DDL

Data Definition Language (DDL) statements are used to define the database struct
ure or schema. Some examples:
CREATE - to create objects in the database
ALTER - alters the structure of the database
DROP - delete objects from the database
TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for t
he records are removed,rollback inot possible,faster than DELETE.
COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
RENAME - rename an object
DML
Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used for managing data within sc
hema objects. Some examples:
SELECT - retrieve data from the a database
INSERT - insert data into a table
UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the records remain,ROLL
BACK is possible,slower than TRUNCATE.
MERGE - UPSERT operation (insert or update)
CALL - call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
EXPLAIN PLAN - explain access path to data
LOCK TABLE - control concurrency
DCL
Data Control Language (DCL) statements. Some examples:
GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database
REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT command
TCL
Transaction Control (TCL) statements are used to manage the changes made by DML
statements. It allows statements to be grouped together into logical transaction
s.
COMMIT - save work done
SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can later roll back
ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last COMMIT
SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like isolation level and what rollb
ack segment to use?
Attribute types: ? Simple and composite attributes. ? Single-valued and multi-va
lued attributes ? E.g. multivalued attribute: phone-numbers ? Derived attributes
? Can be computed from other attributes
Simple attribute consists of a single atomic value. A simple attribute cannot b
e subdivided. For example the attributes age, sex etc are simple attributes.?
A composite attribute is an attribute that can be further subdivided. For examp
le the attribute ADDRESS can be subdivided into street, city, state, and zip cod
e

Simple Attribute: Attribute that consist of a single atomic value.

Example: Salary, age etc
Composite Attribute : Attribute value not atomic.

Example :

Address :
Name

House_no:City:State
: First Name: Middle Name: Last Name ?

Single Valued and Multi Valued attribute

A single valued attribute can have only a single value. For example a person can
have only one 'date of birth', 'age' etc. That is a single valued attributes ca
n have only single value. But it can be simple or composite attribute.That is 'd
ate of birth' is a composite attribute , 'age' is a simple attribute. But both a
re single valued attributes.
Multivalued attributes can have multiple values. For instance a person may have
multiple phone numbers,multiple degrees etc.Multivalued attributes are shown by
a double line connecting to the entity in the ER diagram.
Single Valued Attribute: Attribute that hold a single value
Example1: Age
Exampe2: City
Example3:Customer id
Multi Valued Attribute: Attribute that hold multiple values.
Example1: A customer can have multiple phone numbers, email id's etc
Example2: A person may have several college degrees?
Stored and Derived Attributes
The value for the derived attribute is derived from the stored attribute. For ex
ample 'Date of birth' of a person is a stored attribute. The value for the attri
bute 'AGE' can be derived by subtracting the 'Date of Birth'(DOB) from the curre
nt date. Stored attribute supplies a value to the related attribute.
Stored Attribute: An attribute that supplies a value to the related attribute.
Example: Date of Birth
Derived Attribute: An attribute that s value is derived from a stored attribute.
Example : age, and it s value is derived from the stored attribute Date of Birth.
Complex Attribute
A complex attribute that is both composite and multi valued.

Mapping Cardinalities
? Express the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a
relationship set. ? Most useful in describing binary relationship sets. ? For a
binary relationship set the mapping cardinality must be one of the following ty
pes:
One to one ? One to many ? Many to one ? Many to many?
relationship?
Rectangles represent entity sets. ? Diamonds represent relationship sets. ? Line
s link attributes to entity sets and entity sets to relationship sets. ? Ellipse
s represent attributes ? Double ellipses represent multivalued attributes. ? Das

hed ellipses denote derived attributes. ? Underline indicates primary key attrib
utes