Energy is an essential requirement for economic and social development of any country.

Sky rocketing of
petroleum fuel costs in present day has led to growing interest in alternative fuels like vegetable oils, alcoholic
fuels, CNG, LPG, Producer gas, biogas in order to provide a suitable substitute to diesel for a compression
ignition (CI) engine. The vegetable oils present a very promising alternative fuel to diesel oil since they are
renewable, biodegradable and clean burning fuel having similar properties as that of diesel. They offer almost
same power output with slightly lower thermal efficiency due to their lower energy content compared to diesel.
Utilization of producer gas in CI engine on dual fuel mode provides an effective approach towards conservation of
diesel fuel. Gasification involves conversion of solid biomass into combustible gases which completes
combustion in a CI engines. Hence the producer gas can act as promising alternative fuel and it has high octane
number (100105) and calorific value (56 MJ/Nm3). Because of its simpler structure with low carbon content
results in substantial reduction of exhaust emission. Downdraft moving bed gasifier coupled with compression
ignition engine are a good choice for moderate quantities of available mass up to 500 kW of electrical power.
Hence bio-derived gas and vegetable liquids appear more attractive in view of their friendly environmental nature.
Experiments have been conducted on a single cylinder, four-stroke, direct injection, water-cooled CI engine
operated in single fuel mode using Honge, Neem and Rice Bran oils. In dual fuel mode combinations of Producer
gas and three oils were used at different injection timings and injection pressures.
Dual fuel mode of operation resulted in poor performance at all the loads when compared with single fuel mode
at all injection timings tested. However, the brake thermal efficiency is improved marginally when the injection
timing was advanced. Decreased smoke, NOx emissions and increased CO emissions were observed for dual
fuel mode for all the fuel combinations compared to single fuel operation.

N.R. Banapurmath, P.G. Tewari, V.S. Yaliwal, Satish Kambalimath, Y.H. Basavarajappa

Combustion characteristics of a 4-stroke CI engine operated on Honge oil,

Neem and Rice Bran oils when directly injected and dual fuelled with producer
gas induction

Renewable Energy, Volume 34, Issue 7, July 2009, Pages 1877-1884

The performance of an irreversible air standard Miller cycle in a four-stroke free-piston engine is analyzed using
finite-time thermodynamic. In the model, the relation between the internal irreversibility described by using the
compression and expansion efficiencies, the specific heat of the working substance depending on its
temperature, the heat transfer loss as a percentage of fuel's energy and the friction loss computed according to
the mean velocity of the piston is considered. Moreover, the influences of the excess air coefficient, initial
temperature, compression ratio and another compression ratio corresponding to expansion level on the Miller
cycle are analyzed by detailed numerical examples. The results show that the efficiency increases with the
decrease of specific heat of working substance. The heat transfer loss and friction loss have negative effects on
the performance. Comparison of the Miller and Otto cycles shows that the Miller cycle has a higher efficiency
through extra expansion work. The conclusions of this investigation are of importance to provide guidelines for
the performance evaluation and improvement of practical Miller engines.

Finite-time thermodynamic modeling and analysis of an irreversible Miller cycle working

on a four-stroke engine
Original Research Article

International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, Volume 54, May 2014, Pages 54-59

Jiming Lin, Zhaoping Xu, Siqin Chang, Hao Yan

The use of biodiesel as fuel for compression ignition engines in Jordan is gaining more interest. This paper
presents a comparative study on the use of new as well as waste oil as source for biodiesel fuel for compression
ignition engine. The engine performance and emission characteristics were studied and compared with pure
diesel fuel. The results showed that there was a loss in the fuel calorific value of about 13.43% for waste oil
biodiesel and 7.24% for unused oil biodiesel. Further, the density of the fuel was found to increase by about
4.75% with respect to pure reference fuel. As for the performance, biodiesel showed improvement in the torque,
power and thermal efficiency and reduction in the specific fuel consumption. This was achieved both as full and
low load.

Environmental and performance study of a 4-Stroke CI engine powered with waste oil
biodiesel
Original Research Article

Sustainable Cities and Society, Volume 9, December 2013, Pages 32-38

Jehad A. Yamin, Nina Sakhnini, Ahmad Sakhrieh, M.A. Hamdan

The heat transfer models proposed in previous studies are not suitable for small-scale spark-ignition engines,
because they were developed primarily for large-scale engines. In order to improve the accuracy of the predicted
heat transfer rate for small-scale engines, a heat transfer model using the Stanton number is proposed in this
paper. Prediction results of instantaneous heat flux, global engine heat transfer, and cylinder pressure based on
the proposed model are compared with the experimental results and prediction results of previous models. It is
found that the proposed model has prediction results closer to the measured data than the previous models at
most engine operating conditions.

