INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL DRIVES

Drives are employed for systems that require motion control e.g. transportation system, fans,
robots, pumps, machine tools, etc. Prime movers are required in drive systems to provide the
movement or motion and energy that is used to provide the motion can come from various
sources: diesel engines, petrol engines, hydraulic motors, electric motors etc.
Drives that use electric motors as the prime movers are known as electrical drives. It is
estimated that about half of electricity generated is converted to mechanical energy and this
conversion is performed using electric drives.
There are several advantages of electrical drives:
a. Flexible control characteristic This is particularly true when power electronic
converters are employed where the dynamic and steady state characteristics of the motor
can be controlled by controlling the applied voltage or current.
b. Available in wide range of speed, torque and power; they are available in mW up to MW
range.
c. High efficiency, low noise, low maintenance requirements and cleaner operation
d. Electric energy is easy to be transported over long distances.
e. Adaptable to various operating conditions: explosive, submerged in liquid, various types
of mounting, etc
f. Can be started instantly and can be fully loaded immediately (no need to warm-up or refueling the motor)
A typical conventional electric drive system for variable speed application employing multimachine system is shown in Figure 1, which also known as the Ward-Leonard system. The
variable speed of the load is obtained by varying the terminal voltage of the DC motor, which is
fed by the DC generator. The AC motor is mechanically coupled to the DC generator and hence
runs at constant speed. Subsequently, the field excitation of the DC generator is adjusted in
order to provide the adjustable DC voltage to the DC machine. If the DC generator voltage is
adjusted to be lower than the back EMF voltage of the DC motor, the motor will be operated in
regenerative braking mode. In other words, 4-quadrant operation is possible with this
configuration. Obviously, the system is bulky, expensive, inflexible and require regular
maintenance due to the present of the DC machines. In the past, for constant speed application,
induction and synchronous motors were widely. An efficient variable speed operation of AC
motors is only possible if both the frequency and magnitude of the 3-phase supply voltage are
adjustable; unfortunately this is used to be almost impossible.
Ia

AC
motor

fixed
speed

variable
DC

DC
generator

If

variable
speed
DC
motor

Load

Figure 1 Conventional variable speed electrical drive system

With the advancement in power electronics, microprocessors and digital electronics, typical
electric drive systems nowadays are becoming more compact, efficient, cheaper and versatile
this is shown in Figure 2. The voltage and current (magnitude and frequency) applied to the
motor can be changed at will by employing power electronic converters. AC motor is no longer
limited to applications where only AC source is available, however, it can also be used when the
power source available is DC or vice versa
1

Power
Processor

Power
Source

Motor

(Power electronic
Converters)

Load

feedback
Control

Control
Unit

Figure 2 Modern Electric drive system employing power electronic converters

Like other power electronic systems, modern electric drives is a multi-disciplinary field. The
drive systems can be broken into several different research areas, as depicted in Figure 3.

Utility interface
Renewable energy

Machine design
Speed sensorless
Machine theory

Non-linear control
Real-time control
DSP application
PFC
sensors
Speed sensorless
Power electronic converters

Figure 3 Multi-disciplinary nature of electric drive system

Components of Electrical Drives

The main components of a modern electrical drive are the motor, power processor, control unit
electrical source and the mechanical load. These components are different from one drive
system to another drive system, depending upon the applications, cost, available electrical
source, etc. These are briefly discussed below.
a) Motors
Motors obtain power from electrical sources. They convert energy from electrical to
mechanical - therefore can be regarded as energy converters. In braking mode, the flow of
power is reversed. Depending upon the type of power converters used, it is also possible for
2

