StealthTechnology

INTRODUCTION
Stealth technology also termed LO technology (low observable technology) is a subdisciplineofmilitarytacticsandpassive electroniccountermeasures,whichcoverarange oftechniques
used with personnel,aircraft, ships, submarines, and missiles, to make them less visible (ideally
invisible) to radar, infrared, sonar and other detectionmethods.
Developmentinthe UnitedStates occurredin1958, whereearlierattemptsinpreventing radar tracking
of its U-2 spy planes during the Cold Warby the Soviet Union had been unsuccessful.]Designers
turned

todevelopaparticularshape

forplanes

detection,byredirectingelectromagneticwaves

thattendedto

fromradars.

reduce

Radar-absorbentmaterial

was

alsotestedandmadetoreduceorblockradarsignalsthatreflectofffromthesurfaceof
planes.Suchchangestoshapeandsurfacecompositionformstealthtechnology
NorthropGrummanB-2Spirit

ascurrently

usedonthe

"StealthBomber".Theconceptofstealthisto

operateorhidewithoutgivingenemyforcesanyindicationsastothepresenceoffriendly
forces.Thisconceptwasfirstexploredthrough

camouflage

byblendingintothebackground

visual

clutter. As the potency of detection and interception technologies (radar, IRST, surface-toairmissilesetc.)haveincreasedovertime,sotoohastheextentto which the design and operation of
military personnel and vehicles have been affected in response. Some military
treated

with

chemicals

to

reduce

their

uniforms are
infrared

signature.Amodern"stealth"vehiclewillgenerallyhavebeendesignedfrom the outset to have reduced

or controlled signature. Varying degrees of stealth can be achieved.Theexactlevelandnatureofstealth
embodiedinaparticulardesign isdetermined by the

StealthTechnology

HISTORY
InEngland,irregularunitsofgamekeepersin

the17thcenturywerethefirsttoadoptdrab

colors(commoninthe16thcenturyIrishunits)asaformof

camouflage,followingexamples

fromthe

continent.
Yehudi lights were successfully employed inII byRAF Shorts Sunderlandaircraftinattackson Uboats.In1945a

GrummanAvenger

withYehudilights

gotwithin3,000

yards(2,700m)ofaship

beforebeingsighted.Thisabilitywasrendered obsolete by the radar ofthe time.

OneoftheearlieststealthaircraftseemstohavebeentheHornetHo229

flyingwing.It

includedcarbonpowderinthegluetoabsorbradiowaves.Someprototypeswerebuilt,butit was never used

in action.
In1958,theCIA requestedfundingforareconnaissanceaircraft,toreplace U-2 spyplanes in which
Lockheed securedcontractualrightstoproducetheaircraft. "Kelly"Johnson andhis teamatLockheed's
SkunkWorks

wereassignedtoproducethe

A-12

orOXCARTthefirstof

theformer

topsecret

classifiedBlackbirdserieswhichoperatedathighaltitudeof70,000to

80,000ftandspeedofMach
alreadybeenintroduced

3.2toavoidradardetection.Radarabsorbentmaterialhad
onU-2spy

planes,

and

various

planeshapeshadbeendeveloped

earlierprototypesnamedA1toA11toreduceitsdetectionfromradar.
priormodels,anoptimalplane

shapetaking

in

Laterin1964,using

intoaccountcompactness

wasdevelopedwhere

another"Blackbird",the SR-71,wasproduced,surpassingpriormodelsinbothaltitudeof
90,000 ft and speed ofMach 3.3.
During1970s,theU.S.DepartmentofDefensethenlaunchedaprojectcalled
projecttodevelopastealthfighter.BiddingbetweenbothLockheedand

Northropforthe

fiercetosecurethemulti-billiondollarcontract.Lockheedincorporatedinits
Soviet/Russian

physicist

PyotrUfimtsev

HaveBlue

the
tenderwas

programpaperwrittenbya

in1962titledMethodof

EdgeWaves

inthePhysicalTheoryofDiffraction,SovietRadio,Moscow,1962.In1971this book was translated into

English with the same title by U.S. Air Force, Foreign Technology Division(NationalAir
IntelligenceCenter),Wright-PattersonAFB,OH,1971.
Technical

ReportAD

733203,

DefenseTechnicalInformationCenterof

Alexandria,VA,22304-6145,USA.Thistheoryplayed

USA,CameronStation,

acriticalroleinthedesignof

aircraftF-117andB-2.

Americanstealth-

Thepaperwasabletofindwhetheraplane'sshape

designwouldminimizeitsdetectionbyradaroritsradarcross-section(RCS)
usingaseriesofequationscouldbeusedtoevaluatetheradarcrosssectionofanyshape.

StealthTechnology

PRINCIPLES
Stealthtechnology(orLOfor"lowobservability")

isnotasingle

technology.Itisacombination

oftechnologies thatattempttogreatly reducethedistances atwhichapersonorvehiclecanbedetected; in

particularradarcrosssectionreductions,butalsoacoustic,thermal,and otheraspects:

RADARCROSS-SECTION(RCS)REDUCTIONS
Almostsincetheinventionofradar,variousmethodshavebeentriedtominimizedetection.
RapiddevelopmentofradarduringWWIIledtoequallyrapiddevelopmentofnumerouscounterradar
measures during the period; a notable example ofthis was the use ofchaff.Theterm
"stealth"inreferencetoreducedradarsignatureaircraftbecamepopularduringthe
lateeightieswhentheLockheedMartin

F-117stealthfighterbecamewidelyknown.Thefirst

largescale(andpublic)useoftheF-117wasduringthe

GulfWar

in1991.However,F-117A

stealthfighterswereusedforthefirsttimeincombatduringOperationJustCause,the
invasion

of

Panama

technologiesbehindthem

in

1989.

Increased

awareness

of

stealth

United
vehicles

ispromptingthedevelopmentofmeanstodetectstealthvehicles,

States
and

the

suchas

passiveradar arraysand low-frequencyradars.Manycountriesneverthelesscontinue todeveloplowRCSvehiclesbecausetheyofferadvantagesindetectionrangereductionand amplify the effectiveness

ofon-board systems againstactive radar guidance threats.
Inthe

20thCentury,RussianMathematicianPetrYakovlevichUfimtsev,

early

pointedoutthatRCSisalsodependent

first

onthephysicalgeometryofthetarget,in

hispaper"MethodofEdgeWavesinthePhysicalTheoryofDiffraction".The
papershowedtheoreticalpossibilitiesforlargeobjects,suchasmilitaryaircrafts,
toreduceRCS.RCSisthehypotheticalarearequired tointerceptthetransmitted power density at the target
such

that

if

the

total

intercepted

radiatedisotropically,thepowerdensityactuallyobserved

power

atthereceiveris

were

re-

produced.Andforamono-

wavelengthradarwave,itisgivenbytheequation:
.(Note,Gtisthegainoftheradartransmitantenna,istheradar
target,Aeffisthe

crosssectionofthe
effectiveareaofthe

radarreceivingantenna.)Inthisreportwewillfocusonintroducingandevaluatingsomeofthemost
commonlyused radarstealth technologies.

StealthTechnology

METHODSOFRCSREDUCTIONS
PURPOSE SHAPING
Ufimtsevstheorywasfirstadoptedbythe engineers in Lockheed
Martin to analyze
RCSforvariousgeometric shapes.Purpose shaping istodirectmostofthereflected radarwavesaway
from theincident direction.Hence,itwillcreate aconeof silencealong thedirectionoftheaircrafts
motion.

