Summer Industrial Training Report

On

Electric Loco Shed Northern Railways ,

Ghaziabad

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of

degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

Instrumentation and Control Engineering

Supervisor:
MR. Rastogi

Submitted By:Akhilesh Thapliyal (07310403011)

(Sr..D..E..E)

Department of Instrumentation & Control Engineering

AMITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
GGS Indraprastha University, New Delhi
(2011-2015)
1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Behind the completion of any successful work there lies the contribution of not one but many
individuals who may have directly or indirectly contributed to it.
First and foremost I am grateful to the management of NORTHERN RAILWAY,
GHAZIABAD for providing me the opportunity to undertake my Summer Industrial
Training in the organization. I specially convey my thanks to all the staff members for their
precious guidance during our training and in completion of this project. I feel privileged to
express my deep regards and gratitude to all the Engineers and staffs of Dept. of SIGNAL
AND TELECOMMUNICATION, N.R RLY, GHAZIABAD.
I am thankful to all my teachers who have best owed upon me their knowledge and have
been guiding light throughout my course. They have cast an indelible impression on my
existence.
The acknowledgement would be incomplete if I fail to express deep sense of my obligation
and reverence to my parents without whom this work would not have seen the light of the
day.

AKHILESH THAPLIYAL(07310403011)

ABSTRACT
An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered by electricity from an external source.
Sources include overhead lines, third rail, or an on-board electricity storage device
such as a battery, flywheel system, or fuel cell.
One advantage of electrification is the lack of pollution from the locomotives
themselves. Electrification also results in higher performance, lower maintenance costs,
and lower energy costs for electric locomotives.
Power plants, even if they burn fossil fuels, are far cleaner than mobile sources such as
locomotive engines. Also the power for electric locomotives can come from clean and/or
renewable sources, including geothermal power, hydroelectric power, nuclear power,
solar power, and wind turbines. Electric locomotives are also quiet compared to diesel
locomotives since there is no engine and exhaust noise and less mechanical noise. The
lack of reciprocating parts means that electric locomotives are easier on the track,
reducing track maintenance.
Power plant capacity is far greater than what any individual locomotive uses, so electric
locomotives can have a higher power output than diesel locomotives and they can
produce even higher short-term surge power for fast acceleration. Electric locomotives
are ideal for commuter rail service with frequent stops. They are used on high-speed
lines, such as ICE in Germany, Acela in the US, Shinkansen in Japan and TGV in
France. Electric locomotives are also used on freight routes that have a consistently high
traffic volume, or in areas with advanced rail networks.
Electric locomotives benefit from the high efficiency of electric motors, often above
90%. Additional efficiency can be gained from regenerative braking, which allows kinetic
energy to be recovered during braking to put some power back on the line. Newer
electric locomotives use AC motor-inverter drive systems that provide for regenerative
braking.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO.

1.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.

TITLE

PAGE

CERTIFICATE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES /TABLES

I
II
III
IV

INTRODUCTION

Snapshots
Organizational Structure
Railway zones
Practical Training under N.R
Module 1: TELEXCHANGE

2.1 Telephone Exchange

2.2 Manual Service Exchange
2.2.1 Originating Loop
2.2.2 Destination loop
2.2.3 Ring Trip
2.2.4 Transmission bridge
2.2.5 Tone generator
2.2.6 Controller
2.3 Optical Fibre Equipment
2.3.1 STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical Converter
2.3.2 Features and Highlights
2.3.3 Management Options
2.4 Introduction
2.5 Optical Fibre Communication System
2.6 Origin and Characteristics of Optical fibre
5

10
10
10
12
13
14
15
17
17
17
18
19
19
21
21
22
23
23
24
25

2.6.1 Pure Glass

25
2.6.2 Enormous Bandwidth
26
2.6.3 Single mode and Multimode
26
2.7 Operation of Optical Fibre
26
2.7.1 A Fibre Optic Relay System
27
2.7.2 Transmitter
28
2.7.3 Optical Regenerator
28
2.7.4 Optical Receiver
28
2.8 Uses of Optical Fibre
28
2.9 Advantages of Optical Fibre
30
2.10 Application of Optical Fibres
30
3.
Module 2: NETWORKING
32
3.1 PRS Passenger Reservation Services
33
3.2 IVRS (Interactive Voice Response System)
33
3.3 Rail net
34
3.4 Router
35
4.
Module 3: UNRESERVED TICKETING SYSTEM (UTS)
36
4.1 About UTS
37
4.2 Unreserved Ticketing at Railway Counters
37
4.3 Jan Sadharan Ticket Booking Sewa (JTBS)
38
4.4 Automatic Ticket Vending Machines
38
4.5 Currency Operated Ticket Vending Machine (CoTVM)
39
4.6 Technology
40
4.7 Team
40
5.
Module 4: RAILWAY SIGNALLING & SIGNAL WORKSHOP 41
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Locking
5.3 Approach Locking
5.4 Flank protection and isolation
5.5 Protection in the overlap
5.6 Release of locking
5.7 Detection of trains
5.8 Control and drive to points
5.9 Signals
5.10 Implementation of Signaling Systems

42
43
44
44
44
45
46
46
47

47
5.11 Basic Principles

47
6

5.12 Basic Rules

5.13 The Human element
5.14 Electronics in Railway Signaling for improved safety
5.15 Design of Signaling Circuits
5.16 Signal Workshop
5.17 Solid State Interlocking

48
48
49
50
51

51
6.
7

Conclusion
References

LIST OF FIGURES

52
53

FIGURE NO.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
2.1
2.2
3.2
3.3
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

NAME

PAGE NO.

TELEPHONE EXCHANGE
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
RING TRIP
TRANSMISSION BRIDGE
IC INSIDE
STM-1 OPTICAL-STM-1 ELECTRICAL CONVERTER
REAR PANEL
OPTICAL FIBRE v/s COPPER CABLE
PURE GLASS
OPERATION OF OPTICAL FIBRE
OPTICAL FIBRE CORE & CLADDING
IVRS SYSTEM
A PICTURE OF ROUTER BY CISCO
NO. OF TICKET BOOKING LOCATION GRAPH
ATVM
RAILWAY SIGNALLING
LOCKING
PROTECTION IN THE OVERLAP
SCHEMATIC VIEW OF SSI PROCESSOR

13
15
16
17
19
20
21
23
24
25
28
33
34
37
39
42
43
44
52

LIST OF TABLES
1.
2.