the power to be fed back to the sources (regenerative braking) rather than dissipated as heat
(dynamic braking). There are several types of motors used in electric drives the choice of
the type to be used depends on applications, cost, environmental factors and also on the
type of sources available. Broadly, they can be classified as either DC or AC motors:
DC motors (wound or permanent magnet)
AC motors
Induction motors squirrel cage, wound rotor
Synchronous motors wound field, permanent magnet
Brushless DC motor require power electronic converters
Stepper motors require power electronic converters
Synchronous reluctance motors or switched reluctance motor require power electronic
converters
b) Power processor or power modulator
Typically, electrical sources are uncontrollable. For instance, if it is an AC source, the
frequency and magnitude are fixed (from the utility company), or maybe both are varying
randomly (such as obtained from wind generator). It is therefore necessary to provide an
interface between the available electrical source and the motor so that the power flow
between the source and the motor, hence the speed of the motor or the torque can be
systematically regulated and controlled - this is achieved by using power processor or
power modulator. With controllable sources, the motor can be reversed, brake or can even
be operated with variable speed. Conventional power processor (non- power electronics
approached) used, for example, variable impedance or relays, to shape the voltage or current
that is supplied to the motor these methods are inflexible, inefficient and have limited
control capability. In modern electric drive systems, power electronic converters are used to
shape the desired voltage or current that is supplied to the motor. The power converters are
commonly used to convert one form of electrical power to another (e.g. AC to DC, DC to AC,
etc). The main advantage of using power electronic converters is because of their high
efficiency. With power electronic converters, characteristic of the motors can be changed at
will to adapt the load requirements. Power electronic converters have several advantages
over classical methods of power conversion, such as :
More efficient since ideally no losses occur in power electronic converters
Flexible voltage and current can be shaped by simply controlling the switching
functions of the power converter
Compact smaller, compact and higher ratings solidstate power electronic devices are
continuously being developed the prices are getting cheaper.
Power electronic converters are typically consists of power semiconductor devices and
passive elements, such as inductors and/or capacitors. The losses in power semiconductor
devices are minimized since they are always operated in either cut-off or saturated modes.
The conversion of electrical power from one form to another can be performed with either
single-stage conversion or multiple-stage conversion. For example a conversion from AC to
DC can be performed in two stages (ACDCDC) or it can be performed with single stage
conversion, i.e. ACDC. The choice of which one to choose, in general, depends on
application requirements, such as control bandwidth, output voltage or current ripples, cost,
etc.
AC to DC conversion

Diode
rectifier

AC

Controlled
rectifier

DC-DC
converter

DC

control

AC

AC

control

DC

DC to AC

DC-DC
converter

DC

DC

control

Inverter
(PWM)

Inverter
(six-step)
control

DC

AC

control

AC

DC to DC

DC-DC
Converter

DC

control

DC

AC to AC
Controlled
Rectifier

AC

control

Diode
Rectifier

Inverter
(six-step)

DC

control

AC

AC

Inverter
(PWM)

DC

control

AC

Matrix
Converter

AC

c)

control

AC

Control Unit
Control unit is used to generate the switching signals to the power switches of the power
converters. The switching signals are generated depending on the control scheme adopted,
which depends on the desired drive performance and the type of motors used. A controller
can be as simple as few op-amps and/or a few digital ICs, or it can be as complex as the
combinations of several ASICs and digital signal processors (DSPs). The controllers can be
constructed from/using:
analog circuit - which is noisy, inflexible. However, analog circuit ideally can provide
infinite control bandwidth.
digital circuit immune to noise, configurable. The bandwidth is obviously limited that
depends on the sampling frequency. Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) devices are
gaining popularity due to their re-configurable features. However implementation of
sophisticated control algorithm and observers can be very difficult and complex.
DSP/microprocessor flexible, lower bandwidth compared to the digital circuit. DSPs
perform faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in a single cycle). With a
DSP/microprocessor, complex estimations and observers can be easily implemented.
4

Most of the time, the control unit has to be electrically isolated from the power converters
using opto-coupler or pulse transformers, for the following reasons:
Malfunction in power circuit may damage control circuit if no electrical isolation
is present.
Safety for the operator the high voltage and/or high current faulty condition in
the power circuit can be conducted to the control circuit normally maintained by
an operator/user
Avoid conduction of harmonic to control circuit. Power electronic converters
generate harmonics that can conduct to the control circuit thus interfering with
its operation.
d) Source
Electrical sources or power supplies provide the energy to the electrical motors. Power
sources can be of AC or DC in nature and normally are uncontrollable, i.e. their magnitudes
and frequencies are either fixed or varying, depending on the sources of energy such as
battery, power utility, fuel cell, etc. Fixed frequency and fixed magnitude AC source is
normally obtained from power utility and can be either three-phase or single-phase; 3-phase
sources are normally for high power applications. In order to efficiently control the motor,
regardless of whether it is a DC or AC source (and depending on the type of the motor), it
has to be regulated using power electronics converters before being fed to the motor. Power
electronics converters typically have poor input power factor and it is sometimes necessary
for the power converters to be operated with high power factor; if this is needed, power factor
correction circuit has to be introduced.
e) Sensors
Sensors for voltage, current, speed or torque are required for closed-loop operation and
protections in electrical drive systems. Signals from these sensors have to be isolated from
the control unit for the same reasons as explained before. Electrical isolation in voltage and
current sensors are obtained using, for example, Hall-ffect sensors/devices. For high
performance drive system, the speed is obtained from high-resolution speed encoders or
resolvers. The terms sensorless drive is normally referred to a drive system that does not
need a mechanical speed sensor but rather the speed is estimated using motor terminal
variables i.e. voltages and currents.
There can be several factors that affect the selection of different configuration of electrical drive
system such as:
a) Torque and speed profile - determine the ratings of converters and the quadrant of
operation required.
b) Capital and running cost Drive systems will vary in terms of start-up cost and running
cost, e.g. maintenance.
c) Space and weight restrictions
d) Environment and location