(FIG-1)

Radar Cross Section Diagram

4

StealthTechnology

(FIG-2)

PLANEALIGNMENT(FACET)
Accordingto
opticsandelectromagnetictheories,curvedsurfaceusuallyreflectradar
wavesinacollectionofdirections,whileincontrast,aplaneonlyreflecttheminonedirection.
Though SR-71 was the first aircrafts included RCS reduction at the beginningoftheproject,F117(Fig1.)is
recognizedasthefirststealthoperationalmilitary
aircraft.Itemployedfacet
methods.Technically,
thereisno
curvatureonF-117ssurface.There
areonlyplanesandsharptransitionsbetweenplanessothattherewillbenothing
normaltotheincidentradarwaves.Hence,noradarwavewillbereflectedbackto the transmitter. Atthesame
time,thenumberofplanesandanglesarekeptat
minimumtoreducedirectionsofradarsignalreflection.
Mostoftheincidentradar wavesaredeflectedawayfromthesourceto achieveradarstealth.

FLYINGWING
Flyingwingisanidealstealthshapeforaircrafts.Itminimizes
thenumberof
leadingedges,whichinturn,reducesradarecho
signals.German
Ho229isthe
earlieststealthplane,thoughitwasbycoincidence. Itsdesignwasaflyingwing. Northrops B-2 Spirit
bomber
also
adopted
flying
wing
shape
with
some
zigzagshapeatthetail,reducingitsradarechotoassmallasa0.1mmetal object.

MATERIALS AND ABSORPTION

MATERIALSOFTHEAIRCRAFTS
Metal,themostcommonlyusedmaterial
inaero-engineering,
producer.Modernmilitaryaircrafts,suchasB-2SpiritandF-22Raptor,
compositematerialsinsteadofmetal.Thosematerialsareblendsofcarbonand
reflective.

isagoodradarecho
usealotof
otherchemicals.Theyare

RADARABSORBINGMATERIALS(RAM)
Usuallynon-resonantRAMareusedtocoatthereflectivesurface.
Theywillabsorb
incidentradarwavesandconvertalargepercentage
ofthemintoheat.
Resonant
RAMareseldomusedbecause,incontrasttonon-resonantRAM,onetypeofthis
materialonlyrespondstocreatedestructiveinterferencepattern againstonespecific wavelength.

StealthTechnology

(FIG -3)

VEHICLE SHAPE
The F-35LightningII offersbetterstealthyfeatures(suchasthislandinggeardoor)than prior American
fighters,such

as

theF-16

Fighting

Falcon

Thepossibilityofdesigningaircraftinsuchamannerastoreducetheirradarcross-section wasrecognizedin
thelate1930s,whenthefirstradartrackingsystemswereemployed,andit
hasbeenknownsinceatleastthe1960sthataircraftshape
detectability.The

AvroVulcan,aBritish

makesasignificantdifference
bomber

in

ofthe1960s,hadaremarkablysmall

appearanceonradardespiteitslargesize,andoccasionallydisappearedfrom

radarscreens

entirely.Itisnowknownthatithadafortuitouslystealthyshapeapartfrom thevertical elementofthetail.

Incontrast,theTupolev95Russianlongrangebomber(NATOreporting name'Bear') appeared especially
well

on

radar.

It

is

now

known

that

propellersand

jet

turbinebladesproduce

abrightradarimage;theBearhadfourpairsoflarge(5.6meter diameter) contra-rotatingpropellers.

Anotherimportantfactor isinternalconstruction. Somestealthaircrafthaveskinthat isradar transparent
or absorbing, behind which are structures termed re-entrant triangles. Radar wavespenetratingthe
skinget trappedinthesestructures,reflectingoff theinternalfacesand losing energy. This method was
firstused on theBlackbirdseries(A-11/ YF-12A / SR-71).
6

StealthTechnology

Themostefficientway toreflectradarwavesbacktotheemittingradariswithorthogonal metal plates,

forming a corner

reflectorconsisting of

trihedral(threeorthogonalplates).

either a dihedral

(two plates) or

Thisconfigurationoccursinthetailof

aconventional

aircraft,wheretheverticalandhorizontalcomponentsofthetailaresetatrightangles.
Stealthaircraftsuchasthe

F-117

useadifferentarrangement,tiltingthetailsurfacesto

reduce

cornerreflectionsformedbetweenthem.Amoreradicalmethodistoeliminatethe tail completely, as in

the B-2Spirit.

(FIG -4)

In addition to altering the tail, stealth design must bury the engines within the wing
orfuselage,orinsomecaseswherestealthisappliedtoanextantaircraft,install
bafflesintheairintakes,sothattheturbinebladesarenot visibletoradar.Astealthyshape mustbedevoidof
complexbumpsorprotrusionsof anykind;meaningthatweapon,fuel tanks, and otherstoresmustnot
becarried externally. Any stealthy vehiclebecomesun- stealthy when a door or hatch opens.
Planformalignmentisalsooftenusedinstealthdesigns.Planformalignmentinvolvesusing
asmallnumberofsurfaceorientationsintheshapeofthestructure.Forexample,onthe F22ARaptor,theleading edgesof thewingandthetailsurfacesareset atthesameangle. Careful inspection
shows that manysmall structures, such as the air intake bypass doors and the airrefueling
aperture,alsousethesameangles.Theeffectofplanformalignmentisto
returnaradarsignalinaveryspecificdirectionawayfrom theradaremitterratherthan returning a diffuse
signaldetectable at many angles.
7

StealthTechnology

Stealth

airframes

sometimesdisplaydistinctiveserrationson

someexposededges,suchasthe

engineports.The YF-23 hassuchserrationsontheexhaustports.Thisisanotherexamplein the use ofreentranttriangles and planformalignment, this time on the external airframe.
Shapingrequirementshavestrongnegativeinfluenceon the aircraft'saerodynamicproperties. The F117 haspooraerodynamics,is inherentlyunstable,andcannotbeflownwithouta flyby-wire control system.

K32 HMSHelsingborg, a stealth ship

(FIG -5)
Shipshavealsoadoptedsimilarmethods.TheSkjoldclasspatrolboatwasthefirst stealth
signature-reduction features. Other examples are the French La Fayette class frigate, the German
Sachsen class frigates the Swedish Visby class corvette the USS San Antonio amphibious
transport dock,and mostmodern warship designs.
Similarly coating thecockpitcanopy with a thin filmtransparent conductor (vapor- deposited gold or
indiumtinoxide)helpstoreducetheaircraft'sradarprofile,becauseradar
waveswouldnormallyenterthecockpit,reflectoffobjects

(theinside

of

acockpithasa

complexshape,withapilothelmetaloneformingasizeablereturn),andpossiblyreturnto
theradar,buttheconductivecoatingcreatesacontrolledshapethatdeflectstheincoming

radarwaves

awayfrom theradar.Thecoatingisthinenoughthatithas noadverseeffecton pilot vision.

NON-METALLICAIRFRAME
Dielectric composites aremoretransparenttoradar,whereaselectricallyconductivematerials suchas
metals and carbonfibers reflectelectromagneticenergyincidentonthematerial's surface. Composites
may also contain ferritesto optimize the dielectric and magnetic properties ofa material for
itsapplication.
8

StealthTechnology

RADAR-ABSORBINGMATERIAL
Radar-absorbentmaterial

(RAM),oftenaspaints,areusedespeciallyontheedgesofmetal

surfaces.WhilethematerialandthicknessofRAMcoatingsisclassified,thematerialseeks
toabsorbradiatedenergyfromagroundorairsbasedradarstationintothecoatingand convertittoheat rather
than reflect itback.

RADAR STEALTHCOUNTERMEASURES ANDLIMITS:

LOW-FREQUENCYRADAR
Shaping offers far fewer stealth advantages againstlow-frequency

radar. If the

generateasignificantreturn.However,low-frequencyradarislimitedbylackofavailable
manyareheavilyusedbyothersystems,bylackofaccuracyofthe

diffraction-

giventheirlongwavelengths,andbytheradar'ssize,makingitdifficultto

frequencieslimitedsystems

transport.ALong-

waveradarmaydetectatargetandroughlylocateit,butnotidentifyit,
andthelocationinformationlackssufficientweapontargetingaccuracy,orevento
fightertothetarget.

guidea

Noiseposesanotherproblem,butthatcanbeefficientlyaddressedusing

moderncomputertechnology;Chinese"Nantsin"

radar

andmanyolderSoviet-madelong-

rangeradarsweremodifiedthisway.Ithasbeensaidthat"there'snothinginvisibleinthe radar frequency

range below 2 GHz".