ZONE WISE RAILWAY HEADQUARTERS

ZONE WISE AVERAGE EARNINGS OF AVTMs

1. INTRODUCTON TO INDIAN RAILWAYS

8

10
38

FOUNDED
HEADQUARTER AREA SERVED
INDUSTRY
SERVICES
REVENUE
EMPLOYEES
-

16TH APRIL,1853
New Delhi, India
India
Railway and Locomotives
Rail Transport
Rs. 107.66 billion
1,406,430

INDIAN RAILWAYS (BHARTIYA RAIL) abbreviated as IR, is a state owned railway

company of India, which owns and operate most of the countrys rail transport. It is
overseen by Ministry of Railways and Government of India. Indian Railways has one of
the largest and busiest rail networks in the world, transporting over 18 million passengers
and more than two million tonnes of freight daily. It is the worlds largest commercial or
utility employer, with more than 1.4 million employees. The railways traverse the length
and breadth of the country, covering 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than
63,327 km (39,350 miles).As to rolling stock, IR owns over 20,000 freight wagons,
50,000 coaches and 8,000 locomotives. Railways were first introduced to India in
1853.By 1947, the year of Indias independence, there were 42 rail systems. In 1951,the
systems were nationalized as one unit, becoming one of the largest networks in the
world.IR operates both long distance and sub-urban rail systems on a multi-gauge
network of broad, meter and narrow gauges. It also owns locomotives and coach
production facilities.
As the economy of India improved, almost all railway production units were
Indigenized(produced in India).By 1985,steam locomotives were phased out in favour of
Diesel and Electric locomotive. The entire railway reservation system was streamlined with
computerization between 1987 and 1995.
In 2003,the Indian Railways celebrated 150 years of its existence.Various zones of the
railways celebrated the event by running Heritage trains on routes similar to the ones on
which the first trains on the zones ran. The Ministry of Railway commemorated the event by
9

launching a special logo celebrating the completion of 150 years of service. Also launched
was a new mascot for the 150 th year celebrations, named Bholu, the Guard Elephant.

1.1 Snapshots:

It encompasses 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than

63,028 kilometres of route length and a track length of 111,600 km .

It is one of the world's largest commercial or utility employers, with more than 1.6

million employees.
It grossed a revenue of ` 88,355 cr and bagging a net income of ` 951 cr in
the financial year 2009-10 .

It moves 2 million tons of freight & 20 million people daily across the
county with the help of 200,000 (freight) wagons.

7,000 passenger trains across the country services 20 million people to

their destinations .

Vivek Sahai is the current Chairman of Railway Board.

1.2 Organizational Structure:Indian Railways

is a department owned and controlled by the Government of India, the

Ministry of Railways. IR is administered by the Railway Board, which has a financial

commissioner, five members and a chairman.

1.3 Railway zones:IR is divided into zones, which are further sub-divided into divisions. The number
of zones in Indian Railways increased from six to eight in 1951, nine in 1952, and finally 16
in 2003. Each zonal railway is made up of a certain number of divisions, each having a
divisional headquarters. There are a total of 67 divisions under 16 zones, presently operating
in the country.

10

Table-1 Zone wise railway Headquarters

Each of the 16 zones, is headed by a General Manager (GM) who reports directly to the
Railway Board. The zones are further divided into divisions under the control of Divisional
Railway Managers (DRM). The divisional officers of engineering, mechanical, electrical,
signal and telecommunication, accounts, personnel, operating, commercial and safety
branches report to the respective Divisional Manager and are in charge of operation and
maintenance of assets.
Further down the hierarchy tree are the Station Masters who control individual stations and
the train movement through the track territory under their stations' administration.

11

1.4 Practical Training under N.R:We've received the scheduled Summer Practical Training, as a part of our curriculum, from
June 12, 2014 July 15, 2014 under Divisional Railway Manager, N.R, New Delhi.
.
We've studied about the following operational technologies in the IR 1. Microwave Communication & Links.
2. Railway Signalling.
3. Signal Workshop (Automatic track changer, Electronic point machines and relays)

12

MOUDLE I

2. EXCHANGE
13

2.1 TELEPHONE EXCHANGE

A telephone operator manually connecting calls with cord pairs at a telephone switchboard. In
the field of telecommunications, a telephone exchange or telephone switch is a system of
electronic components that connects telephone calls. A central office is the physical building
used to house inside plant equipment including telephone switches, which make telephone
calls "work" in the sense of making connections and relaying the speech information. The
term exchange area can be used to refer to an area served by a particular switch, but is
typically known as a wire center in the US telecommunications industry. The exchange code
or Central Office Code refers to the first three digits of the local number (NXX). It is
sometimes confused with the area code (NPA). In the United States, local exchange areas
together make up a legal entity called local access and transport areas (LATA) under the
Modification of Final Judgment (MFJ).

Fig. 1.1

2.2 MANUAL SERVICE EXCHANGES

14

With manual service, the customer lifts the receiver off-hook and asks the operator to
connect the call to a requested number. Provided that the number is in the same central office,
the operator connects the call by plugging into the jack on the switchboard corresponding to
the called customer's line. If the call is to another central office, the operator plugs into the
trunk for the other office and asks the operator answering (known as the "inward" operator) to
connect the call.
Most urban exchanges were common-battery, meaning that the central office provided power
for the telephone circuits, as is the case today. In common-battery systems, the pair of wires
from a subscriber's telephone to the switch (or manual exchange) carry 48VDC (nominal)
from the telephone company end, across the conductors. The telephone presents an open
circuit when it is on-hook or idle. When the subscriber goes off-hook, the telephone puts a
DC resistance short across the line. In manual service, this current flowing through the offhook telephone flows through a relay coil actuating a buzzer and lamp on the operator's
switchboard. The buzzer and lamp would tell an operator the subscriber was off-hook
(requesting service).
In the largest U.S. cities, it took many years to convert every office to automatic equipment,
such as panel switches. During this transition period, it was possible to dial a manual number
and be connected without requesting an operator's assistance. This was because the policy of
the Bell System was that customers should not need to know whether they were calling a
manual or automated office. If a subscriber dialed a manual number, an inward operator
would answer the call, see the called number on a display device, and manually connect the
call. For instance, if a customer calling from TAylor 4725 dialed a manual number, Adams
1233, the call would go through, from the subscriber's perspective, exactly as a call to
LEnnox 5813, in an automated exchange.
In contrast to the common-battery system, smaller towns with manual service often had
magneto, or crank, phones. Using a magneto set, the subscriber turned a crank to generate
ringing current, to gain the operator's attention. The switchboard would respond by dropping
a metal tab above the subscriber's line jack and sounding a buzzer. Dry cell batteries
(normally two large "No 6" cells) in the subscriber's telephone provided the DC power for
conversation.
Magneto systems were in use in one American small town, Bryant Pond, Woodstock, Maine
as late as 1983. In general, this type of system had a poorer call quality compared to
common-battery systems.
Many small town magneto systems featured party lines, anywhere from two to ten or more
subscribers sharing a single line. When calling a party, the operator would use a distinctive
ringing signal sequence, such as two long rings followed by one short. Everyone on the line
could hear the rings, and of course could pick up and listen in if they wanted. On rural lines
which were not connected to a central office (thus not connected to the outside world),
subscribers would crank the correct sequence of rings to reach their party.

Circuit Diagram
15

Fig.1.2

2.2.1 Originating Loop

16

The calling line is connected to the originating loop by an opto-triac. Loop current flows
through transformer T1 secondary, and through the CNX35U loop status opto-isolator which
detects dialling pulses and, ultimately, hang-up.
A small time delay is allowed for things to settle down before dial tone is delivered to the
caller via the primary of transformer T1. If the loop is not closed at the end of the time delay,
the exchange reverts to the idle state.