Heat transfer model for small-scale air-cooled spark-ignition four-stroke engines

Original Research Article

International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Volume 49, Issues 2122, October 2006, Pages 38953905

Yuh-Yih Wu, Bo-Chiuan Chen, Feng-Chi Hsieh

The effect of the amount of hydrogen/ethyl alcohol addition on the performance and pollutant emission of a fourstroke spark ignition engine has been studied. The results of the study show that all engine performance
parameters have been improved when operating the gasoline spark ignition engine with dual addition of
hydrogen and ethyl alcohol. The important improvements of alcohol addition are to reduce the NOx emission with
increase in the higher useful compression ratio and output power of hydrogen-supplemented engine. The
addition of 8 mass% of hydrogen, with 30 vol% of ethyl alcohol into a gasoline engine operating at 9 compression
ratio and 1500 rpm causes a 48.5% reduction in CO emission, 31.1% reduction in NOx emission and 58.5%
reduction in specific fuel consumption. Moreover, the engine thermal efficiency and output power increased by
10.1 and 4.72%, respectively. When ethyl alcohol is increased over 30%, it causes unstable engine operation
which can be related to the fact that the fuel is not vaporized, and this causes a reduction in both, the break
power and efficiency

Performance study of a four-stroke spark ignition engine working with both of hydrogen
and ethyl alcohol as supplementary fuel
Original Research Article

International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 25, Issue 10, 1 October 2000, Pages 1005-1009

Maher Abdul-Resul Sadiq Al-Baghdadi

A detailed model to simulate a four-stroke cycle of a SI engine fueled with hydrogen-enriched gasoline is
presented. The model includes calculations of the mass flow rates of the inflow and outflow through the
valves, an empirical expression for the combustion process which has been modified to include the effect
of the hydrogen enrichment on the combustion rate, a model for the ignition delay, a practical approach for
the heat transfer through the cylinder wall, and an SAE recommended expression for the mechanical
efficiency. The model has been used to predict the optimal amount of hydrogen supplement, and the
required spark advance for best engine performances. Dynamometer test results, in which a 2310 cc
passenger vehicle was fueled with hydrogen-enriched gasoline, was used to calibrate the proposed model.
The hydrogen was supplied from a bottled storage of gaseous hydrogen. In general, very good agreement
between predictions and experimental results was obtained in the entire experimental range.

On the modeling of a SI 4-stroke cycle engine fueled with hydrogen-enriched gasoline

Original Research Article

International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 12, Issue 11, 1987, Pages 773-781

E. Sher, Y. Hacohen
Tumble flow has been adopted to increase the precombustion turbulence level in four-valve engines, since
it can be effectively generated with negligible adverse effect on the flow coefficient. In this study,
turbulence characteristics of the tumble flow in a four-valve engine were investigated by laser Doppler
velocimetry (LDV) and analyzed by means of turbulence intensity, integral time and length scales, and
energy spectrum. The data rate was sufficiently high to allow the bulk velocity to be characterized in
individual cycles at 500 and 1000 rpm for two different intake ports. The integral time scales obtained by
three kinds of different definitions and their characteristics were compared. The results show that tumble
causes turbulence intensity to increase considerably during the compression stroke and its distribution to
be homogeneous. The effect of tumble on integral time scale is negligible, while the integral length scale
increases by tumble

Turbulence characteristics of tumble flow in a four-valve engine

Original Research Article

Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, Volume 18, Issue 3, November 1998, Pages 231-243

Kern Y Kang, Je H Baek

In order to develop more efficient and cleaner gasoline engines, a number of new engine operating strategies
have been proposed and researched on different engines, including the spark ignition (SI) and controlled
autoignition (CAI) or HCCI in both 2-stroke and 4-stroke cycles in a poppet valve engine. In this work, a single
cylinder direct injection gasoline engine equipped with an electro-hydraulic valve-train system has been
commissioned and used to achieve seven different operating modes, including: 4-stroke throttle-controlled SI, 4stroke intake valve throttled SI, 4-stroke positive valve overlap SI, 4-stroke negative valve overlap CAI, 4-stroke
exhaust rebreathing CAI, 2-stroke CAI and 2-stroke SI. Their performance and emission characteristics were
analysed and compared at a typical engine calibration operating condition of 1500 rpm and 3.6 bar IMEP in 4stroke or 1.8 bar IMEP in 2-stroke. Results show that 4-stroke positive valve overlap SI, 4-stroke NVO CAI and
exhaust rebreathing CAI modes have better fuel economy and lower NOx emissions than the conventional
throttled 4-stroke SI operation. The 2-stroke CAI operation was found to produce higher combustion efficiency
and lower ISFC but lower brake efficiency than the 4-s-stroke operations at the same power output due to the
superchargers efficiency. But, at the same IMEP as the 4-stroke operation, the 2-stroke CAI operation results in
29% reduction in BSFC, indicating its potential synergy with highly downsized direct injection gasoline engines for
much better fuel economy and performance.