MULTIPLEEMITTERS
Muchofthestealth

comesfrom

reflecting

return.Thus,detection

radaremissionsin

directionsdifferentthan

adirect

canbebetterachievedifemittersareseparatefromreceivers.One

emitterseparatefromoneemitteristermed

bistaticradar;oneormoreemittersseparatefrom

morethanonereceiverismultitatic.Proposalsexisttousereflectionsfrom emitterssuchas civilianradio

transmitters, includingcellulartelephone radiotowers.

MOORE'SLAW
By Moore'slaw theprocessingpowerbehindradarsystemsisrisingovertime.Thiswill erode the ability
of physical stealth to hide vehicles. However, that same level of improvementwillboost
theelectronicwarfare equipmentof stealth vehicles,whichwill always havea quieter return signal to
mask than anon-stealthcraft wouldreturn.

StealthTechnology

ACOUSTICS
Acousticstealthplaysaprimaryrolein

submarine

stealthaswellasforgroundvehicles.

Submarines

useextensiverubbermountingsto isolateand avoidmechanicalnoisesthatcould reveal locations to

underwater passive sonar arrays.
Earlystealthobservationaircraft usedslow-turning propellers toavoidbeingheardbyenemy
troopsbelow.Stealthaircraftthatstay subsoniccanavoidbeingtrackedby sonicboom.The
presenceofsupersonicandjet-poweredstealthaircraftsuchasthe SR-71Blackbirdindicates that
acousticsignature isnotalwaysamajordriverinaircraftdesign,althoughtheBlackbird relied more on its
extremely high speed and altitude.

VISIBILITY
Thesimpleststealthtechnologyissimply camouflage;theuseofpaintorothermaterialsto color and break
up thelines ofthe vehicle or person.
Most stealth aircraft use matte paint and dark colors, and operate only at night. Lately,
interestindaylightStealth(especiallybytheUSAF)hasemphasizedtheuseofgraypaint

in

disruptiveschemes,anditisassumedthat Yehudilightscouldbeusedinthefutureto maskshadowsinthe

airframe

(indaylight,againsttheclearbackgroundofthesky,dark

tonesareeasiertodetectthanlightones)orasasortofactivecamouflage.TheoriginalB-2 design had wing

tanks for a contrail-inhibiting chemical, alleged by some to be chlorofluorosulfonicacid,
butthiswasreplacedinthefinaldesignwitha contrailsensorfrom Ophir that alerts the pilotwhen he
should changealtitude andmission planning also considers altitudes where the probability oftheir
formation is minimized.

10

StealthTechnology

(FIG -6)

INFRARED
An exhaust plume contributes a significant infrared signature. One means to reduce IR
signatureistohaveanon-circulartailpipe(aslitshape)tominimizetheexhaustcrosssectionalvolumeandmaximizethe
airisdeliberatelyinjectedinto

mixingof

hotexhaust

withcool

ambientair.

theexhaustflowtoboostthisprocess.

Often,cool

Sometimes,thejet

exhaustisventedabovethewingsurfacetoshielditfromobserversbelow,asinthe B-2
Spirit,andtheunstealthy A-10ThunderboltII.Toachieve infraredstealth,theexhaustgasis cooled to the
temperatures where the brightest wavelengths it radiates are absorbed by atmospheric carbon
dioxideand water vapor, dramatically reducing the infrared visibilityof the
Another

way

to

reduce

the

exhaust

temperature

fluidssuchasfuelinsidetheexhaustpipe,wherethefueltanksserveas

is

exhaust

plume.

to circulate coolant
heat

sinks

cooledbytheflowofairalongthewings.Groundcombatincludestheuseofboth
activeandpassiveinfraredsensorsandsothe

USMC

groundcombatuniformrequirements

specifiesinfrared reflectivequality standards.

11

document

StealthTechnology

REDUCINGRADIOFREQUENCY(RF)EMISSIONS
Inaddition

toreducinginfraredand

acousticemissions,a

stealthvehicle

mustavoid

radiating

anyotherdetectableenergy,suchasfromonboardradars,communicationssystems,or RF leakage from

electronics enclosures. The F-117 uses passive infraredand low light level televisionsensor systems
to aim its weapons and the F-22 Raptor has an advanced LPI radar which can illuminate enemy
aircraft without triggering a radar warning
receiverresponse.

MEASURING
Thesizeofatarget'simageonradarismeasuredbythe

radarcrosssection

orRCS,often

bythesymbolandexpressedinsquaremeters.Thisdoes

represented

notequalgeometric

area.Aperfectlyconductingsphereofprojectedcrosssectionalarea1m2(i.e.adiameterof
1.13m)willhaveanRCSof1m2.Notethatforradarwavelengthsmuchlessthanthe
diameterofthesphere,

RCSisindependentoffrequency.Conversely,a

squareflatplateof

area1m2willhaveanRCSof=4 A2/ 2(where A=area,=wavelength),or13,982m2at

10GHziftheradarisperpendiculartotheflatsurface.

Atoff-normal

incidentangles,energy

isreflectedawayfromthereceiver,reducingtheRCS.Modernstealthaircraftaresaidto

have

an

RCS

comparable with small birds or large insects,though this varies widely depending on aircraft and
radar.
If

theRCSwasdirectly

relatedtothetarget'scross-sectionalarea,

theonlywaytoreduceit

wouldbetomakethephysicalprofilesmaller.Rather,byreflectingmuchoftheradiation

away

or

by

absorbingit,the target achievesa smaller radar cross section.

STEALTHAIRCRAFT
Stealth aircraftare aircraft that use stealth technology to interfere with radar detection as
wellasmeansother thanconventionalaircraft byemployingacombinationof features to reduce visibility
in

the infrared,visual,

ofstealthtechnologylikely
ofstealth

audio,
began

and radio
in

aircraftincludetheUnited

2Spirit"StealthBomber",theF-22Raptor,

Germany

frequency
during

States'F-117
andthe

WWII.Well-known modern examples

Nighthawk

(19812008),

F-35LightningII

istotallyinvisibletoradar,stealthaircraftpreventconventionalradarfrom
trackingtheaircrafteffectively,reducingtheoddsofanattack.Stealth
12

(RF) spectrum. Development

the

B-

Whilenoaircraft
detectingor
isaccomplishedby

StealthTechnology

usingacomplexdesign

philosophytoreducethe

abilityof

anopponent'ssensorsto

detect,

track,orattackthestealthaircraft.

Thisphilosophyalsotakesintoaccounttheheat,sound, and other emissions ofthe aircraft as these can

also be used to locate it.
Stealthisthecombinationofpassivelowobservable(LO)featuresandactiveemitterssuch

as

Low

Probability of Intercept Radars, radios and laser designators. These are usually combined with active
defenses suchas chaff, flares, and ECM.
Full-sizestealthcombataircraftdemonstratorshavebeenflownbytheUnitedStates(in
1977),Russia(in2010)andChina(in2011), whilethe USMilitaryhasalreadyadoptedthree
"stealthy" designs, proposed one, and is preparing to adopt another.