2.2.2 Destination loop

The called extension is connected to the destination loop by an opto-triac. There are two
paths through the loop: for DC only via transformer T2 and a TLP598G photo-relay; and for
AC via the AC ringing generator and a TLP3043 opto-triac. The paths are switched
alternately producing the required ring-ring effect interspersed with silence. The 598 and
3043 light emitting diodes are connected back-to-back as a safety interlock. The TLP3043
contains a zero-crossing circuit to ensure a clean switch.

2.2.3 Ring Trip

Fig.1.3

17

The ringing voltage applied to the line is that of the ringing generator plus a DC offset. The
average voltage equals the DC supply. Only AC can flow during ringing because telephone
bells are AC coupled. Answering creates a DC path through the telephone allowing DC to
flow.
The 47-ohm resistor samples the line current. The voltage across it is low-pass filtered to
attenuate the AC component. When the call is answered, the DC component operates the
BC640 PNP transistor which asserts the Trip input to the controller. A high voltage PNP
transistor is required. The BC640 has a VCEO of 80V.

2.2.4 Transmission bridge

Fig.1.4

The secondaries of transformers T1 and T2, and the 22 coupling capacitor form the
transmission bridge. The transformers act as low frequency chokes, passing DC to the carbon
microphones whilst presenting a high impedance to audio frequencies.The transformers were
salvaged from an old cordless telephone. Similar types can also be found in modems and

18

other mains-powered telephone appliances. The primary of T1 is connected to the tone

generator. The primary of T2 could be used for an outside line facility.

2.2.5 Tone generator

The tone generator takes up approximately one quarter of the analogue board area. It was felt
that high quality sinusoidal tones were worth having. Square waves and /or 50Hz mains hum
sound unpleasant and are not user-friendly. This little exchange sounds like the real thing!
An LM324 quad op-amp generates three independent sine waves. The fourth amplifier is
used as a supply splitter to generate a 2.5V virtual earth. Wien bridge oscillators are used with
a simple diode shaping circuit to control the amplitude. The resultant harmonic distortion is
minimised by adjustment of the presets and by subsequent low pass filtering.
The tones are coupled to the originating loop via transformer T1. An emitter follower drives
the primary. The required tone combination is selected using a 4016 quad bilateral switch. To
prevent clicks, the 2.5V virtual earth is connected in the gaps between rings. When all the
switches are off, the emitter follower goes tri-state and thus does not load the speech path.

2.2.6 Controller
The controller, comprising 3 programmable logic devices (PLDs) plus discrete HCMOS,
occupies an entire eurocard. RC delays and Schmitt triggers are used for timing. I would use
a single chip micro-controller if I were making more than one of these!
The Atmel ATF16V8B PLDs were programmed using the Atmel version of WinCUPL
downloaded from www.atmel.com for free.

19

The master PLD is a state machine with the following states:

Idle

111 7

Off-hook

011 3

Dial tone

010 2

Dialling

001 1

Ringing

110 6

Answered

000 0

Engaged

101 5

Unobtainable 100 4

IC Inside

Fig.1.5

20

2.3 OPTICAL FIBRE EQUIPMENT

2.3.1 STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical Converter
Valiant VCL-STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converter provides a simple and costeffective conversion between STM-1 optical interface to STM-1 electrical interface.
VCL-STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converter is an interface conversion equipment
supplied with one STM-1 electrical interface and one STM-1 optical interface.
VCL-STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converter is a compact solution housed in a 19"
rack 1U high, which can be placed on the desktop or installed in a standard 19 inch rack.

Fig.1.6

This unit offers dual (1+1) power supply options. Options for the power supply to the
equipment include:

1.
2.

Dual DC -48V Inputs (range -18V DC to -72V DC)

Dual AC Inputs (range 110V AC to 240V AC, 50 / 60Hz)

STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical converters converter complies with ITU-T and the
relevant SDH specifications.
The rear panel includes power socket and alarm output terminal interface.

21

Fig.1.7 Rear Panel circuit

2.3.2 Features and Highlights

1+0 STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical

1+1 STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical options available

SFP based design. Provides field removable / upgradeable optical SFPs

Short haul (1310nm), long haul (1550nm) and multi mode (850nm) optical SFP
modules

Provides low cost STM-1 Optical to STM-1 Electrical conversion

Management options:
o

Serial RS232 Port (COM Port)

10/100 BaseT Remote Management over LAN Telnet

10/100 BaseT Telnet over TCP-IP Network

SNMP V2

USB interface

Network Management System (NMS)

High reliability, complies to ITU-T G.703 and G.957

State-of-the-art design, ensure normal working under difficult environments

Supports local and remote loop-back on electrical or optical interface for system
diagnostics

Simple operation and maintenance

Compact design and low power consumption

22

75 Ohms compliant with ITU-T G.703 and Telcordia GR-253 155Mbps electrical
interfaces (BNC connector)

ITU-T G.783 compatible loss of signal detect

Handles over 12.7dB of cable loss

Duplex LC optical interface

Hot-pluggable

Supports DDM function for read back of transmit and received optical power

Class 1 laser safety

Compliant with ITU-T G.957 STM-1

2.3.3 MANAGEMENT OPTIONS

Serial RS232 Port (COM Port)

10/100 Base T Remote Management over LAN Telnet

10/100 Base T Telnet over TCP-IP Network

SNMP V2

USB interface

Network Management System (NMS)

2.4 INTRODUCTION
The demand for high-capacity long-haul Signal & telecommunication systems is increasing at
a steady rate, and is expected to accelerate in the next decade. At the same time,
communication networks which cover long distances and serve large areas with a large
information capacity are also in increasing demand. To satisfy the requirements on long
distances, the communication channel must have a very low loss. On the other hand, a large
information capacity can only be achieved with a wide system bandwidth which can support
a high data bit rate (> Gbit/s). Reducing the loss whilst increasing the bandwidth of the
communication channels is therefore essential for future telecommunications systems. Of the

23

many different communication channel available optical fiber proved to the most promising
due to its low attenuation, low losses and various other advantages over twisted cables and
other means of transmission.

Fig. 1.8

Communication between stations and signalmen is done through telephone. In some places,
IR still uses twisted pair cables and elderly Stronger exchanges. Drivers and guards were
equipped with VHF radio systems in 1999 to communicate with each other and with station
masters.

2.5 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

A thin glass strand designed for light transmission. A single hair-thin fiber is capable of
transmitting trillions of bits per second. In addition to their huge transmission capacity,
optical fibers offer many advantages over electricity and copper wire. Light pulses are not
affected by random radiation in the environment, and their error rate is significantly lower.
Fibers allow longer distances to be spanned before the signal has to be regenerated by
expensive "repeaters." Fibers are more secure, because taps in the line can be detected, and
lastly, fiber installation is streamlined due to their dramatically lower weight and smaller size
compared to copper cables.

