of cores
among the chipped stone artifacts of the Late Woodland sites.
The most important fact about the Late Woodland distribution, however, is the apparent bimodality of the
flake assemblage index values, suggestive of two distinct modes of technological behavior. The lowest end
of the distribution is unique to the Late Woodland components in this sample, and consists offtake
assemblages predominantly produced by core flaking. A second mode of higher flake assemblage index
scores overlaps both the upper range of the Late Archaic distribution and the lowest values of the Early
Woodland distribution. The higher mode of index values indicates an emphasis on the production of
extensively shaped bifacial tools at some Late Woodland sites.
The Late Woodland settlement model predicted two distinct patterns of small Late Woodland sites:
seasonal base camps and briefly occupied logistical camps. Such site function differences are expected to
be accompanied by different technological strategies: a predominant reliance on flake tool production
from cores at seasonal base camps and bifacial tool production at logistical camps. Figure 4 provides
strong evidence for that technological dichotomy. This pattern is particularly noteworthy in that the
technological strategies of the Late Archaic and Early Woodland periods were expected to be relatively
redundant among small interior sites. While there are strong technological differences between the Late
Archaic and Early Woodland components, there is relatively little variation among the components of
each of those periods. The flake assemblages indicate systematic variation in tool-production and -use
strategies, providing strong evidence for different organizational roles and different mobility levels for the
sites of these three culture-historical periods.
It is important to recognize, however, that flake assemblages from most archaeological components
represent numerous tool-production events that may have involved complex mixes of tool-production
strategies and different stages of tool production. To some extent, aggregate descriptions of flake
assemblages risk masking important variation in the composition of the assemblages. Differences in
aggregate descriptions of flake assemblages may represent different technological strategies, or they may
simply represent proportionate differences in the stages of production within similar strategies. While the
flake index scores in Figure 4 accurately describe the overall characteristics of flake assemblages, it is

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useful to examine some of the constituent elements of those assemblages in greater detail.
Cortical and Noncortical Flake Assemblage Comparisons
Greater detail in the composition of flake assemblages may be gained by separate analyses of cortical and
noncortical flakes. Cortex-bearing flakes should provide information about the forms of the lithic
materials introduced to or acquired at sites. The character of noncortical flakes should provide greater
detail about the forms of tools produced at sites.
Figure 5 summarizes the character of the flake assemblages as a bivariate plot of flake assemblage index
scores (first principal components factor scores) obtained by separate principal components analyses of
cortical flake and noncortical flake assemblages. The Late Archaic, Early Woodland, and Late Woodland
components are indicated by different symbols in the scatterplot.
Low values (negative values) on the x-axis of Figure 5 indicate cortical flake assemblages dominated by
thick flakes with large amounts of cortex on the dorsal surfaces, angular dorsal surface cross-sections,
cortical platforms, and little or no platform-edge preparation. High index scores for cortical flakes
represent assemblages in which flakes tend to bear only small patches of dorsal surface cortex, where the
flakes are thin, tend to have smooth dorsal surfaces, and have complexly shaped platforms and carefully
prepared platform edges. Assemblages with very high values are dominated by "biface thinning flakes,"
distinguished only by the fact that the dorsal flake surfaces retain small patches of cortex.
Low principal components scores for noncortical flake assemblages (y-axis of Figure 5) represent flakes
that are thick and angular in cross-section, that commonly have conical striking platform surfaces
(although lacking cortex on the dorsal surfaces) and exhibit little platform edge preparation. These
characteristics are expected to predominate in assemblages where most flakes were detached from
unprepared or minimally prepared cores. High values represent assemblages dominated by flakes that are
thin, have smoothly contoured dorsal surfaces, and that exhibit complexly scarred platform surfaces and
careful platform edge preparation. The highest values for noncortical flakes are assemblages dominated by
classic biface thinning flakes.
Comparison of the conical and noncortical flake assemblage values [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 5
OMITTED] indicates a positive, linear relationship between the two sets of index scores (F = 38.38; df =
1, 43; p [less than] .001). Forty-six percent of the variance in the index values of noncortical flakes is
accounted for by variance in the index values for cortical flakes. The strength of this relationship suggests
that the tool-production strategies to be used at these small sites were anticipated by toolmakers, and raw
materials in appropriate forms were transported to those sites. The tool requirements for the use of each
site were well understood, and provisions were made to accommodate those requirements.
Inspection of Figure 5 indicates strongly patterned differences among culture-historical periods. The Late
Archaic assemblages are clustered in the middle of the bivariate distribution. Raw materials were
transported to the Late Archaic components in a variety of forms, but were used in a fairly consistent
manner. Late Archaic flake assemblages indicate a generalized bifacial tool-production strategy with a
secondary emphasis on the production of flake tools from cores. The Late Archaic tool-production
strategy was eclectic but relatively consistent from site to site.
Early Woodland flake assemblages indicate that, for the most part, raw materials were reduced to readily
transported preforms before being carried to the sampled sites. Those preforms were used to produce very
thin bifacial tools (Meadowood bifaces). The Early Woodland flake values exhibit a high degree of
consistency among components, but, unlike the Archaic tool-production strategy, the Early Woodland
strategy appears to be highly specialized, both in the forms of raw materials introduced to sites and in the
forms of the tools produced at those sites.
In one Early Woodland case, the conical flake index is considerably lower than the other Early Woodland
components [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 5 OMITTED]. At that site, located on a gravel-rich moraine
well to the south of the Onondaga escarpment, local gravel cherts were employed to make simple