(FIG -7)

BACKGROUND
AWorldWarIattempttoreducethevisibilityofmilitaryaircraftresultedintheGerman,

heavybomber,the

Linke-HofmannR.I;thishadawoodenstructurecoveredwithtransparent material. The first true "stealth"

aircraft may have been the Hornet Ho 229 flying wing fighter-bomber, developed in Germany
during the last years of World War II. In additiontotheaircraft'sshape,whichmaynothavebeena
deliberateattempttoaffectradar

deflection,

themajority
13

of

theHo229'swoodenskinwas

StealthTechnology

bondedtogetherusing

carbon-

impregnatedplywoodresinsdesignedwiththepurported

intentionofabsorbingradarwaves.

Testingperformedinearly2009bythe

Northrop-GrummanCorporationestablishedthatthis

compound,along with the aircraft's shape, would have rendered the Ho 229 virtually invisible
toBritain'sChainHomeearly warningradar,providedtheaircraftwastraveling

at

highspeed

(~550

mph)at extremely low altitude(50100 feet).

IntheclosingweeksofWWIItheUSmilitaryinitiated"OperationPaperclip",aneffortby

the

USArmy

tocaptureasmuchadvancedGermanweaponsresearchaspossible,andalsoto
denythatresearchtoadvancingSoviettroops.AHortongliderandtheHo229numberV3weresecuredandsen
ttoNorthropAviationforevaluationintheUnitedStates whomuch laterusedaflyingwingdesignfortheB2stealthbomber.DuringWWIINorthrop hadbeen commissioned to develop a large wing-only longrange

bomber

(XB-35)

the1930s,buttheirinitialdesigns

based

on

photographsoftheHorton'srecord-settinggliderfrom

sufferedcontrollabilityissuesthatwerenotresolveduntilafterthe

war.

Northrop'ssmallone- man prototype (N9M-B) and a Horton wing-only glider are located in the
Chino

Air

MuseuminSouthern

California

firstbecamepossiblewhenDenysOverholser,

Modernstealthaircraft

amathematician

workingfor

LockheedAircraftduringthe1970s,adoptedamathematicalmodeldeveloped

by

PetrUfimtsev,aRussianscientist,todevelopacomputerprogramcalledEcho1.Echo
madeitpossibletopredicttheradar

signatureanaircraftmadewithflatpanels,calledfacets.

In1975,engineersatLockheedSkunkWorks

foundthatanairplanemadewithfaceted

surfacescouldhaveaverylowradarsignaturebecausethesurfaceswouldradiatealmostall
oftheradarenergyawayfrom thereceiver.Lockheedbuiltamodelcalled"theHopeless Diamond", socalledbecauseitresembledasquatdiamond,andlookedtoohopeless
computerswereavailabletocontroltheflight

of

toever

evenaHopeless

fly.Becauseadvanced
Diamond,forthe

first

timedesignersrealized thatitmightbepossible to makeanaircraft that was virtually invisible to radar.

Reducedradarcrosssectionisonlyoneoffivefactorsthatdesignersaddressedto

create

trulystealthydesignsuchastheF-22.TheF-22hasalsobeendesignedtodisguiseits
infraredemissionstomakeitharder todetectbyinfraredhoming("heat seeking")surface-to- airorair-toairmissiles.Designersalsoaddressedmakingtheaircraftlessvisibletothe naked eye, controllingradio
transmissions, and noise abatement.
The first combat use of purpose-designed
OperationJustCause

in

stealth aircraft was in December 1989 during

Panama.OnDecember20,1989,two

USAF

F-117sbombed

aPanamanianDefenseForcebarracksinRioHato,Panama.In1991,F-117sweretasked
withattackingthemostheavilyfortifiedtargetsin Iraq intheopeningphaseofOperation Desert Stormand
14

StealthTechnology

were the onlyjetsallowed tooperate inside Baghdad's citylimits.

15

StealthTechnology

LIMITATIONS

B-2 Spiritstealth bomber of theU.S Air Force

(FIG -8)

INSTABILITYOFDESIGN
Earlystealthaircraftweredesignedwithafocusonminimal
thanaerodynamicperformance.

radarcrosssection

Highlystealthaircraft

(RCS)rather

liketheF-117Nighthawkare

aerodynamicallyunstableinallthreeaxesandrequireconstantflightcorrectionsfroma

fly-

by-wire

systemtomaintaincontrolledflight.Mostmodernnon-stealthfighteraircraft(F16,

Su-27,

Gripen,

Rafale)areunstableononeortwoaxesonly

However,inthepursuitof

increasedmaneuverability,most4thand5th-generationfighteraircrafthavebeendesigned
withsomedegreeofinherentinstabilitythatmustbecontrolledbyfly-by-wirecomputers. As forthe B2
Spirit,based on TheDevelopmentoftheAll-WingAircraft byJackNorthropsince
1940, design allowed creating stable aircraft with sufficient yaw control, even without
verticalsurfaces suchasrudder.

16

StealthTechnology

DOGFIGHTINGABILITY
Earlierstealthaircraft(suchastheF-117andB-2)lack

afterburners,becausethehotexhaust

wouldincreasetheirinfraredfootprint,andbreakingthe

soundbarrierwouldproducean

obvioussonicboom,aswellas surfaceheating of theaircraftskinwhichalso increasedthe infrared

footprint. As a result their performance in air combat maneuvering required in a dogfight
wouldnevermatchthatofadedicatedfighteraircraft.Thiswasunimportantinthe
thesetwoaircraftsincebothweredesignedtobe

bombers.Morerecent

forstealthydesignssuchastheF-22withoutcompromisingaerodynamic

caseof

design

techniquesallow

performance.Newerstealth

aircraft, like theF-22 andF-35, haveperformancecharacteristics thatmeetorexceedthoseofcurrentfrontlinejetfightersduetoadvances inother technologiessuch as flight control systems, engines,
airframeconstructionand materials.

ELECTROMAGNETICEMISSIONS
Thehighlevelof

computerization

andlargeamountof

electronicequipmentfoundinside

stealthaircraftareoftenclaimedtomakethemvulnerabletopassivedetection.This

ishighly

unlikelyandcertainlysystemssuchas

counter-

Tamara

and

Kolchuga,whichareoftendescribedas

stealthradars,arenotdesignedtodetectstrayelectromagneticfieldsofthistype.
Suchsystemsaredesignedtodetectintentional,higherpoweremissionssuchasradarand
communicationsignals. Stealthaircraftaredeliberatelyoperatedto avoidor reducesuch emissions.
Current

RadarWarningReceivers

lookfortheregularpingsofenergyfrommechanically

sweptradarswhilefifthgenerationjetfightersuse LowProbabilityofInterceptRadars with no regular

repeat pattern.

VULNERABLEMODESOFFLIGHT
Stealthaircraftare

still

vulnerable

todetectionduring,

andimmediately

after

usingtheir

weaponry.Sincestealthpayload(reducedRCSbombsandcruise missiles)arenotyet generally available,

and

ordnance

mount

points

create

aircraftcarryallarmamentinternally.Assoon

significant

asweaponsbaydoorsare

radar

return,

opened,the

stealth
plane's

RCSwillbemultipliedandevenoldergenerationradarsystemswillbeabletolocatethestealth aircraft.While
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the aircraft will reacquire its stealth as soon as the bay doors areclosed, a fast response
defensiveweapons

systemhas

short

Thisvulnerabilityisaddressedbyoperating

opportunity

toengage

the

aircraft.

inamannerthatreducesthe

riskand

consequencesoftemporaryacquisition.TheB-2'soperational

altitudeimposesaflighttime
fordefensiveweaponsthatmakesitvirtuallyimpossibletoengagetheaircraftduring
weaponsdeployment.Allstealthy

aircraftcarryweaponsininternal

its

weaponsbays.New

stealth

aircraftdesigns suchas theF-22andF-35canopen theirbays, release munitionsand returnto stealthy

flight in less than asecond.
Some weapons require that the weapon's guidance system acquire the target while the weapon
isstillattached to theaircraft. Thisforcesrelatively extended operationswith thebay doors open.
Also,suchaircraftas

the

additionalweaponsand

F-22RaptorandF-35

Lighting

II

JointStrike

Fighter

fuelonhardpointsbelowtheirwings.Whenoperatinginthismode

canalsocarry
the

planes

willnotbe nearly as stealthy, as the hard points and the weapons mounted on those hard points will
show

up

on

radar

systems.