24

Fig.1.9 Optical fiber v/s copper cable

The optical fiber acts as a low loss, wide bandwidth transmission channel. A light source is
required to emit light signals, which are modulated by the signal data.
To enhance the performance of the system, a spectrally pure light source is required.
Advances in semiconductor laser technology, especially after the invention of double hetero
structures (DH), resulted in stable, efficient, small-sized and compact semiconductor laser
diodes (SLDs). Using such coherent light sources increases the bandwidth of the signal which
can be transmitted in a simple intensity modulated (IM) system.
Other modulation methods, such as phase shift keying (PSK) and frequency-shift keying
(FSK), can also be used. These can be achieved either by directly modulating the injection
current to the SLD or by using an external electro or acousto-optic modulator.

2.6 ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, telephone companies began to use fibers extensively to
rebuild their communications infrastructure. According to KMI Corporation, specialists in
fiber optic market research, by the end of 1990 there were approximately eight million miles
of fiber laid in the U.S. (this is miles of fiber, not miles of cable which can contain many
fibers). By the end of 2000, there were 80 million miles in the U.S. and 225 million
worldwide. Copper cable is increasingly being replaced with fibers for LAN back bones as
well, and this usage is expected to increase substantially.

2.6.1 PURE GLASS

An optical fiber is constructed of a transparent core made of nearly pure silicon dioxide
(SiO2), through which the light travels. The core is surrounded by a cladding layer that
reflects light, guiding the light along the core. A plastic coating covers the cladding to protect
the glass surface. Cables also include fibers of Kevlar and/or steel wires for strength and an
outer sheath of plastic or Teflon for protection.

25

Fig. 1.10

2.6.2 Enormous Bandwidth

For glass fibers, there are two "optical windows" where the fiber is most transparent and
efficient. The centers of these windows are 1300 nm and 1550 nm, providing approximately
18,000GHz and 12,000GHz respectively, for a total of 30,000GHz. This enormous bandwidth
is potentially usable in one fiber. Plastic is also used for short-distance fiber runs, and their
transparent windows are typically 650 nm and in the 750-900 nm range.

2.6.3 Single mode and Multimode

There are two primary types of fiber. For intercity cabling and highest speed, single mode
fiber with a core diameter of less than 10 microns is used. Multimode fiber is very
common for short distances and has a core diameter from 50 to 100 microns. See laser,
WDM, fiber optics glossary and cable categories.

2.7 OPERATION OF OPTICAL FIBER

In an optical fiber, a refracted ray is one that is refracted from the core into the cladding.
Specifically a ray having direction such that where r is the radial distance from the fiber axis,
(r ) is the azimuthally angle of projection of the ray at on the transverse plane, (r )is the
26

angle the ray makes with the fiber axis, n (r ) is the refractive index at r, n (a ) is the
refractive index at the core radius, a . Refracted rays correspond to radiation modes in the
terminology of mode descriptors.
For the fiber to guide the optical signal, the refractive index of the core must be slightly
higher than that of the cladding. In different types of fibers, the core and core-cladding
boundary function slightly differently in guiding the signal. Especially in single-mode fibers,
a significant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in the cladding.

Fig.1.11

27

The light in a fiber-optic cable travels through the core (hallway) by constantly bouncing
from the cladding (mirror-lined walls), a principle called total internal reflection. Because the
cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light wave can travel great distances.
However, some of the light signal degrades within the fiber, mostly due to impurities in the
glass. The extent that the signal degrades depends on the purity of the glass and the
wavelength of the transmitted light (for example, 850 nm = 60 to 75percent/km; 1,300 nm =
50 to 60 percent/km ; 1,550 nm is greater than 50 percent/km).
Some premium optical fibers show much less signal degradation -- less than 10percent/km at
1,550 nm.

2.7.1 A FIBER-OPTIC RELAY SYSTEM

To understand how optical fibers are used in communication systems, let's look at an example
from a World War II movie or documentary where two naval ships in a fleet need to
communicate with each other while maintaining radio silence or on stormy seas.
One ship pulls up alongside the other. The captain of one ship sends a message to a sailor on
deck. The sailor translates the message into Morse code (dots and dashes) and uses a signal
light (floodlight with a Venetian blind type shutter on it) to send the message to the other
ship.
A sailor on the deck of the other ship sees the Morse code message, decodes it into English
and sends the message up to the captain.
Now, imagine doing this when the ships are on either side of the ocean separated by
thousands of miles and you have a fiber-optic communication system in place between the
two ships.
Fiber-optic relay systems consist of the following:
Transmitter - Produces and encodes the light signals
Optical fiber - Conducts the light signals over a distance
Optical regenerator - May be necessary to boost the light signal (for long distances)
Optical receiver - Receives and decodes the light signals

28

2.7.2 Transmitter
The transmitter is like the sailor on the deck of the sending ship. It receives and directs the
optical device to turn the light "on" and "off" in the correct sequence, thereby generating a
light signal. The transmitter is physically close to the optical fiber and may even have a lens
to focus the light into the fiber. Lasers have more power than LEDs, but vary more with
changes in temperature and are more expensive. The most common wavelengths of light
signals are 850 nm, 1,300 nm, and 1,550 nm (infrared, non-visible portions of the spectrum).

2.7.3 Optical Regenerator

As mentioned above, some signal loss occurs when the light is transmitted through the fiber,
especially over long distances (more than a half mile, or about 1 km) such as with undersea
cables. Therefore, one or more optical regenerators is spliced along the cable to boost the
degraded light signals. An optical regenerator consists of optical fibers with a special coating
(doping). The doped portion is "pumped" with a laser. When the degraded signal comes into
the doped coating, the energy from the laser allows the doped molecules to become lasers
themselves. The doped molecules then emit a new, stronger light signal with the same
characteristics as the incoming weak light signal. Basically, the regenerator is a laser
amplifier for the incoming signal.

2.7.4 Optical Receiver

The optical receiver is like the sailor on the deck of the receiving ship. It takes the incoming
digital light signals, decodes them and sends the electrical signal to the other
user's computer, TV or telephone (receiving ship's captain). The receiver uses a photocell or
photodiode to detect the light.

2.8 USES OF OPTICAL FIBER

The optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it
is flexible and can be bundled as cables. Although fibers can be made out of either
transparent plastic or glass, the fibers used in long-distance telecommunications applications
are always glass, because of the lower optical absorption. The light transmitted through the
fiber is confined due to total internal reflection within the material. This is an important
property that eliminates signal crosstalk between fibers within the cable and allows the
routing of the cable with twists and turns. In telecommunications applications, the light used
is typically infrared light, at wavelengths near to the minimum absorption wavelength of the
fiber in use.

29

Fig.1.12 Optical fibre core and cladding

Core

- Thin

glass

center

of

the

fiber

where

the

light

travels.