Comparison between DC and AC drives

Motors :
DC require maintenance, heavy, expensive, speed limited by mechanical construction
AC less maintenance, light, cheaper, robust, high speed (esp. squirrelcage type)
Control unit:
DC drives: Simple control decoupling torque and flux by mechanical commutator the
controller can be implemented using simple analog circuit even for high performance
torque control. This means that cheaper cost for the controller.
AC drives, the types of controllers to be used depend on the required drive performance
obviously, cost increases with performance. Scalar control drives technique does not
5

require fast processor/DSP whereas in Field Oriented Control (FOC) or Direct Torque
Control (DTC) drives, DSPs or fast processors are normally employed.
Performance:
In DC motors, flux and torque components are always magnetically perpendicular to one
another thanks to the mechanical commutator and brushes. The torque is controlled via
the armature current while maintaining the field component constant. Fast torque and
decouple control between flux and torque components can be achieved easily.
In AC machines, in particular the induction machines, magnetic coupling between
phases and between stator and rotor windings makes the modeling and torque control
difficult and complex. Control of the steady state operating conditions is accomplished
by controlling the magnitude and the frequency of the applied voltage; which is known
as the scalar control technique. This is satisfactory for some applications, however for a
more demanding applications such as elevators, electric vehicles, machine tools, it
unacceptable because of the poor transient response and poor precision. The transient
response and precision can be improved by applying the vector control technique; the
decoupling between the torque and flux components is achieved through frame
transformations. Implementation of this control technique is complex thus requires fast
processors such as DSPs.
Overview of AC and DC drives
The advancement in electric drive system is very much related to the development in the power
semiconductor devices technology. The introduction of the Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) in
1957 has initiated the application of solid state devices in power converters. The development of
the electrical drives systems can be divided into three stages
Before power semiconductor devices were introduced:
AC drives were used for fixed speed operation. Generating an AC voltage with variable
frequency was only possible by using rotary converters, which are bulky and inflexible. Although
it is possible to use variable voltage with fixed frequency sources (for example using
transformers) to control the speed of AC motors, the efficiency of the drive system will be very
poor especially at low speeds. On the other hand, variable DC supply can be produced using
multi-machine configuration (Ward Leonhard system) and hence could be used to control the
armature voltage of the DC motors. Consequently, DC drives are widely used for variable speed
operation, whereas AC machines were used mainly for fixed speed applications.
After power semiconductor devices were introduced in 1950s
Although self-turnoff devices (Bipolar Junction Transistor BJT) were available in the
1950s their voltage ratings were too low which make them inappropriate to be used in power
circuit. Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) was introduced in 1957. The higher ratings of SCR
compared to the solid state transistor at that time, has made it possible for it to be used in
static frequency converters or inverters for high power applications. Speed control with AC
motor can be performed because variable frequency AC supply can be generated using inverters.
However, since the switching frequency of an SCR was low which require commutation circuit in
order to turn-off, square wave inverters were mainly used in AC drive system. In early 1960s,
the improvement in the fabrication of BJT along with the introduction of pulse width modulation
(PWM) control technique has significantly contributed to the improvement in the AC motor
drives. Transient torque control to some extend was nearly achieved to the expense of a very
complex algorithm with numerous approximations. The true high performance torque control
similar to DC drives was still not achievable due to the complex magnetic coupling between
phases in the stator and rotor of the AC machines. Nevertheless, DC drives were gradually being
replaced with AC drives in medium performance variable speed applications. Applications
requiring precise and fast torque control were still dominated by DC drives.
After semiconductor devices were introduced in 1980s
In 1972, Prof. Blashke published his approach of AC motor control, to what is now
known as Field Oriented Control (FOC) or vector control. FOC control basically transformed the
6