This

betweenstealthorrangeandpayload.External

option

therefore

represents

tradeoff

storesallowthoseaircrafttoattackmore

targetsfurtheraway,butwillnotallowforstealthduringthatmissionascomparedtoa
shorterrangemissionflyingon just internalfuel andusing onlythe morelimitedspaceof the internal
weapon bays for armaments.

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(FIG-9)

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REDUCEDPAYLOAD

(FIG-10)

Ina1994 livefireexercise near PointMugu,California,a B-2Spirit droppedforty-seven

500 lb(230kg)class Mark82bombs,whichrepresentsabouthalfofaB-2'stotalordnance payload in
Block

30

configurationFullystealthaircraftcarryallfuelandarmamentinternally,whichlimitsthepayload. Byway
ofcomparison,theF-117carries

onlytwo

laserorGPSguidedbombs,whilea

attackaircraftcancarryseveraltimesmore.Thisrequiresthedeploymentofadditional
engagetargetsthatwould

non-stealth
aircraftto

normallyrequireasinglenon-stealthattackaircraft.This

apparentdisadvantagehoweverisoffsetbythe reduction infewersupportingaircraft thatare required to

provide air cover, air-defense suppression and electronic counter measures, making stealth
aircraft"force multipliers".

SENSITIVESKIN
The B-2 Stealth Bomber has a skinmadewith highly specialized materials like Polygraphite.

COSTOFOPERATIONS
Stealthaircraftaretypicallymoreexpensivetodevelopandmanufacture.Anexampleis the B-2 Spiritthat is
many times more expensive to manufacture and support than conventional bomber aircraft. The B-2
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programcost the U.S. Air Force almost $45 billion.

DETECTION
Theoretically thereare anumber of methods to detect stealth aircraft atlong range.

REFLECTEDWAVES
Passive(multistatic)radar, bistaticradar andespecially multistatic systemsarebelievedto detect
somestealth

aircraft

better

than

conventional

monostatic

radars,

since

stealthtechnology(suchastheF117)reflectsenergyawayfromthetransmitter's
effectivelyincreasingthe

radarcrosssection

first-generation

lineof

sight,

(RCS)inotherdirections,whichthepassive

radarsmonitor.SuchasystemtypicallyuseseitherlowfrequencybroadcastTVandFM radio signals (at

which

frequency

controlling

the

aircraft's

signature

is

more

difficult).

Later

stealthapproachesdonotrelyoncontrollingthespecularreflectionsofradarenergyandso the geometrical

benefitsare unlikelyto be significant.
Researchersatthe

UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign

shownthatitispossibletobuilda

syntheticapertureradar

withsupportofDARPA,have

imageofanaircrafttargetusing

passive

multistatic radar, possibly detailed enough to enable automatic target recognition(ATR).

InDecember2007,

SAAB

researchersalsorevealeddetailsforasystemcalledAssociative

ApertureSynthesisRadar(AASR)thatwouldemployalargearrayof
redundanttransmittersandafewintelligentreceiverstoexploit
observabletargets.

inexpensiveand
forwardscattertodetectlow

Thesystemwasoriginallydesignedtodetectstealthycruisemissilesand

shouldbejustaseffectiveagainstaircraft.Thelargearray ofinexpensivetransmittersalso provides a degree

ofprotectionagainst anti-radar(or anti-radiation) missiles or attacks.

INFRARED(HEAT)
SomeanalystsclaimInfra-redsearchandtrack

systems(IRSTs)canbedeployedagainst

stealthaircraft,becauseanyaircraftsurfaceheatsupduetoairfrictionandwithatwo
channelIRSTisaCO2(4.3
comparingbetweenthelowandhighchannel.

mabsorptionmaxima)detectionpossible,throughdifference
Theseanalystsalsopointtotheresurgencein

suchsystemsinseveralRussiandesignsinthe1980s,suchasthosefittedtotheMiG29 and Su-27.ThelatestversionoftheMiG-29,the MiG-35,isequippedwithanewOptical

Locator Systemthat includes even more advanced IRST capabilities. In aircombat, the optronic suite
allows:
Detection ofnon-afterburning targetsat 45 kmrange and more;
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Identification ofthose targets at 8 to10 kmrange; and

Estimates ofaerial targetrange at upto 15 km. For ground targets,the suite allows:
Atank-effectivedetectionrangeupto15 km,andaircraftcarrierdetectionat60to
80 km;
Identificationofthetanktypeonthe8to10 kmrange,andofanaircraftcarrierat40to
60 km; and
Estimates ofground target range ofup to 20 km.

WAVELENGTHMATCH
TheDutchcompany ThalesNederland,formerlyknownas HollandSignal,havedevelopeda navalphasedarrayradarcalled

SMART-L,whichalsoisoperatedatL-Bandandisclaimed

benefits.However,aswithmostclaims

of

tooffercounterstealth
counter-stealthcapability,

theseareunprovenanduntested.TrueresonanteffectsmightbeexpectedwithHF

skywave

radar

systems,whichhavewavelengthsoftensofmeters.However,inthiscase,theaccuracy
oftheradarsystemsissuchthatthe
whichcansuccessfully

detection

is

oflimitedvalueforengagement.

matchtheresonantfrequencyof

atypeof

Anyradar

stealthaircraftshouldbe

abletodetectitsdirection.Inpracticethisisdifficultbecausetheresonantfrequency changes depending on

how the stealthaircraftis orientedwith respectto theradarsystem.

OTHRADAR(OVER-THE-HORIZONRADAR)
Over-the-horizon radaris a design concept that increases radar's effective range over conventional
radar. It is claimed that the Australian JORN Jindalee Operational Radar Network
canovercomecertainstealthcharacteristics.
usedandthemethodofbouncingradarfrom

ItisclaimedthattheHFfrequency
ionosphereovercomesthestealthcharacteristics

of

theF-

117A.Inotherwords,stealthaircraft areoptimizedfordefeatingmuchhigher- frequency radar from fronton ratherthan low-frequency radars fromabove.

USE OF STEALTHAIRCRAFT
Todate,stealthaircraft havebeen usedinseveral low-andmoderate-intensity conflicts, including
OperationDesertStorm,

OperationAlliedForceandthe

2003invasionofIraq.In

eachcasetheywereemployedtostrikehigh-valuetargetsthatwereeitheroutofrangeof conventionalaircraft
in

the

theater

orwere

too

heavily

defendedforconventional

aircraft

to

strikewithoutahighriskofloss.Inaddition,becausethestealthaircraftdonothaveto evade surface-to-air

missilesand

anti-aircraft

artillery

over

the

target

they

can

aim

more

carefullyandthusaremorelikelytohitthetargetandcauseless collateraldamage.Inmany cases they were

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usedto hit the high value targetsearlyin thecampaign, before other aircraft

USAFF-22 Raptorstealth fighter of the 27th Fighter Squadron

(FIG -11)

The F-35 Lightning IIwas developed by the United States and the United Kingdom.
(FIG -12)

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had the opportunity to degrade the opposing airdefense to the point where other aircraft had a good
chanceofreachingthose critical targets.

Stealthaircraftinfuture

low-andmoderate-intensityconflictsare

likelytohavesimilarroles.

However,giventheincreasingprevalenceofRussian-builtsurface-to-airmissile systemson the

open

market (such as the SA-10, SA-12 and SA-20 (S-300P/V/PMU) and SA15

(9K331/332)),stealthaircraftarelikelytobeveryimportantinahigh-intensityconflictin

ordertogainandmaintainairsupremacy,especiallytotheUnitedStates
thesetypesofsystems.

whoislikelytoface

Itispossibletocoverone'sairspacewithsomanyairdefenseswith

suchlong

rangeandcapability that conventional aircraftwouldfinditverydifficult "clearing the way" for deeper

strikes.