Cladding- Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the
core.
Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and moisture.
Fibers are generally used in pairs, with one fiber of the pair carrying a signal in each
direction, however bidirectional communications is possible over one strand by using two
different wavelengths (colors) and appropriate coupling/splitting devices.
Fibers, like waveguides, can have various transmission modes. The fibers used for longdistance communication are known as single mode fibers, as they have only one strong
propagation mode. This results in superior performance compared to other, multi-mode
fibers, where light transmitted in the different modes arrives at different times, resulting in
dispersion of the transmitted signal.
Typical single mode fiber optic cables can sustain transmission distances of 80 to 140 km
between regenerations of the signal, whereas most multi-mode fiber has a maximum
transmission distance of 300 to 500 meters.
Single mode equipment is generally more expensive than multi-mode equipment. Fibers used
in telecommunications typically have a diameter of 125 m. The transmission core of singlemode fibers most commonly has a diameter of 9 m, while multi-mode cores are available
with 50 m or 62.5 m diameters.
Because of the remarkably low loss and excellent linearity and dispersion behavior of singlemode optical fiber, data rates of up to 40 gigabits per second are possible in real-world use on
a single wavelength. Wavelength division multiplexing can then be used to allow many
wavelengths to be used at once on a single fiber, allowing a single fiber to bear an aggregate
bandwidth measured in terabits per second.
Modern fiber cables can contain up to a thousand fibers in a single cable, so the performance
of optical networks easily accommodate even today's demands for bandwidth on a point-topoint basis. However, unused point-to-point potential band width does not translate to
30

operating profits, and it is estimated that no more than 1% of the optical fiber buried in recent
years is actually 'lit'.
Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for applications
such as direct burial in trenches, installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles,
submarine installation, or insertion in paved streets. In recent years the cost of small fibercount pole mounted cables has greatly decreased due to the high Japanese and South Korean
demand for Fiber to the Home (FTTH) installations.
Recent advances in fiber technology have reduced losses so far that no amplification of the
optical signal is needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly
reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans where the cost
reliability of amplifiers is one of the key factors determining the performance of the
whole cable system. In the past few years several manufacturers of submarine cable line
terminal equipment have introduced upgrades that promise to quadruple the capacity of older
submarine systems installed in the early to mid 1990s.

2.9 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER

Low loss, so repeater-less transmission over long distances is possible

Large data-carrying capacity (thousands of times greater, reaching speeds of up to 3TB/s).
Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear electromagnetic pulses (but can
be damaged by alpha and beta radiation)

No electromagnetic radiation; difficult to eavesdrop

High electrical resistance, so safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between areas with
different earth potentials

Low weight Signals contain very little power.

2.10 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER

Fibers can be used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs
to be brought to bear on a target without a clear line-of-sight path.

Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other
parameters.

31

Bundles of fibers are used along with lenses for long, thin imaging devices called
endoscopes, which are used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are
used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial
endoscopes (see fiberscope or bore scope) are used for inspecting anything hard to reach,
such as jet engine interiors.

In some high-tech buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other
parts of the building.

Optical fibers have many decorative applications, including signs and art, articifal Christmas
tree & lighting.

32

MOUDLE II

33

3. NETWORKING
3.1

RAILNET

The Indian Railways is Asia's largest and the world's second largest rail network. Adopting eGovernance in right earnest and to reap the benefit of IT explosion, Indian Railways have
established a 'Corporate Wide Information System' (CWIS) called RAILNET.
It provides smooth flow of information on demand for administrative purposes, which would
enable taking quicker and better decisions?
Realizing the important role that information plays in customer services and in railways
\operations, IR had embarked on its computerization program. IR developed dedicated
skeletal communication network, as a basic requirement for train operation.
After the early introduction of basic computer applications e.g. Pay rolls, Inventory Control
and Operating Statistics, Railways went for deployment of computers for productivity
improvement through building up operational databases.

3.2

IVRS (INTERACTIVE VOICE RESPONSE SYSTEM)

Interactive voice response (IVR) is a technology that allows a computer to interact with
humans through the use of voice and DTMF keypad inputs.
In telecommunications, IVR allows customers to interact with a companys database via a
telephone keypad or by speech recognition, after which they can service their own inquiries
by following the IVR dialogue. IVR systems can respond with prerecorded or dynamically
generated audio to further direct users on how to proceed. IVR applications can be used to
control almost any function where the interface can be broken down into a series of simple
interactions. IVR systems deployed in the network are sized to handle large call volumes.
IVR technology is also being introduced into automobile systems for hands-free operation.
Current deployment in automobiles revolves around satellite navigation, audio and mobile
phone systems.
It has become common in industries that have recently entered the telecommunications
industry to refer to an automated attendant as an IVR. The terms, however, are distinct and
mean different things to traditional telecommunications professionals, whereas emerging
telephony and VoIP professionals often use the term IVR as a catch-all to signify any kind of
telephony menu, even a basic automated attendant. The term voice response unit (VRU), is
sometimes used as well.

34

Fig.2.1 IVRS system

3.3

PRS PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM

Reserved travel by Indian Railways is facilitated by the Passenger Reservation System (PRS).
PRS provides reservation services to nearly 1.5 to 2.2 million passengers a day on over 2500
trains running throughout the country. The PRS Application CONCERT (Country-wide
Network of Computerized Enhanced Reservation and Ticketing) is the worlds largest online
reservation application, developed and maintained by CRIS. The system currently operates
from 5 Data centers. The server clusters are connected together by a core network that
enables universal terminals across country, through which the travelling public can reserve a
berth on any train, between any pair of station for any date and class.

35

PRS web site was awarded Web Ratna Platinum Icon Award in year 2009 under Citizen
Centric Service category. PRS application has been awarded by Computer Society of India
for best IT usage in the year 1999.

3.4

ROUTER

A router is a device that forwards data packets between telecommunications networks,

creating an overlay internetwork. A router is connected to two or more data lines from
different networks. When data comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the address
information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in
its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey or
drops the packet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through
networks that constitute the internetwork until it gets to its destination node.[1]
The most familiar type of routers are home and small office routers that simply pass data,
such as web pages and email, between the home computers and the owner's cable or DSL
modem, which connects to the Internet (ISP). However more sophisticated routers range from
enterprise routers, which connect large business or ISP networks up to the powerful core
routers that forward data at high speed along the optical fiber lines of the Internet backbone.

36

Fig.2.2 A picture of Router by CISCO

MODULE- III

37

4. UTS (Unreserved Ticketing System)

4.1About UTS
Twenty one million passengers travel daily on Indian Railways using the unreserved journey
facility. An unreserved ticket authorizes these journeys but as the name implies, offers no
reserved seats or berths. The ticket is not specific to a train service either. This facility is
predominantly used by commuters and suburban travellers over short distances where
assured seating is not a necessity. It is also available to lower income groups travelling longer
distances and connects the rural hinterland to districts, towns and cities. Tickets are issued to
the unreserved passenger any time of day or night as booking offices remain open 24 hours a
day, seven days a week.
The Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS) caters to this segment of the market and seeks to
provide a centrally administered computerized ticketing system over the entire Indian
Railways. Today more than ninety percent of the unreserved tickets are sold through this
system. The ability of the system to deliver ticketing at remote corners of the country and
provide uninterrupted services everywhere has been lauded by the Government of India. The
project, along with the CRIS team responsible for its initial design and implementation, won
the Prime Ministers Award for Excellence in Public Administration.