control of AC motors to the one similar to DC motor control. In other words, the high
performance torque control can be achieved using AC motors. This is possible through complex
frame transformations and algorithm. However not until in the early 80s, where faster
microprocessors were available, the algorithm used for FOC was not practically realizable. In
1980s, increasing number of applications utilizing FOC control could be found in industries.
Applications which were previously possible only with DC drives were gradually being replaced
with FOC of AC drives. It was predicted that the AC drives will eventually replace the DC drives
in the near future.
Four-quadrant operation of a drive system
The quadrant of operation of a drive system is defined by the speed and the torque of the motor;
this can be illustrated using the -T graph shown in Figure 4. The circles in each of the
quadrant can be considered to represent the rotor or shaft of the rotating machine. The plane is
divided into 4 quadrants, thus 4 modes of operation, based on the directions of the speed and
torque. The quadrants are marked as I, II, III and IV. The positive or forward speed is arbitrarily
chosen in counterclockwise direction (it can also be chosen as clockwise). The positive torque is
in the direction that will produce acceleration in forward speed.
Most of the rotating electric motors can operate in all quadrants, i.e. capable of operating in
forward and reverse directions. On the other hand, not all power converters can operate in all
quadrants; some class of converters can operate only in single quadrant, some in 2 quadrants
and some in 4 quadrants. In order for a drive system to be able to operate in all 4 quadrants,
both, the motor and power converter, must be capable of operating in 4 quadrants. Quadrants
of operation for power converters are discussed in the next section.

Te

Te

II

I
T

Te

III

IV

Te

Figure 4 Four-quadrant operation of a drive system

Quadrant I
Both torque and speed are positive the motor rotates in forward direction, which is in the same
direction as the motor torque. The power of the motor is the product of the speed and torque (P
= Te), therefore the power of the motor is positive. Energy is converted from electrical form to
mechanical form, which is used to rotate the motor. The mode of operation is known as forward
motoring.

Quadrant II
The speed is in forward direction but the motor torque is in opposite direction or negative value.
The torque produced by the motor is used to brake the forward rotation of the motor. The
mechanical energy accumulated during the braking, is converted to electrical energy thus the
flow of energy is from the mechanical system to the electrical system. However the flow of energy
back to the source is only possible if the power converter is capable of doing so. The product of
the torque and speed is negative thus the power is negative, implying that the motor operates
as a generator, i.e. in braking mode. The mode of operation is known as forward braking.
Example: In DC motor drive (separately excited or permanent magnet) for example, forward braking
is initiated when the armature terminal voltage of a motor rotating in forward direction is reduced
lower than the back EMF of the motor. This forces the current to flow in reverse direction thus
implying a negative torque (2nd quadrant). The motor speed reduces to a new steady state speed
and again operates in the quadrant 1.
Quadrant III
The speed and the torque of the motor are in the same direction but are both negative. The
reverse electrical torque is used to rotate the motor in reverse direction. The power, i.e. the
product of the torque and speed, is positive implying that the motor operates in motoring mode.
The energy is converted from electrical form to mechanical form. This mode of operation is
known as reverse motoring.
Example: If the motor initially operates in quadrant 1 (forward speed), it will have to operate in
forward braking first before the speed can be reversed (quadrant 3). In order to move from
quadrant 1 to quadrant 3, the voltage applied to the motor terminal has to be reversed.
Quadrant IV
The speed is in reverse direction but the torque is positive. The motor torque is used to brake
the reverse rotation of the motor. The mechanical energy gained during the braking is converted
to electrical form thus power flow is from the mechanical system to the electrical system. The
product of the speed and torque is negative implying that the motor operates as a generator,
i.e. in braking mode. This mode of operation is known as reverse braking.

Torque Equations For Rotating Systems

The Newtons Law states that, the net force acting on a body of mass M equals to the rate of
change of its mechanical momentum, which is the product of its mass and its velocity in the
direction of the net force. In the equation form, this is given by

F=d

(Mv )
dv
dM
=M
+v
dt
dt
dt

(1)

where F is the net force acting on the body, M is the mass of the body and v is its velocity. This
is illustrated by Figure 5.
x
v
Fp

F = Fp Ff
F=M

Ff

Figure 5 Translational motion

With constant mass, (1) can be written as

8

dv
dt

F=M

dv
dt

For rotational motion (which is the case for rotating electrical machines), the force, the mass
and the linear velocity in translational motion are equivalent to the torque, the moment of
inertia and the angular velocity, respectively. Equation (1) can therefore be written as

T=d

(J)
d
dJ
=J
+
dt
dt
dt

(3)

where T is the net torque, J is the moment of inertia and is the angular velocity. The rotational
system which is analogous to the translational system of Figure 5 is shown in Figure 6.