For

example,

China

license-builds

all

of

the

previously

mentioned

SAM

systemsinlargequantitiesandwouldbeabletoheavilydefendimportant
strategicandtacticaltargetsintheeventofaconflict.Evenifanti-radiation
inanattempttodestroy

theSAMradarsof

such

weaponsareused

systems,orstand-off

weaponsarelaunched

againstthem,thesemodernsurface-to-airmissile batteriesare capableofshootingdown weapons fired

against them.

ACTIVECANCELLATION
Amethodofpassivecancellation

ofthereflected

withitsshortcomings.Afarmoreflexiblebut

radarsignalwasalready

discussed,

together

isto

actively

alsomorecomplexapproach

replicatetheincomingsignalandreverseitsphaseinordertoachievethesameeffect.Since
itinvolvesactiveemissions,thistechniqueismoreappropriatelyclassifiedaspartofthe
activejammingeffort,butis

nevertheless

noteworthywith

regards

effectisthereduction(orevencompleteelimination)oftheamplitudeof

to

stealth

thereflectedsignal,

cancelareflectedradarsignalcanbereasonedfrom

thefactthattheoriginalincomingsignal

fromtheradarwillbereflectedfrommanyspotsontheaircraft'sbody.Eachspotwill
with

itsown

uniqueamplitudeand

thereflectionwoulddependonmanyfactors,
material,geometricalform

andthusthe

apparentRCS.Justhowcomplicateditisto

reductionofthetargetedobjects

individualreflection

becauseitsnet

phase.

producean
The

amplitudeof

suchasincidenceangle,particulartypeof
ofacertainlocationontheaircraft'sbodythatproducedthe

reflectionandsomeotherfactors.Thephaseshiftwillbedictatedbythe wavelength ofthe radar signal

andthe

location

(andgeometricalform)of

theparticularspotthatproducedthe

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reflectioninquestion.Theenemyradardoesnot,however,receiveallofthe

reflected

variationsoftheoriginalsignalasseparateentities.Iteitherselectsthestrongestreturn

signal,or

averagesseveralstrongestreflections.Thissimplification canbeusedtothe advantage of theaircraft,since

itwillonly need twoantennasto transmitasimulatedreturn signalaveragedoverthelengthof theaircraft.
Thereturn signal,pickedUpbytheradar, would look somewhatchaotic, consisting of background
noiseand themain return spikes. Thesespikesare, presumably,themaintargets of activecancellation
(hereagainwesee the importanceof firstshaping theaircrafttominimizeand actively controltheformed
spikes).

It

isimportanttounderstand,however,thatincaseofareal-worldeffectivesystem

weare

dealingwithanimmenselycomplicatedissue.Somethingthatcanbepopularlyexplained
withasinglewavesinusoidal

signalwillbecomeprogressivelymore

complexinreal-life

situations.

Activecancellation asaworking method placesstrong emphasison several things to happen properly:

The aircraft has to have a system
timeandreplicating

its

capable of analysing the incomingsignalinrealcharacteristicsfaithfullyenoughto

disguise

itselfasthetruesignal,beforeitsphaseisreversed.Analysingthesignalonfirstcontactis

notenough;

theenemyislikelyto shifttheemissioncharacteristicsof theradarequipment within its physical limits

(PRF,

signal

frequency

etc.)

throughout

the

duration

of

thedetection/trackingattempt.Likewisetherefore, theanalysisprocesshastoberepeatedly performed as

long as the aircraft remains within the detection envelope of the emitter. Thephasereversedsignalmustbetransmittedwithjustenoughpowertomatchthe
receiver.Carefulpowermanagementiscrucialhere;

abittoopowerfulforthegivensituation.

signalreflectedbackatthe

aclever

inamodernradarsystemmaytrytocheckthesignalstrengthdifference
thosethatseem

real

softwarealgorithm

betweenincomingspikesandreject

Thepurpose

hereisdeception,not
Thebearingof

tofloodtheotherguysscopewithwhitenoisestatic.

theincomingsignalmustbedeterminedaccuratelysothatthefake reflectionwill be reflectedat the original

transmitter

andnowhereelse.

Thisalso

theonboardbeamtransmitterforthefakesignal,aswellasrapid

impliesa

veryaccuratelayingof

beamsteeringforcircumstanceswherethe

airframesattitudeandvelocityvector

israpidly

changing(e.g.whilemanoeuvringtoavoidenemyfire).Thisiseasiersaidthandone:itis
hardenoughtopreciselylocate(inbothazimuthandelevation)theemitterinordertopoint
thefakesignalonlythereandnowhereelse;letalonekeepingthebeam

on-targetwhilethe

aircraftisperforming anythingfrom routinesubtlenavigationcourseadjustments togut- wrenching

missile-avoidancemanoeuvres.Forthisreason,

onlyanelectronic-scanarrayis

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practicallysuitableforemittingthefakesignal. Despite this tallorderof requirements,active cancellation

offersseveraladvantagescomparedtomoreconventional
deception

jamming

cannot

avoid

on;here,however,theelementof

jammingtechniques.
tipping-off

Both

barrage

and

theenemyonsomethinggoing-

surpriseis

fully

retainedfor

exploitation.Asignificantlylessamountoftransmissionpowerisrequired,only
enoughtoreplicatetheweakenergyreflectionbacktotheenemyemitter;thustheoverall
canbelightand

system

compactenoughtobefittedtoaircrafthithertounabletobenefitfrom

theexistenceof

heavyweightjammers.Thisalsomeansthatotheronboardavionicsare significantly lesshamperedbyRFinterferencewhileactivecancellationisinprogress(those

whorecalltheEWavionicsinterferencetroublesofaircraftsuchastheB-1,theEF111,the

Su-27ortheEA-

6willcertainlyappreciatethis).TheSpectraintegratedewsuiteonthe
Rafaelfighterisaprimeexampleofactivecancellation.

All

theelementsdescribedaboveare

inplace:sensitiveand

preciseinterferometersforpassivedetection&localization,powerful
theoverallavionics

suite,andconformalelectronic-scanarrays

signalprocessorsaspart

of

dedicatedtothetransmissionofEW

signals.Combiningasemistealthyairframestructure

(treated

withRAMinsignificantquantities)withvarioustraditionalformsofjammingplus
activecancellationcanresultinanairborneweaponsplatform ofvastlyLowerRCSthanone would expect
froman otherwise ordinarylooking canard-delta aircraft.
TherehavebeenspeculationsthattheRussiansmaybeusingthistechniqueontheirS-37
Berkut and possibly MiG 1.42 prototype fighters. It is

also believed that the ZSR-63

defensiveaidsequipmentinstalledonB-2bombersmaybeusingthistechnique.Itisnot
22andF-35are

goingtoemployactive

cancellation

clearwhethertheF-

intheirEW

arsenal.

Certainlythepiecesareinplacehardware-wise:AnaddedbonusoftheAESAradarsfitted
onbothaircraftisthattheoperationofmultipleRFbeamsinparallel(as

opposedtothesingle

beamofmechanical-scanandpassiveelectronic-scansystems)enablestheradartoscan,
atthesametime.Itishoweverunknownif
thiscapability.Certainlythe
sensitiveALR-94receiversand

therelevantsoftwareisgoingtobe

F-22ismorethancapableof
ampleonboard

inplace

performingthis
processing

trackand

jam

toexploit

functionwithitsultra-

power,in

additionto

thelargeAESAset.Whetherthesignificantlysmallerand thusvolume/weight challengedF-35 will beable

to performthe function on its own hardware remains tobe seen.