Fig.3.1

4.2Unreserved Ticketing at Railway Counters

38

The unreserved ticketing system began as a pilot project in August 2002 on Northern
Railway. A precursor to this centralized ticketing system was the Self Printing Ticket
Machines (SPTMs), a standalone system that was phased out with the arrival of UTS.
Initially the central hardware architecture was supported with station level servers to ensure
business continuity in the event of network failures. The booking office operator dispensed
the tickets using dumb terminals and dot matrix printers. Over the years with improved
reliability of the network a newer design came into force with the introduction of thin clients
provided to the operator. For details regarding these, please check out our Technology
section.
The graph below shows the growth of the service from 2002. Today the service is available at
nearly 5690 locations over all the 16 Zones of the Indian Railways. The Zonal Railways are
responsible for manning the UTS counters and running the services, while CRIS maintains
the application and ensures continuity of business at the system level. There are nearly 100
ticket types that are sold through the system based on class of travel, concessions for senior
citizens and children, concessions to other categories, and season tickets. The business rules
and fares are determined by the policies of the Ministry of Railways.

Fig.3.2 No. of ticket booking location graph

4.3Jan Sadharan Ticket Booking Sewa (JTBS)

Ticketing services for the unreserved sector were also outsourced as per Railway Boards Jan
Sadharan Ticket Booking Sewa (JTBS) scheme launched in January 2007. Currently JTBS
outlets are available at more than 609 locations. These outlets provide self employment
opportunities and the operators are offered a commission per passenger. The terminals at
these counters connect to the central servers for issuing the tickets.

4.4Automatic Ticket Vending Machines

39

Apart from manned counters for dispensing tickets, there are also automatic ticket vending
machines (ATVM) that are operated using smart cards and touch screens. This technology
was first introduced in Mumbai in Oct2007 and its success led to proliferation to other
metropolitan cities. Chennai, Secunderabad, Delhi and Kolkata are the other cities where
these machines are currently commissioned. The table below shows the number of machines
at each of these regions and the average daily sales as in July 2013.

Zone

Number
ATVMs

of

Commissioned

Northern Railway

75

741023

Central Railway

385

2464443

Western Railway

205

409358

South Central Railway

70

895908

Southern Railway

95

606121

Eastern Railway

95

120285

South Eastern Railway

73

337194

East Coast Railway

31

274379

Total

1029

5848711

Daily Average Earning

Table 2 Zone wise average earning of AVTMs

4.4 Mobile-Van Ticketing : Mushkil Aasan

In order to make ticketing a more convenient experience, the concept of Mobile Counters
deployed in Vans was made operational in Jan 2010. As a pilot, one such Van is functional in
Delhi and Kolkata issuing both Un-reserved and Reserved Tickets. This model makes use of
GPRS/CDMA technologies for connecting to the server.

4.5Currency Operated Ticket vending Machine (CoTVM)

In an endeavour to use cash & coins for ticketing by passenger themselves, the concept of
Currency operated ticket vending machine (CoTVM) was evolved and made operational at
Mumbai in Sep 2012. As a pilot, one machine is functional in Mumbai, one in Chennai and
one in Secunderabad. The CoTVM is an unmanned kiosk which is operated by passengers
40

themselves. It has the feature of issuing Journey tickets & Platform tickets and renewing
Season tickets. It can also be used to recharge Smart cards used in ATVMs. Payment is in the
form coins, bank notes and smart cards. The machine is capable of accepting specific coins of
Re.1, Rs.5 and Rs.10 and bank notes of Rs. 5, Rs.10, Rs.20, Rs.50, Rs.100, Rs.500 and
Rs.1000 of Gandhi series. The machine does not accept currency notes with Ashoka Chakra
Emblem.

4.5Technology
The application has been developed with a two layered architecture in C++. The database
requirements are met through a Sybase product, ASE-CE. A Java version of the application is
used in the ATVMs to provide additional features in the user interface.
Currently, the hardware is deployed across 06 data centres, including one data centre for
Disaster Recovery. To cater to the expansion of the user base for this application, the setup
was revamped recently and migrated to a high-end Virtualized setup. This is the first time that
Virtualization has been implemented for an application of Indian Railways. The backend
setup has a provision to support Business Continuity ensuring nearly 100% uptime for the
application. Besides this, at the client end, the so called Smart Clients have been deployed
which are basically thin clients with a footprint of Relational Database Management System
(RDBMS) and application image. These ensure continuous business operations in the event
of network / backend outage for 3 days for thin clients and 1 day for ATVMs. The application
rides on the Unified Ticketing Network (UTN) for the Passenger Reservation System and
Unreserved Ticketing System.
The printing device is a customized Dot Matrix Printer. However, in case of ATVMs,
Thermal Printers are being used. CRIS works as the coordinating agency for procurement of
peripheral equipment for the Zonal Railways. For details on current procurements, please go
to our section on Tender Notices.

The picture here shows a typical ATVM kiosk.

The kiosks have a touch screen based user interface,
a smart card reader, a thin client and a thermal printer.

Fig.3.3

4.6 TEAM
The Unreserved Ticketing Services group is part of the commercial applications division
within CRIS working under the guidance of Sh. Sanjaya Das, Director Operations. Sh. Das
41

has been associated with the design and implementation of the complex Control Office
Application and has returned to CRIS after completing a challenging assignment as
Divisional Railway Manager, Ajmer. The group is currently led by Sh. Amit Varadan, General
Manager, an Indian Railway Traffic Service officer with 23 years of experience. He is
assisted by Sh. P. K. Varshney, Chief Manager who is a domain knowledge expert. The
technical team is led by Sh. Namit Verma, Principal Project Engineer. The rest of the team
includes Senior Project Engineer, Project Engineers, Senior Software Engineers & Software
Engineers spread across the CRIS regional offices at New Delhi, Kolkata, Secunderabad,
Chennai and Mumbai.

MODULE- IV

42

5. Railway Signalling & Signal Workshop

5.1Introduction:Signaling is one of the most important aspects of Railway communication. In the very early
days of the railways there was no fixed signaling to inform the driver of the state of the line
ahead. Trains were driven on sight. But several unpleasant incidents accentuated the need
for an efficient signaling system. Earliest system involved the Time Interval technique. Here
time intervals were imposed between trains mostly around 10 mins. But due to the frequent
breakdown of trains in those days this technique resulted in rear-end collisions. This gave rise
to the fixed signaling system wherein the track was divided into fixed sections and each
section was protected by a fixed signaling. This system is still being continued although
changes have been brought about in the basic signaling methods. Earlier mechanical signals
were used but today block signaling is through electric instruments.
When trains run on railway tracks they follow rules of
a very important role.The most important rule in respect

operations in

which safety plays

of safety is to ensure that two

trains do not occupy the sameposition on the track at the same time. To make this rule work
operation of

trains uses signaling to controlmovement of trains on tracks and divides

tracks into several sections which are protected by the signals.

43

Fig.4.1

Fig. shows a representation of a railway signaling arrangement. The horizontal liner

represents the railway track, the signals are depicted by the symbol of the circle with a
horizontal and vertical line to this circle and the red rectangles are the trains. This
representation is however to explain how trains are run safely.

5.2Locking:There are three types of locking

a) Direct
b) Approach
c) Route
Direct locking is available as long as a signal is clear or track is occupied or a point is set.
This is the most fundamental level of locking.