, Te

T = Te Tl

TL
J

T=J

d
dt

Figure 6 Rotational motion

For most of the cases, J is constant thus reducing (3) to

T=J

d
dt

(4)

In terms of the angular position, , this can be written as

T=J

d 2
dt 2

(5)

For rotating electrical machines, the net torque is given by

T = Te Tl = J

d
dt

(6)

where Te is the internal electrical torque produced by the motor, Tl is the load torque and/or the
internal friction of the motor. T is the available torque at the shaft and is responsible for
accelerating the inertia of the motor. T is also known as the dynamic torque and it only exists
during the transient (i.e. acceleration and deceleration). In order to accelerate in forward
direction, Te Tl must be positive; which means that the applied electrical torque must be larger
than the load torque. In order to decelerate, the net torque must be negative; the electrical
torque must be made smaller than the load torque and the motor operates in braking mode
more on this later. Note that the speed is always continuous. A discontinuity in speed (i.e. step
change in speed) theoretically will require an infinite torque. This is analogous to the voltage and
current across a capacitor in which discontinuity in capacitor voltage is not allowed as it
corresponds to an infinite capacitor current.
Equation (4) relates the torque and the mechanical speed (or position) of the machine. For a
given electrical torque profile, with the known moment of inertia and the load torque, the speed
profile of the drive system can be determined. In a torque-controlled drive system, the speed is

governed by the load. If the load torque comprise of only the frictional torque which is
proportional to the speed, (4) can be written as

Te = J

d
+ B
dt

(7)

Equation (7) can be easily simulated using SIMULINK as shown in Figure 7. In the simulation, a
square wave torque is applied.

torque

10

tref

Add

1/J

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

speed

200

To Workspace2

Torque

-10

speed

To Workspace

-K-

1
s

1
s

pos

Integrator

Integrator1

To Workspace1

0
-200

position

100

-KB

50

Figure 7 Dynamic simulation of mechanical system

Usually in a cascaded closed-loop control system in which the speed is to be controlled, the
reference torque will be generated by the speed controller. In such cases, the torque will be
governed by the speed.
If we multiply (7) with the angular speed, we obtain an equation describing the power balance,

m Te = m Tl + m J

p D = p L + m J

dm
dt

(8)

dm
dt

Where pD = mTe is the driving power, pL = mTl is the load power and m J dm is the change in

dt

kinetic energy. Integrating the equation with time and setting the initial speed (0) = 0, we
obtain the following:
t

w D = p Dd = p Ld + m J
0

dm
d
d

w D = w L + J m dm
0

wD = wL +

1
J2m
2

(9)

The last term of (9) is the stored kinetic energy of the system. It is analogous to the energy
stored in a capacitor

( 12 Cv 2 ) or an inductor ( 12 Li2 ) . Similar to a capacitor voltage or an

10

inductor current, an angular velocity must be continuous. An abrupt (discontinuous) change

in will results in an infinite power.
Relation between translational and rotational motions
In most applications of the drive systems, the translational and rotational motions are interrelated. For instance the prime mover may be a rotational motor but the mechanical load that
needs to be driven may be has a translational motion. To consider the relationship between the
rotational and translational motions, a system shown in Figure 8 will be used.

Fm

Fl

Tm

M
Tl

v
Figure 8 Translational and rotational motions

The relation between the torques and the linear forces are given by
Tl = rFl,

Tm = rFm .

Also,
v = r
If the mass M is constant, we can write

Fm Fl = M

dv
dt

Tm Tl
d(r)

=M
r
r
dt

Tm Tl = Mr 2

d()
dt

(10)

Equation (10) states that the equivalent moment of inertia of the translational motion referred to
the axis of the pulley is given by Jequ = Mr2
System with gears
It was found out that machines designed to operate at low speeds are large in size compared to
the ones which are designed to operate at high speeds. In order to avoid the unnecessary large
size machines, high speed operations are normally preferred. However, in some applications,
slow motion with high torque is required. Consequently for such applications, gears which
reduce speed but amplify the torque, are commonly employed. An example of the hoist drive
employing gears is shown in Figure 9.

