Petrophysics of Triple-Porosity Tight Gas

Reservoirs With a Link to Gas Productivity

Hui Deng, SPE, Javier Leguizamon, SPE, and
Roberto Aguilera, SPE, Schulich School of Engineering/University of Calgary

Summary
Petrographic work on thin sections from rock samples collected
in tight gas sandstones of the western Canada sedimentary basin
(WCSB) shows that the sandstones are composed of intergranular,
microfracture and slot, and isolated noneffective porosities. The
petrographic observations of these triple-porosity rocks have led
to a petrophysical interpretation with the use of a triple-porosity
model.
Tight gas reservoirs are very complex heterogeneous systems
that have been evaluated in the past mostly with single-porosity
models. We propose that these types of reservoirs can be represented better by triple-porosity models for more rigorous quantitative petrophysical characterization. The triple-porosity model
discussed in this paper fits the petrographic observations very
well, leading to a more rigorous characterization of effective and
noneffective porosity.
The petrographic and core-calibrated triple-porosity model is
then used for well-log interpretation of those wells when these data
are not available. The result is a reasonable quantitative characterization of the tight gas reservoir that can be used for improving
hydraulic-fracturing design, flow-units determination, reservoir
engineering, and simulation studies. The data can be determined
at room conditions and simulated conditions of net stress.
It is concluded that honoring with a triple-porosity model the
different types of porosities observed in thin sections and cores
leads to more-rigorous and -useful petrophysical interpretations
that can be linked to gas productivity.
Introduction
The GFREE gas research team at the University of Calgary has
estimated natural-gas endowment in tight gas sands in Canada at
105 Tcf (Aguilera 2010). GFREE stands for an integrated multidisciplinary team researching geoscience (G); formation evaluation
(F); reservoir drilling, completion, and stimulation (R); reservoir
engineering (RE); and economics and externalities (EE). The estimated endowment corresponds to only 7% of the original gas in
place (OGIP) of 1500 Tcf estimated by Masters (1984) and investigated in a sensitivity analysis carried out by Contreras and Aguilera
(2011). Fig. 1 shows the location of the study area. Fig. 2 shows
the stratigraphic column of the study area and corresponding stratigraphy from its northwest (Peace and Pine Rivers) and southeast
extents (southwestern Alberta and southeastern British Columbia).
The Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous Nikanassin group is
generally characterized as tight gas formations with low values
of permeability (typically a fraction of a millidarcy) and low
porosities (usually less than 6%). It is likely that natural microfractures and slot pores dominate the productivity of the formation.
These secondary pores are stress sensitive. However, in those cases
in which fractures and slots are partially mineralized (for example,
with partial quartz overgrowths) the secondary minerals might act
as natural propping agents that help fractures and slots to remain
open. Lack of any secondary minerals might result in partial or
total closure, depending on the in-situ stresses. It is also likely that
in some cases the values of OGIP might be overestimated because

Copyright 2011 Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper (SPE 144590) was accepted for presentation at the SPE Western North
American Regional Meeting, Anchorage, 711 May 2011, and revised for publication.
Manuscript received for review 9 April 2011. Paper peer approved 13 July 2011.

566

petrographic studies indicate that the there are rocks in which part
of the total porosity is nonconnected (isolated and noneffective).
Triple-Porosity Rocks
Fig. 3 shows an example of a triple-porosity rock in a thin section of the Cadomin formation in the WCSB. The section clearly
shows the presence of intergranular porosity, slot porosity, and
micro-fractures cross cutting clasts and sandy matrix*. In this
case, it appears that all porosities might be connected. Previous
petrophysical studies by Solano (2010) and Solano et al. (2010)
indicate that the Nikanassin group is made up of different porosity
types that we classify as (1) intergranular, (2) microfractures and/or
slots, and (3) isolated (noneffective porosity). Fig. 4 shows image
processing of thin-section microphotographs used to analyze the
geometry of individual slots within a tight rock in the WCSB. Figs.
4a and 4b correspond to the original image of a thin section under
transmitted plane-polarized and cross-polarized light, respectively.
Blue staining was used to highlight the porosity of the rock. This
sample corresponds to a fine- to medium-grained, well-sorted
sublitharenite sandstone that contains between 5 and 25% detrital
rock fragments. The abundance of quartz grains and the extensive
quartz overgrowth around them are noticeable. There are also visible isolated partially altered chert and shale fragments, authigenic
kaolinite (probably former feldspar fragments), and detrital mica
fragments forming secondary-microporosity spots. Porosity and
maximum permeability from routine core analysis of an adjacent
sample were reported as 5.1% and 0.18 md, respectively. The
image in Fig. 4c represents results of several filters applied to the
original image to highlight the porosity of the sample. The image
in Fig. 4d is a simplified representation of the pore geometry
observed in the previous images. Vertical and horizontal axes are in
micrometers, and the vertical axis coincides with the stratigraphic
up/down orientation of the sample. These data have been used for
simulations at the pore-scale level (Rahmanian et al. 2010).
Several characteristics of the sandstones cause the effectiveporosity values to be lower than the total porosity including
pyrobitumen in pores; compaction and squeezing of shale clasts
into pore spaces; compaction of quartz and other grains into pore
spaces; common microporosity in chert grains; and shale clasts,
degraded volcanic rock fragments, and quartz overgrowths. The
percentage of micropores vs. mesopores and macropores is commonly greater than 50%, often up to 100%. Although microporosity is generally noneffective porosity, in the case of the rocks
considered in this study, microporosity can be effective if present
in cherts, particularly when examined at the scale of drill cuttings.
At the scale of core plugs it can be partially disconnected. At the
scale of the reservoir it can be either partially disconnected or
completely disconnected. As a result, from the point of view of the
petrophysical triple-porosity model, part of the microporosity can
be effective and part ineffective. The same reasoning applies to the
case of dissolution porosity in which portions of this porosity can
be completely isolated and portions can be communicated through
slots and microfractures.
The relationship between total porosity from core/log calibration and effective porosity is nonlinear and is controlled by several
independent variables, as well as the relation between total porosity
and permeability. Therefore, correction of the log interpretation
with a triple-porosity model becomes critical.
*Personal communication with T. Moslow, 2011, Calgary.