PLASMADEVICES
AmorerecentapproachtotheartofVLOistheemploymentofplasmafields.Plasma
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physicsasapotentialaerospacetechnologicalbranchhasbeenlongunderresearch,mainly forthepurposesof
spacebornepropulsion and thermalheating forendo/exo- atmosphericspacecraft3. Theeffectof
plasmaasanRFsignalinhibitor

iswellknownfor

outthataspacevehicleencountersduringrebuildsnaturallyinfront

decadesnow,asthecommunicationsblack-

entryiscausedbytheshieldingeffectsof

of

the

plasma.This

spacecraftasithits

the

Earth'satmosphereandcompressestheairtohightemperatures. According to JED,Russia is working to

develop

plasma-cloudgeneration

technology

for

stealthapplicationsand

achievedhighlypromisingresults,reportedlyreducingtheRCSofan
factorof100.Russianresearchinto

aircraftbya

plasmagenerationis

spearheadedbyateam

ofscientistsledbyAnatoliyKorotoyev,directorofKeldyshResearchCenter.Theinstitute
hasdevelopedaplasmageneratorweighingonly100kg,whichcouldeasilyfitonboarda
tacticalaircraft.Forthesystem

toworktherehastobeanenergysourceontheaircraftthat

ionizesthesurroundingair,probablyattheleadingsurfaces.Sincetheresultingionsarein
theboundarylayeroftheaircraft,theyfollowtheairflowaroundtheplane.Butthesystem

is

notwithoutdrawbacks.

First, the amountof powerrequiredisquitehigh, soitwill likelyonly be activated when enemy radar is
detected.

The

other

is

that

the

plasma

theradaroftheaircraftbeingprotected,necessitatingholesintheplasmafieldtolook
generatorwas

testedfirstonflyingmodelsandthenonactual

34strikeaircraft(knowninexport-certainly

aircraft.

also

block

through .Theplasma

Thenew

withouttheplasma

Su-27IB/Sugenerator-

astheSu32FN)utilizesthesystemandislikelythefirstproductioncombat
aircraftwiththiscriticaltechnology.

WorkonplasmagenerationisnotthepurviewofRussia

alone,though.IntheUS,forexample,research

inthisfieldisbeingconductedbyAccurate

Corporation(Chattanooga,TN)andOldDominionUniversity(Norfolk,VA).

Automation

Frenchcompanies

Dassault(Saint-Cloud,France)andThales (Paris, France)arejointly working in the samearea as well.

(Michal Fiszer and Jerzy Gruszczynski) The US Navy hasbeen experimenting (throughthirdparty development)withaplasmastealth antenna developedforuseonVLO vessels&aircraft.Thesystem
employsarraysof multipleU- shapedglasstubes filledwith low-pressuregas (somewhatequivalent
tofluorescenttubes).

Thisantennaisenergizedand

transmitter/receiverin

steered

prettymuchthesameprinciplesasanAESAsystem.Whende-

energized,theantennaisvirtuallytransparentto
problemswithsuchasystem

actsasahighly-directional,electronically

hostileelectromagneticsignals.Oneofthe

isitsvulnerabilitytoresonantsignalsatthetubesself-

frequencyPassive

IRdetectiondevices relyon thefact that everyatom ofmatter,includingcloudsand rain, continuously

sends out electromagnetic radiation at an IR wavelength which corresponds toitstemperature.It
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isnecessarytothink

intermsof

absolute

(Kelvin)

temperature.Eventhoughacertainobjectmayberegardedascold,asnowflakeforexample
at0C,ontheabsolutetemperaturescaleitisat273K.Foraircraftdetection,IR
lookforcontrastsbetweenhotparts

onthe

airframesuchasjetpipesand

seekers
surfaces

subject

to

kineticheating,andthebackgroundradiation.IndesigningIRdetectorsseveralthingshave tobeconsidered:
the rangeof wavelengthsemittedbythe target,thelikelywavelengthof the mostintenseradiation,
thewaysthesewavelengthsareaffectedbytheatmosphere;and
becausethemaximumcontrastisdesired,thecharacterof

thelikelybackgroundradiation.

ManyIRdevicesoperateinthe8-13micronbandsincethisisthemostIR-transparentband
intheatmosphere.Inengineexhausts,carbondioxideproducesmostoftheIRsignatureat
4.2microns,somodernIRsensors can'see' attwodifferentwavelengths,(medium:3-5 micronsandlong:814

microns)to

providegood

targetdiscrimination.

Theengineexhausts

aretheprimarybattlefieldinthewaragainstinfrareddetection.Therearemanytypesofinfraredsensorinservic
e,andtheir differentcapabilitiesaresometimesconfused. Thebasic factis that theatmosphereabsorbs
infraredenergy.

Ata

rangeof

afewmiles,

asmall

typeimageofthescene;atgreaterranges,this
rangesystemsdonotdetectthe

infrared
capabilityis

sensorcanreceiveenoughenergytoproduceTVmuchdiminished.

Mostmedium-to-long-

Infraredemissionsfromtheaircraftitself,buttheradiationfrom

thehotairandwatervapour

emittedbyitsenginestheradiated

IRenergyisproportionaltothefourthpowerofabsolute
temperature.Withengineturbineentrytemperatures(TETs) currentlyat around1,900K and rising, the
backendof amilitary aircraftis thegreatestsourceof IRradiation.With afterburneron,itbecomesmore
so.Moderate

stagnationtemperaturesareinevitableon

edgesofafighter'sairframeduetokineticheating

leading

athigh

Machnumbers.Asthe

stealthiestoffightersincreasessotheirmissiles'exhaustplumesplayagreaterrolein
earlydetection.Lowervisibilityplumeswillminimisedetectionofbothlaunchplatform
keytodegradingthe

performance

of

thecold

thehotairthatpassesthroughthe
wideandflatshape

thetraditionalround,increasingthemixingrate(butprobablyreducingthrust
theexhauststream

exhaust

Forexample,theenginescanbe

bypassairwith

combustorandtheturbine.Theexhaustsgeometrycanbeadaptedtoa

Furthermore,theinteractionbetween

missile.The

IRSTsystemsistoensurethatthe

dissipatesasquicklyaspossibleafterleavingtheaircraft.
fittedwithflowmixerstoblend

and

ratherthan
efficiency).

andtheairflow

overthe

aircraftcanbeengineeredtocreateanadditionalvortexwhichfurtherpromotesmixing. There are several

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othermethods to reduce theIR signature.

STEALTHAIRCRAFT LOST
Thefirst(andtodateonly)caseofastealthaircraftbeingshotdownhappenedon27March
1999, during Operation Allied Force. An Isayev S-125 'Neva-M' missile was fired at an American F117 Nighthawk and successfully broughtitdown. In the same conflict, another was supposedly
damaged and successfully returned to base, but never flown again

TACTICS
Stealthy strike aircraft such as theF-117, designed by Lockheed Martin's famousSkunkWorks, are
usually used against heavily defended enemy sites such as Command and Control centersorsurfaceto-airmissile(SAM)batteries.Enemyradarwillcoverthe
overlappingcoverage,makingundetectedentrybyconventional

airspace

aroundthesesiteswith

aircraftnearlyimpossible.Stealthy

aircraftcan alsobe detected,butonlyat short ranges around the radars, so that for a stealthy aircraft
there are substantial gaps

in

the radar coverage.Thusastealthyaircraftflyinganappropriateroute

canremainundetectedbyradar. Manyground-based types ofradar exploit Doppler filter to improve

sensitivity toobjects havinga radialvelocitycomponentwith respectto theradar.Missionplanners
usetheir knowledgeofenemyradarlocationsandtheRCSpatternof theaircraft todesigna flightpath
thatminimizesradial

speedwhile

presentingthelowest-RCSaspects

of

theaircrafttothe

threatradar.Tobeabletoflythese"safe"routes,itisnecessarytounderstandan enemy's radar coverage (see