11

 1, T m

J2

Loss-free
gear

J1

J3
2r3

3
M3
Figure 9 Hoist drive with gears

The hoist drive system shown in Figure 9 can be represented by an equivalent system similar to
Figure 5. In order to do that, we need to obtain the equivalent moment of inertia and load
torque. If the mass M3 is considered being moved upwards, with the negligible frictional torque,
it can be shown that the torque equation for the equivalent system is given by

Tm = Je

d1 3
+
r3 gM3
dt
1
2

(11)

Je = J1 + 2 J2 + 3 J3 + M3r32
1
1

where

Eg1: conveyor belt system

2r m

v
belt
Figure 10 Conveyor belt

Roller

Motor

Gear
system

Figure 10 shows a belt conveyor drive system which is used to move load A which has a mass of
5 kg. Given that the frictional torque between the rollers and the belt is 25 Nm and the moment
of inertia of the rollers and motor are 250 10-3 kg-m2 and 300 10-3 kg-m2 respectively. The
radius of the roller is 0.2 m. The steady state speed of the motor is 1000 rpm and it is required
that the steady state speed of box A to be v = 3 m/s .
(i) What is the required gear ratio?
(ii) What is the equivalent moment of inertia as seen by the motor shaft?
(iii) What is the equivalent load torque as seen by the motor shaft?
12

(iv) Calculate the electrical torque needed to accelerate box A from 0 m/s (standstill) to 3
m/s in 2 second.
Solution
(i)
3 m/s 15 rad/s. The speed of the shaft is 1000 rpm = 104.72 rad/s. Hence ratio n1/n2 =
0.1432
(ii)
Moment of inertia as seen by the motors shaft is due to the roller, load A and motor.
Jequ = 300 10-3 + (0.1432)2 (250 10-3 + 5 0.22) = 0.3644 kg-m2
(iii)
The load torque is due to the frictional torque of 25 Nm only.
Tequ = (0.1432)25 = 3.58 Nm
(iv)
Using the equivalent rotating system,
Te = Tequ + Jequ (d/dt) = 3.58 + 0.3644 (104.72/2) = 22.67 Nm
Steady state operating speed
The characteristics of the motor and load are normally described based on their torque versus
speed graph or T- characteristics. The steady state T- characteristic of a motor corresponds to
the variation of its torque versus its speed, with all other variables including the voltage (or
current) and frequency (for AC motor) are kept constant. Typical shape of T- characteristics of
different motors are shown in Figure 11.

Synchronous motor

Separately excited
DC motor

Induction motor

Series DC motor

Figure 11 Typical T- characteristic for different types of motors

The loads on the other hand will have their own T- characteristics. It is the intersection
between the motor and the load T- characteristics that determines the steady state speed. This
can be seen from (6) where at steady state d/dt = 0 and Te = Tl.
The steady state torque-speed characteristic of the motor depends on the applied voltage or
current. Hence, by changing the point of intersections between the motor and load torque-speed
curves, different steady-state speeds can be achieved (Figure 12).

13

Different steady-state torque-speed

characteristics of the motor, Te

Torque

Torque-speed characteristic of
the load, Tl

speed

Different motor
speeds

Figure 12 Different steady state speeds (Tl = Te) for different motors T- characteristics

It should be noted that the graph in Figure 12 only displayed the steady state characteristics of
the load and motor. The transient responses before these steady state speeds are reached have
to be dealt with using the dynamic characteristics of the load and motor.
Components of Load Torque, Tl
In general, the load torque Tl can be classified into two types: the passive load torque (frictional
torque) and the active load torque. Frictional toque exists only when there is motion. It always
opposes the motion and changes its sign when the direction of rotation changes. Active load
torque on the other hand, is independent of the direction of motion. Active loads normally retain
their sign even when the drive changes its direction.

Frictional torque
Moving parts of the motor and load constitute the frictional torque. There are several types of
frictional as described in Figure 13 and explained below:

Coulomb friction exists in bearings, gears, coupling and brakes. It is almost

independent of speed.
Viscous friction exist in lubricated bearings due to the laminar flow of the lubricant. It
is directly proportional to the speed.
Windage friction occurs due the turbulent flow of air or liquid. It is directly proportional
to the square of speed

In practical drive system consisting of load and motor, all components of friction described
above exist simultaneously. However, in most of the cases, only one or two components are
dominating. For instance, a fan or a propeller will typically have the windage friction
dominating, whereas in paper mill and machine tools, the dominating one could be the viscous
friction.