44

Fig.4.2

When signal S1 is cleared the cleared condition of the signal locks other signals which can
cause trains to run on any part of the route over which S1 allows a train to run. Thus with S1
cleared allowing trains to move to track T1 signal S4 cannot be cleared and willbe locked as
the latter also allows trains to occupy track T1. Other form of direct locking is the locking of
the point in the route for which signal S1 is cleared. If S1 is cleared to the straight route T0
T1 T2 then the point P1 will be set and locked to allow a train to move on the straight route
over Point P1.Attempts to move point P1 from this position will not be allowed and hence
will be locked. Conversly if the point P1 is not set for straight the signal S1 will be locked.
The occupation of a track also locks signals if T1 is occupied then signal S1 cannot be
cleared. Signal S1 is therefore directly locked to the cleared status of the track. Points are
directly locked to track circuits over the point zones. If the track circuit over a point zone is
occupied the it is locked so that it cannot move. This is the direct locking of the point.

5.3Approach Locking :While ensuring safety for train running it is not only necessary to ensure that safety is ensured
over all portions of track for which signals have been given but also over portions over track
which can get occupied due to trains approaching a signal which protects these portions of
track failing to stop at this signal. Such protection is required under the condition when the
signal protecting had not been cleared.

5.4Flank protection and isolation:When a train is allowed to move by a signal it is also necessary to ensure that no part of the
train will be Involved in a side collision.

5.5Protection in the overlap:-

45

Fig.4.3

When a train is approaching a signal a possibility exists that the train may fail to stop at the
signal where it is intended to stop due to mechanical failure or due to human failure. While
there is no absolute arrangement to control against this eventuality a partial safety is ensured
by providing a small part of the track beyond the signal at which the train is to stop free of
any conflict or obstruction to the train if it fails to stop at the foot of the signal. Typically
when train TR1 is approaching S1 it will normally be ensured that the track section onto T2 is
free of any obstruction. This includes possibility of any train from the opposite direction
reaching T2. Hence if TR1 is allowed to approach S1 it will be ensured that the train TR2
does not at the same time approach signal S2. Any point in this portion of the track also needs
to be set and locked in the position allowing safe movement through it. If TR1 is approaching
signal S1 it will mean point P2A must be set and locked for the straight route. The point P2A
and track T2 is referred to be in the overlap for signal S1 and locks the signal allowing
approach of a train to signal S1 if not found free. Conversely if signal S1 is cleared any
condition which can lead to the overlap from failing to remain in the condition to maintain
safety for train TR1 approaching S1 will be locked.

5.5 Release of locking:Signals indicate when a route which it checks is safe for a train to travel. The safety is
checked from different angles as explained above. After a signal has been cleared for a train it
is required to be put back to danger as the train moves past it. There are two reasons for doing
this-:
a) To ensure the safety of the train which has moved past.
46

b) To allow clearance of other signals which has been locked by it.

The release of locking is done automatically as a train moves along the route a signal had
cleared for it. The locking is released in stages-:
a) As the train moves past the signal the approach locking is brought back to normal.
b) As the train clears the first track after the signal the direct locking gets released.
c) As the train moves the route locking , flank or isolation protection for the portions of the
route cleared by the train is removed.
d) After the train has come to a stop at the next signal for sufficient time to prove that it is not
moving the overlap is released. This is the normal release with the passage of train. There can
however be occasions when it is required to cancel a signal which has been cleared and yet to
be passed by the train. When this is required the signal is canceled. When the signal is
canceled it is necessary to ensure that the locking it had enabled also get canceled. Here again
the cancellation starts from release of the approach locking followed by release of the route
locking, locking of flank and isolation and finally the overlap. The release is done only after
it is established that a train which had been approaching the train has come to a stopped at the
signal before the locking to other signals are released.

5.6Detection of trains:Signals control movement of trains. For it to effectively control movement of signals there is
a need to know the location of trains on the track. The railway tracks are divided into short
sections normally referred to as track sections. At any time only one train can occupy one
such a section. Track circuits or axle counters are used for the detection of trains in these
sections. Only one train can occupy a
track section at any time. Normally the detector is fed with the signal from the
source through the rails and as long the detector receives a signal it concludes that the track
section is not occupied. If a train occupies the track section being monitored it short circuits
the track cutting off the signal from the source to the detector. When the detector fins loss of
signal from the source it concludes that the section is occupied by a train. Principles of fail
safety is also very well demonstrated in this arrangement. In case of a failure like a broken
wire, rail fracture, power supply failure, failure of the source the detector will lose the signal
and conclude the section is occupied by a train. This will allow the detection to maintain
safety even under failure condition and satisfy requirments of fail safety.
47

5.7 Control and drive to points:Points are driven by electrical motors. The motors are known as point motors and moves
point using a mechanism which including the motor is referred to as point machine. A point
machine mechanism moves switches of a point through a mechanical arrangement of rods
and gears.

5.8 Signals:Signals indicate to the train drivers whether the route till the next signals is reached is safe or
not. Before a signal is cleared the signal control logic verifies that everything is safe for a
train which follows it. This will mean-:
a) All track sections over which the train will be routed is unoccupied. This is checked by
checking the status of the track circuit relays. Track proving relays of all track sections which
are clear will be picked up. By checking the status of these relays which are referred as track
relays the signaling control logic can determine
that the route is clear.
b) Routes of any signals which conflict with the signal is not cleared and that none of the
signals have been approach locked.
c) There is not route set over a track section conflicting with the route of the desired signal.
This is proved by checking that all track circuits over which the signal reads is clear of route
locking.

5.9 Implementation of Signaling Systems :Train running and signaling the drivers of the trains depends to a significant extent on
mechanized equipment. The technologies used for this application ranges from very
rudimentary systems to highly sophisticated equipment. The technologies are based to a great
degree on mechanical arrangement at large number of installations. Advanced technologies
are in use on sections where train densities are high and
48

specially where Railway Electrification has already been done. Technologies used for this
application are for two reasons :1) To ensure safety of train running.
2) To improve operational efficiency.

5.10

Basic Principles :-

Safety of train running in practice means ensuring that two trains do not occupy the same
location at the same time. Since trains are bound onto Railway tracks it means ensuring two
trains do not occupy same location of the track at the same time. This is ensured in two
stages-:
1) By dividing the Railway track into sections.
2) Entry into each of these sections are controlled by suitable signaling system which ensures
through various means that when a train is signaled to Basics of Railway Signaling.
3) The drivers controlling the train are signaled sufficiently in advance so that they can stop
the train before signals which are not cleared. Since trains typically move at a speed of
around 100 Km./Hr. it requires a braking distance of 1 Km before a signal at which it is
required to stop. Hence signaling system ensures that signals are conveyed to the Drivers
sufficiently in advance to bring the train to stop safely.
4) It should not be possible to move a point when a train is over the point or is very near to
the point having picked up signal allowing the train to move over the point likely to be
moved. In addition to above various other rules are applied to
make a signaling system safe. These rules are results of experiences gained after accidents.
Thus one rule msays that if a passenger train has to run through a line then this run through
line should be isolated from other connected lines in the station by suitable means. This rule
has been introduced to ensure that if there is a train standing on a connected line and it starts
rolling it cannot result in a devastating collision as it is kept isolated from run through line on
which high speed train has been signaled to go through.