Investigation of combustion, performance and emission characteristics of 2stroke and 4-stroke spark ignition and CAI/HCCI operations in a DI gasoline
Original Research Article

Applied Energy, Volume 130, 1 October 2014, Pages 244-255

Y. Zhang, H. Zhao
This paper introduces the preliminary simulation of a four stroke spark ignition engine. An arbitrary heat release
formula was used to predict the cylinder pressure, which was used to find the indicated work done. The heat
transfer from the cylinder, friction and pumping losses also were taken into account to predict the brake mean
effective pressure, brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption. Most of the parameters that can
affect the performance of four stroke spark ignition engines, such as equivalence ratio, spark timing, heat release
rate, compression ratio, compression index and expansion index are studied. The use of a real combustion curve
has a profound influence on the similarity of the pressurevolume profile to that seen for the real engine. The
modeling process is obviously getting closer to reality and is now worth pursuing as a design aid.
This paper introduces the preliminary simulation of a four stroke spark ignition engine. An arbitrary heat release
formula was used to predict the cylinder pressure, which was used to find the indicated work done. The heat
transfer from the cylinder, friction and pumping losses also were taken into account to predict the brake mean
effective pressure, brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption. Most of the parameters that can
affect the performance of four stroke spark ignition engines, such as equivalence ratio, spark timing, heat release
rate, compression ratio, compression index and expansion index are studied. The use of a real combustion curve

has a profound influence on the similarity of the pressurevolume profile to that seen for the real engine. The
modeling process is obviously getting closer to reality and is now worth pursuing as a design aid.

Computer simulation of a four stroke spark ignition engine

Original Research Article

Energy Conversion and Management, Volume 43, Issue 8, May 2002, Pages 1043-1061

G.H Abd Alla

Natural gas is a fossil fuel that has been used and investigated extensively for use in spark-ignition (SI) and
compression-ignition (CI) engines. Compared with conventional gasoline engines, SI engines using natural gas
can run at higher compression ratios, thus producing higher thermal efficiencies but also increased nitrogen oxide
(NOx) emissions, while producing lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO 2), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and
carbon monoxide (CO). These engines also produce relatively less power than gasoline-fueled engines because
of the convergence of one or more of three factors: a reduction in volumetric efficiency due to natural-gas
injection in the intake manifold; the lower stoichiometric fuel/air ratio of natural gas compared to gasoline; and the
lower equivalence ratio at which these engines may be run in order to reduce NO x emissions. High
NOxemissions, especially at high loads, reduce with exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). However, EGR rates above
a maximum value result in misfire and erratic engine operation. Hydrogen gas addition increases this EGR
threshold significantly. In addition, hydrogen increases the flame speed of the natural gashydrogen mixture.
Power levels can be increased with supercharging or turbocharging and intercooling. Natural gas is used to
power CI engines via the dual-fuel mode, where a high-cetane fuel is injected along with the natural gas in order
to provide a source of ignition for the charge. Thermal efficiency levels compared with normal diesel-fueled CIengine operation are generally maintained with dual-fuel operation, and smoke levels are reduced significantly. At
the same time, lower NOx and CO2 emissions, as well as higher HC and CO emissions compared with normal CIengine operation at low and intermediate loads are recorded. These trends are caused by the low charge
temperature and increased ignition delay, resulting in low combustion temperatures. Another factor is insufficient
penetration and distribution of the pilot fuel in the charge, resulting in a lack of ignition centers. EGR admission at
low and intermediate loads increases combustion temperatures, lowering unburned HC and CO emissions.
Larger pilot fuel quantities at these load levels and hydrogen gas addition can also help increase combustion
efficiency. Power output is lower at certain conditions than diesel-fueled engines, for reasons similar to those
affecting power output of SI engines. In both cases the power output can be maintained with direct injection.
Overall, natural gas can be used in both engine types; however further refinement and optimization of engines
and fuel-injection systems is needed.

Natural-gas fueled spark-ignition (SI) and compressionignition (CI) engine performance and emissions
Review Article

Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, Volume 37, Issue 1, February 2011, Pages 89-112

T. Korakianitis, A.M. Namasivayam, R.J. Crookes