14

Coulomb

Windage

Figure 13

Viscous

Frictional torque

Constant torque (active load)

The direction of constant load torque is independent of speed it retains the direction even
when the direction of rotation reverses or changes, e.g. gravity, tension or compression
undergone by elastic body. This type of torque is capable of driving the motor under equilibrium
and is said to be an active torque.

Speed

Gravitational
torque

Te
TL = rFL = r g M sin
TL

Torque

gM
FL

Figure 14

Constant load torque: gravitational force

Some examples of load torques

a. Load torques which are independent of the speed
Typical example would be the load caused by gravitational pull. The load does not
change sign even when the direction of motion changes.
b. Torques which are dependent on speed
- Proportional to the speed e.g. load torque due to the laminar flow of the lubricant
known as viscous friction
- Proportional to the square of the speed e.g. fan, blowers and pumps where
turbulent flow of liquid or air occurs.
- Inversely proportional to the speed this type of load consumes constant power.
Large torque required at low speed and small torqued required at high speed. E.g.
coiler used in steel strip or paper mills.

15

Thermal considerations
The losses in the machines contribute to the temperature increase in the machine. The various
parts of the machine have different temperature limits. Particularly important is the insulation
used for the windings which give rise to the different classes of machines. If the temperature
goes beyond the allowable temperature, it will cause an immediate breakdown (short circuit in
the winding) or it will deteriorate the quality and hence reduces the lifetime of the insulation
material. Allowable power losses are higher for materials which can withstand higher
temperature which translates to higher costs. The classes of the insulator used for the winding
in electrical machines are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Classification of insulators
Class
V
A
E
B
F
H
C

Max safe temperature (oC)

90
105
120
130
155
180
>180

Three main cause of power losses are:

Conductor losses (i2R)
Exist in the windings, cables, brushes, slip rings, commutator, and etc.
Core losses
Mainly due to eddy current and hysteresis losses
Friction and windage losses
Mainly due to ball bearings, brushes, ventilation losses
The constructions of the machines are very complex; normally built from various types of
materials (heterogeneous) with complex geometrical shapes. To exactly predict the heat flow and
hence the temperature distribution is extremely difficult. Based on the assumptions that the
temperature limits of all parts does not exceed the temperature limits under certain operating
conditions, the motors can therefore adequately modeled as homogeneous bodies. Obviously,
this assumption cannot determine the specific internal thermal conditions for the motors.

Thermal capacity, C (Ws/oC)

Surface A, (m2)
Surface temperature, T (oC)
Ambient temperature, To

p2
OUTPUT POWER
(convection)

p1
INPUT POWER
(losses)

Figure 15 Homogeneous body

16

Let us assume that a homogeneous body shown in Figure 15 represents a motor which has a
thermal capacity C. The input power, which is the losses incurred in the motor, is represented
by p1 whereas the output power, which is the power released as heat by convection, is
represented by p2. The output power due to radiation is assumed negligible because of the low
operating temperature and back radiation. Under a steady state condition, the input power
equals the output power; this is when the steady state temperature is reached. The equation
describing the power balance is given by

dT
= p1 p2
dt

(12)

The heat dissipated by convection is given by

p2= A (T To)

(13)

where is the coefficient of heat transfer.

If we let T = T To , equation (12) can be written as

dT
+ A(T ) = p1
dt
or

dT
p
+ (T ) = 1
dt
A

(14)

where T = C/(A) is the thermal time constant. With T(0)=0 and a step change in the power
input p1 from 0 to ph at t=0, the solution for T is

T =

ph
(
1 e t / )
A

(15)

At steady state, T() = ph/(A)

During cooling, i.e. when heat is removed at t=0, the temperature of the body decays to the
ambient temperature.
(16)

T = T(0) e t /

ph
A

Heating
transient

17

T(0)