Electronic Intelligence). Airborne or
mobile radar systems such as :-

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RESEARCH
Negativeindexmetamaterials

areartificialstructureswhichrefractiveindexhasanegative

valueforsomefrequencyrange,suchasinmicrowave,infrared,orpossiblyoptical.These
offeranotherwaytoreducedetectability,andmayprovideelectromagneticnear-invisibility
indesignedwavelengths.
Plasmastealth
vehicles.Interactionsbetween

isaphenomenonproposedtouseionizedgas(plasma)toreduceRCSof
electromagneticradiation

andionizedgashavebeenstudied

extensivelyformanypurposes,includingconcealingvehiclesfrom

radar.Variousmethods

mightformalayerorcloudofplasmaaroundavehicletodeflectorabsorbradar,from
simplerelectrostatictoRFmorecomplexlaserdischarges,butthesemaybedifficultin practice.
Several technology research and development efforts exist to integrate the functions
ofaircraftflightcontrolsystems suchas ailerons, elevators, elevons and flaps,intowingsto perform
theaerodynamicpurposewiththeadvantagesoflowerRCSforstealthviasimpler geometries and lower
complexity (mechanically simpler, fewer or no moving parts or
surfaces, lessmaintenance),and lowermass,cost(up to50%less),drag(up to15%less duringuse)and,
inertia(forfaster,strongercontrolresponsetochangevehicleorientationto

reduce

detection).

The

twomain approachesare flexible wings, and fluidics.

Inflexible

wings,muchorallof

awingsurfacecanchangeshapeinflighttodeflectairflow.

The

X-

53ActiveAeroelasticWing isa NASA effort.The AdaptiveCompliantWing isa commercialeffort.

Infludics,fluidinjectionisbeingresearchedforusein

aircraft

tocontroldirection,intwo

ways:circulationcontrol andthrustvectoring.In both,larger morecomplexmechanicalparts are replaced

bysmaller, simplerfluidicsystems,inwhich largerforces influidsare diverted by smaller jets or flowsof
fluid intermittently, tochange thedirection ofvehicles.
Incirculationcontrol,near thetrailingedges of wings,aircraftflight controlsystemsare replaced byslots
whichemit fluid flows.
In

thrustvectoring,injetengine

nozzles,swivelingpartsarereplacedbyslotswhichinject

fluidflowsintojetstodivertthrust. Testsshowthatairforcedintoajetengineexhaust streamcan deflect

thrustup to 15 degrees.

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StealthTechnology

ADVANTAGESANDAPPLICATIONS
Thebenefitsofstealth

applynotonlytoplatformsbuttoalotofweaponsaswell.Anti-

surfacemunitionsliketheJSOW,JASSM,Apache/SCALP/StormShadow,Taurus/KEPD
andmanyothersarespecificallyshapedandtreatedto

minimizetheir

radarand

Thishastwousefulpayoffs:Ontheonehand,theweaponitself

IRsignatures.

becomeslessvulnerableto

enemydefensivesystems,whichmeansthatfeweroftheweaponslaunchedwillbeshot
downbeforereachingtheirtarget(s).
platformsneedtobeallocatedtoany
numberoftargetscan

Thisinturnmeansthatfewerweaponsandtheirparent
givenmission,andfinallytheendresultis

beconfidentlyengaged

thata

greater

withagivenforce.Theotherbenefitisthe

advantageofsurpriseanditseffectincaseswhereshrinkingtheenemyavailablereaction
timeisoftheessence.Agoodexampleofsuch asituation isatypicalOCAstrikeagainstan airfield.If nonstealthy

strikeaircraft

willbedetectedfarenoughoutthat

orstand-off

weaponsareused,it

isquitelikelythatthey

theenemywillhavesometimeavailable(even

just4-5

minwilldo)togetsmanyofhisready-to-flyaircraftintheairandflythemsomewhereelse
topreservethem.Iftheaircraftbeing flushedincludearmed hot-padalertfighters(acommon protective
measure)thesecanimmediatelyandactively
againsttheincomingattack.Contrastthiswitha

contributetothebasesdefense
situation

where,asa

weaponsand/orplatforms,thebaseiscaughtvirtuallynappingand

the

resultof

using

attackis

detected

perilouslyclosethattheenemyHasnotimetogetanythingintheairbutinsteadcanonly

stealth
so

relyonhisground-

basedterminaldefense.Thiscanmeanthedifferencebetweenthebase suffering little or no damage and

being virtually obliterated.
The other benefit is the advantage of surprise and its effect in cases where shrinking the enemys
available reaction time is of the essence. A good example of such a situation is a typical OCA strike
against an airfield. If non-stealthy strike aircraft or stand-off weapons are used, it is quite likely that
they will be detected farenough out that the enemy will have some time available (even just 4-5 mins
will do) to gets many of his ready-to-fly aircraft in the air and fly them somewhere else to preserve
them. If the aircraft being flushed include armed hot-pad alert fighters (a common protective
measure) these can immediately and actively contribute to the bases defence against the incoming
attack. Contrast this with a situation where, as a result of using stealthy weapons and/or platforms,
the base is caught_virtually napping and the attack is detected so perilously close that the enemy Has
no time to get anything in the air but instead can only rely on his ground-based terminal defences.
This can mean the difference between the base suffering little or no damage and being virtually
obliterated.
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StealthTechnology

DISADVANTAGES OF STEALTH TECHNOLOGY

1. Instability of design
2. Electromagnetic emissions
3. Cost of maintenance

4.

Sensitive skin

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StealthTechnology

CONCLUSION
The development of stealthy

airplanes teaches several important lessons about technology.

Thefirstisthatoftenmanydifferenttechnologiesmustbecombinedtoachieve
adesiredoutcome.Anadvanceinonefield,suchas materialsoraerodynamics,must beaccompanied by
advances in otherfields, such as computing orelectromagnetic theory. Thesecondlessonis that
sometimestrialand

errortechniquesare

arenecessaryinordertoachieve

insufficient

andadvances

inmathematicaltheory

significantadvances.

Finally,

stealthteachesthelessonthattechnologyisneverstatic-a "stealthbreakthrough"mayonly last for a few

years before an adversary finds ameans ofcountering it.

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StealthTechnology

LISTOFSTEALTHAIRCRAFTSANDSHIPS
FULLYSTEALTHTYPES
Rotterdamclass amphibious transport dock
F125 class frigate
Type 45 destroyer
Formidableclass frigBraunschweigclass corvette
De Zeven Provincin class frigate
Future Dutch Navy offshore patrol vessels
ate
Hamina class missile boat

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StealthTechnology

REFERENCE
1. Radar Cross Section, second edition. Author: Eugene F. Knott, John F. Shaeffer, Michael T.
Tuley. 2004 by SciTech Publishing, Inc. ISBN: 1-891121-25-1
2. Ufimtsev, Pyotr Ya., "Method of edge waves in the physical theory of diffraction," Moscow,
Russia: Izd-vo. Sov. Radio [Soviet Radio Publishing], 1962
3. Stealth Technology http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_technology
4.

Radar Cross-Section http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_cross_section#Purpose_shaping

5.

Stealth Aircraft. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_aircraft

6. F-117 Nighthawk. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-117_Nighthawk

7.

Northrop YF-23. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_YF-23

8.

Plasma Stealth. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_stealth

9. Plasma and Plasma Stealth Technology, Author: PAN Wen-Jun, TONG Chuang-ming, ZHOU
Ming. Telecommunication Engineering 2009 49(8). TN97 O441.4 O451
10. http://www.seminarprojects.com/Thread-stealth-technology-in-aircraft-full
report#ixzz1GycFXQtW
11. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_technology
12. science.howstuffworks.com

13. www.encyclopedia.com

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