5.11

Basic Rules :-

The basic rules of safety in connection with train running is implemented through various
methods. The Railway Engineering is very old and, therefore, implementation methods also

49

are old. Availability of modern electrical & electronic technology is gradually changing the
implementation of Railway signaling systems. The technologies used in Railway signaling
system depended on human element initially. Gradually mechanical systems were introduced
followed by electrical/electromechanical and now electronics/electrical/electromechanical
systems. The human element in Railway signaling is getting reduced wore & more for
improving safety and efficiency of train operations.

5.12

The Human element :-

Signaling Systems exist where setting of the point and locking of the same is entirely
manual. The locking of the point is achieved through key and lock system.
The signals are all hand Signals. A more mechanized arrangement is where switches turning
points are connected to levers and signals are given by mechanical arms known as semaphore
signals. In both the systems the human element ensure that the routes a train will take is not
obstructed. The set person who is clearing the signals for passage of the trains achieves this
entirely visually. The oldest signaling Systems are entirely manual where even the checking
that a route has been properly is manual.
The 50 Hz & 83&113 Hz signal source is used in a manner similar to D.C. voltage and
requires no special mention as the detector is simply a relay. In case of 83&1/3 Hz system
normally 3 phase system is used and two phases are used on any section. The feed end gives
one phase and a second phase is always fed to the detecting relay. When the track circuited
section is free the two phases create a rotary force as in a AC electric motor. Absence of one
of the phase via the rails due to presence of a train removes the rotating force dropping the
relay. The 83&1/3 Hz track circuits is a popular track circuiting arrangement.

5.13

Electronics in Railway Signaling for improved safety :-

The audio frequency track circuit is the latest entrant in the field. This arrangement feeds an
Audio frequency signal which causes pick up of Relay via the detector. A simple Audio
frequency generator is used and at the detecting end a L.C. resonant circuit is used for picking
up the desired Audio frequency signal & rejecting others. Due to the use of high frequency it
is possible to use the Railway track as a

50

transmission line and use of physical insulating pieces electrically isolating one section as "R'
from 'A-B" is not required. By using resonant L.C. circuits at suitable points the AF signal
can be made to stop beyond any particular point without the need of any insulating joint. This
feature is a big advantage for this type of track circuit as there is no need to cut Rails & insert
insulating pieces. Indian Railways but considerable difficulties, faced on account of loss of
track side equipment due to theft has rendered the system ineffective. As a corollary to this
simple arrangement, systems of continuous automatic control of trains are also available.
Such systems continuously control speed of trains through transfer of signals from the track
side to the engine. The system is quite elaborate consisting of a receiver located in the engine
and suitable transmitter coils located on the sleepers between the track. A computer computes
the required speed of trains running on the track for ensuring safety as well as for ensuring
that trains run on time speeding as necessary or slowing when needed. Such a system is being
implemented on Metro Railway Calcutta in India for the first time. Such systems are
important for Metro Railway services where time between two successive trains is are
required to be kept very small to as much as one min or less. Even with such small interval
between trains complete safety & punctuality can be attained using the continuous automatic
train control and protection system. Use of Electrical/Electronic Gadgets for ease of operation
Over and above allowing higher levels of safety by using sophisticated controls the use of
electrical/electronic gadgets for Railway Signaling is also made for ease of train operations
and higher efficiencies. Systems known as Panel Interlocking and its sophisticated variety
known a Route Relay Interlocking are for control of signals and points with higher
efficiencies.

5.14

Design of Signaling Circuits:-

The design of signaling circuits is based on simple principles. Railway Signaling being one of
the oldest control engineering is based on very simple methods
and principles. One of the main reasons of its simplicity lies in the fact that technological aids
for design were not very high till late 21st century and complicated design principles and
methods could not be supported. as a result of this the circuits are drawn using very simple
symbols and names are kept short. If looked in the context of the fact that the circuits had to
be hand drawn in times where duplicating facilities were very primitive the reason why they
are so simple
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can easily be understood. Signaling circuits are based on defining relays of the
following types:
a) Those signifying states in progress of a command
b) Those indicating steady state of the signaling functions.
c) The last operation has been completed properly .All circuits of Railway Signaling has to
ensure safety. Hence both the type of relays defined above also always ensure safety. This
fundamentally means that in absence of any voltage to the circuit the relays shall assume safe
state which is the drop state for all neutral relays and can be dropped or one of the latched
state for relays which are latched electrically or mechanically.

5.15

Signal Workshop-:

In the signal workshop of Indian railways, following machine are manufactured which are
used as a part of signaling system:1. Electric point machine.
2. Relays.
Points are provided to divert the running trains from one track to another. The points have
movable switches which can be operated electrically by a point machine. A point can be
single-ended point or double-ended point depending on whether the movable switches are
provided at one end or two ends of the point,
The two switch rails of the point are rigidly connected together by a cross bar so that they can
be moved from one position to the other position together by the point machine. If the
position of the switches is such that the train is moved on to the main line as shown above,
then the point is said to be in its normal (N) position. If the switch rails are moved to the
other position as shown below so that the train is diverted to the loop line, then the point is
said to be in its REVERSE (R) position.

5.16

Solid State Interlocking:-

Solid State Interlocking is a data-driven signal control system designed for use throughout the
British railway system. SSI is a replacement for electromechanical interlockings---which are
based on highly reliable relay technology---and has been designed with a view to modularity,
improved flexibility in serving the needs of a diversity of rail traffic, and greater economy.
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The hugely complex relay circuitry found in many modern signalling installations is
expensive to install, difficult to modify, and requires extensive housing---but the same
functionality can be achieved with a relatively small number of interconnected solid state
elements as long as they are individually sufficiently reliable. SSI has been designed to be
compatible with current signalling practice and principles of interlocking design, and to
maintain the operator's perception of the behavior and appe arance of the control system.

A schematic view of SSI processor.

Fig.4.4

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6. CONCLUSION
This report takes a pedagogical stance in demonstrating how results from theoretical
electronics may be applied to yield significant insight into the behavior of the devices
.Electronics & communication engineering practice seeks to put in place, and that this is
immediately attainable with the present state of the art. The focus for this detailed study is
provided by the type of solid state signaling and various communication systems currently
being deployed throughout mainline railways. Safety and system reliability concerns
dominate in this domain. With such motivation, two issues are tackled: the special problem of
software quality assurance in these data-driven control systems, and the broader problem of
design dependability. In the former case, the analysis is directed towards proving safety
properties of the geographic data which encode the control logic for the railway interlocking;
the latter examines the fidelity of the communication protocols upon which the distributed
control system depends.
We have covered in this report the history, latest developments in Railway systems as well as
related fields. We have studied the various uses of electronics and communications in
railways like microwave communication, signaling, electronic point machines etc.

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7. REFERENCES
1. Books
MTRC, form Indian Railway Institute of Signal and Telecom,
SECUNDRABAD.
Signal and Telecom, from Indian Railway Institute of Signal and Telecom,
SECUNDRABAD.
2. Website

www.iriset/ebooks/htm
www.wikipedia.com
www.Railnet.com
www.indianrailway/organization/htm

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