Cooling
transient

Figure 16 Heating and cooling transients

If the thermal time constant is large, a temporary overload is therefore possible without
exceeding the temperature limits. Three typical modes of operation are:
- Continuous duty
- Short time intermittent duty
- Periodic intermittent duty
(i) Continuous duty
The motor is loaded continuously. Obviously the rating of the motor must at least equal the
continuous loading of the machine. Normally, motor with next higher power rating from
commercial available rating is selected.
(ii) Short time intermittent duty
The time of operation is considerably less than the thermal time constant. The motor is allowed
to cool to ambient temperature before the new load cycle is applied. The motor is allowed to be
overloaded provided that the maximum temperature is not exceeded. However, the application of
much higher power than the rated power is subject to the available torque of the machine. For
DC machine this is limited due the sparking between the brushes and the commutator. In
induction machine, this is limited by its pull-out torque.
(iii) Periodic intermittent duty
The load cycle is repeated periodically. The machine is not allowed to cool to ambient when the
next load cycle is applied. The temperature will fluctuate and the mean value will eventually
settle to a steady state value. The machine can be overloaded and amount of overloading
depends on the duty cycle of the load. The heating and cooling time constant may be different
depending whether the machine is self-cooled or forced-cooled.
Ratings of converters and motors
In order to accelerate to a given reference value, the motor torque has to be larger than the load
torque. According to (1), the difference between Tl and Te determines how fast the angular
acceleration is. For example, the speed and torque responses for a closed-loop speed control DC
drive with two different torque limit setting (10 Nm and 15 Nm) is shown in Figure 17. The
higher the torque during the speed transient, the faster is the speed gets to its reference.

18

speed (rad/s)

200
100
0
-100
-200
0.19

0.2

0.21

0.22

0.23

0.24

0.25

0.2

0.21

0.22

0.23

0.24

0.25

torque (Nm)

20
15
10
5
0
0.19

Figure 17 Speed response with different torque limit settings

In most cases, the torque during this transient condition can be up to 3 times the rated torque
of the motor (for servo motor, it can be as high as 8 to 10 times the rated value). This
momentary high torque is possible due to the large thermal capacity of the motor with suitable
insulators used for the winding. The converter, which conducts the motor current, must be able
to sustain this condition. However since the thermal capacity of the converters (i.e. switching
devices) is small, the current cannot be higher than its rated value even for a short time.
Consequently, the current rating of the converter is normally set to equal the maximum
allowable motor current and this can be as high as the 3 times the motor rated current. The
maximum allowable torque during transient of a drive system is determined by the current
rating of the converter used whereas the continuous torque limit depends on the current rating
of the motor. The operating area of a 4-quadrant motor drive is shown in Figure 18. The
converter is normally protected from the over-current condition by the current limiter
mechanism within the converter system, which means that sustained overloads on the motor
has to be protected by an additional thermal protection mechanism. Above the base speed, b,
the toque is limited by the maximum allowable power, which depends on whether the transient
or continuous torque limit is considered. The speed limit basically depends on the mechanical
limitation of the motor.
Torque
Transient
torque limit

Power limit for

transient torque

Continuous
torque limit

Power limit for

continuous
torque
Maximum
speed limit

- b

Speed

19

Figure 18 Limits for torque,

speed and power for drive system

Steady-state stability
The motor will operate at the steady-state speed (point where Tl = Te) provided that the speed is
of stable equilibrium. The stable equilibrium speed is investigated using steady-state torquespeed characteristics of the load and motor.
A disturbance in any part of the drive will result in a speed to depart from the steady state
speed. However, if the steady-state speed is of stable equilibrium, the speed will return to the
stable equilibrium speed. On the other hand, if the speed is not of the stable equilibrium, the
disturbance will results in the speed to drift away from the equilibrium speed. It can be shown
that the condition for stable equilibrium is:

dTl dTe

>0
d d

(17)

Torque
Torque
Tl

Te

Te2

Tln
Q1

Te

Tl
Q2

Ten

Tl2

speed
Motor will decelerate
back to equilibrium
since Tl > Te

(a)

speed

Motor will accelerate

away from equilibrium
since Te > Tl
(b)

Figure 19 Steady state stability

Let us take an example of Figure 19(a). Assume that there is a disturbance that causes the
steady state point to move away from the equilibrium point Q1, such that an increase in speed
occurs. A new load torque and motor torque at this new speed (1) which is according to Figure
9(a) are Tl1 and Te1 respectively. Clearly from the figure, Tl1 > Te1 and according to the equation
of motion for torque, the motor will decelerate. The deceleration will cause the motor to return to
its initial equilibrium point. Therefore point Q1 is said to be steady state stable. In Figure 19(b),
point Q2 on the other hand, is steady state unstable. At 2, the electrical torque is larger than
the load torque and this causes the system to accelerate further away from Q2. It should be
noted that in electrical drive system with power electronic converters, the system can be brought
back to Q2 by altering the T- characteristic of the motor. This is typically done for example
using the closed-loop speed control system.
References

20

G.K. Dubey, Fundamental of Electrical Drives, Narosa, 1994.

W. Leonhard, Control of Electrical Drives, Springer-Verlag, 2001

21