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expedient tools. However, none of the noncortical flakes appeared to be comparable to the gravel chert,
and the thinning and shaping of bifacial tools was limited to material transported from the Onondaga
escarpment.
Late Woodland flake assemblages show the greatest amount of intercomponent variability in the character
of both the cortical and noncortical flake samples. That variability is not random, however. Figure 5
indicates two distinct clusters of site components (indicated by enclosing lines on the graph). The cluster
with low values for both cortical flakes and noncortical flakes indicates the use of minimally modified
blocks of chert as cores for simple flake tool production. A second cluster has mid-range values for
cortical flakes and mid-range to relatively high values for noncortical flakes. These flake assemblages
represent sites in which raw materials were introduced as moderately shaped cores and/or preforms and in
which the primary production goal consisted of extensively shaped bifacial tools. Two distinct strategies
of tool production are indicated by the Late Woodland site component clusters. These distinctions
conform exactly to anticipated tool-production strategies for small sites of the Iroquoian Late Woodland
settlement system in western New York: flake tool production from cores for use at seasonal base camps
and bifacial tool production for use at logistical camps.
Separate consideration of cortical and noncortical flakes may provide more detail and greater resolution to
the nature of a flake assemblage than is obtained from a single measure of the character of a flake
assemblage. In this instance, different dimensions of technological strategies can be detected in the nature
of lithic materials transported to sites, the forms of tools produced at those sites, and the concordance of
those two sets of technological decisions.
Technological Strategies and Mobility Patterns
Analyses of chipped stone tool and flake assemblages from 45 archaeological components in western New
York indicate strongly patterned differences in the tool-production strategies employed at small Late
Archaic, Early Woodland, and Late Woodland sites within the interior of the region. These differences
support hypothesized models of mobility and the patterns of use of interior sites among three culturehistorical periods.
The mix of tool-production strategies at Late Archaic components suggest that these sites represent the
residential camps of small social groups who moved often to exploit dispersed subsistence resources.
While tool kits were designed to accommodate relatively frequent residential mobility, a broad range of
tool forms and production methods are consistently found at these sites, indicating that a broad range of
tool-using activities took place at most sites. Mobility clearly underpins this portion of the Late Archaic
settlement system, but the frequency of residential moves was not so great as to preclude a diverse range
of tool-production methods.
The Early Woodland components suggest quite a different technological strategy and a different set of
mobility requirements than is evident for the Archaic components. The Early Woodland assemblages are
dominated by thin Meadowood bifaces and the by-products of their manufacture. Raw materials were
introduced to the sites as extensively prepared blanks and preforms. It is unlikely that these sites were
residences for whole social groups or that extensive ranges of tool-use activities were carried out with
such specialized tool kits. Instead, the Early Woodland components appear to represent extremely mobile
circumstances, for which small, lightweight, and easily transported tool kits were required. The
technological strategies of the Early Woodland Meadowood components indicate that these small sites
were short-term logistical camps, rather than multifunctional residential camps.
The small Late Woodland sites are quite different from those of earlier periods. Provisioning villagedwelling populations required at least two distinctive classes of small sites. One class consisted of seasonal
base camps used by small family groups tending agricultural crops beyond the immediate vicinity of the
main villages. Other sites were short-term logistical camps used for the procurement and processing of
game and other forest products to be transported back to the villages or to seasonal base camps. The
former group of sites exhibits technological strategies commensurate with the diverse activities associated

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with base camps and an absence of the constraints to technological strategies that are associated with high
mobility. These sites exhibit an emphasis on flake tool production from cores. The second group of sites
exhibits technological strategies suited to higher levels of mobility, most conspicuously, a greater reliance
on bifacial tools. Flake characteristics indicate two clusters of flake assemblages, a pattern congruent with
these two strategies.
The people who made and used stone tools tailored the designs and production methods of their tools to
facilitate larger economic and social goals. We need to understand the conditions under which one tool
design would have been selected over another. Differential mobility is one dimension of prehistoric
economic and social strategies shown to have profound effects on the design of tools and the methods of
tool production. Understanding these relationships allows us to distinguish settlement strategies and learn
about the roles of small sites within larger settlement systems. Understanding these relationships is
especially important for comprehending the organizational roles of poorly preserved sites.
Acknowledgments. Philip Arnold, Susan Bender, Shannon Fie, Lynne Goldstein, Joseph Granger, Eric
Hansen, Margaret Nelson, Ben Nelson, George Odell, Douglas Perrelli, and two anonymous reviewers
provided many theoretical and substantive insights as well as useful editorial comments of earlier versions
of this paper. All were very helpful, and they improved this paper immensely. Any remaining failings are
mine alone. I also thank Theresa Jolly for preparing the Spanish-language translation of the abstract.
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