October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

introduction of a triple-porosity model for evaluation of these types

of reservoirs. The model is represented by the equation (Al-Ghamdi
et al. 2010; Deng 2010; Leguizamon and Aguilera 2011)

(1 nc )2
log nc +
2 + (1 2 nc ) / b mb

m=
, . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
log 
where  is total porosity, fraction; b is matrix block porosity
scaled relative to the bulk volume of the matrix system, fraction;
nc is nonconnected porosity (PHInc) scaled relative to the bulk
volume of the composite system, fraction; and 2 is porosity of
natural fractures (PHI2) scaled relative to the bulk volume of the
composite system, fraction. The development of Eq. 1 has been
presented by Al-Ghamdi et al. (2010) where it was used for evaluation of fractured and vuggy carbonates in the Middle East. The
use of the equation was extended to evaluation of tight gas formations by Deng (2010) and Leguizamon and Aguilera (2011). The
porosities in Eq. 1 can be integrated as follows:

2

; v = nc ;m =  2 nc ;
 nc 
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
b = m / (1 2 nc )
v =

Solano (2010) has used ternary diagrams to illustrate the

various types of porosity present in the Monteith formation of the
Nikanassin group. An example is presented in Fig. 5 with corners
represented by dissolution (DISS) + microporosity (MP) pores,
microfractures (MFr) + slot-like pores (SP), and intergranular
porosity (INTERG). Fig. 5a shows a ternary diagram with porosity values estimated from thin sections prepared from drill-cutting samples (PHI_TS). Fig. 5b shows porosity from laboratory
measurements on drill cuttings (PHI_DCs). In this example, the
dissolution and microporosity pores are dominant.
Petrophysical Triple-Porosity Model
The recognition from petrographic studies of three main porous
media discussed earlier for tight gas formations has led to the

UPPER JURASSIC

Berriasian

?
?

Hauterivian

Valanginian

Gladstone

Southwestern Alberta
and Southeastern
British Columbia
Gladstone

?
?

?
?

?
KootenayGroup

Barremian

Central Alberta
Foothills
LuscarGroup

LOWER CRETACEOUS

Albian

Peaceand Pine Rivers,

Northeastern British
Columbia
BullheadGp.

STAGE

Minnes Group

SERIES

where v is partitioning coefficient, fraction; vnc is nonconnected

porosity ratio (it could be nontouching vugs, moldic, and/or
fenestral porosity), fraction; and m is matrix block porosity scaled
relative to the bulk volume of the composite system, fraction.
The porosity exponent mb of only the intergranular (or matrix)
porosity is determined preferentially in the laboratory from unfractured plugs. The total porosity of the composite system in Eqs. 1 and 2
is calculated from well logs and is represented by . The vug porosity
ratio (vnc), a concept introduced by Lucia (1983), was used initially
for evaluation of carbonate reservoirs (Al-Ghamdi et al. 2010, 2011)
and has been extended successfully by Deng (2010) and Leguizamon
and Aguilera (2011) for the case of isolated dissolution porosity and
other types of nonconnected porosities present in tight gas sands.
In this case, vnc is equal to the isolated nonconnected porosity (nc)
divided by total porosity (). The partitioning coefficient (v) is equal
to fracture porosity (2) divided by total porosity ().

BlaimoreGp.

Fig. 1Location of the Deep Basin in the WCSB. Source:

Masters (1984).

Monteith

Tithonian /
Volgian

Mist Mountain

Morrisey

Kimmeridgian
Oxfordian

Fig. 2Stratigraphic column of the study area and corresponding stratigraphy from its northwest (Peace and Pine Rivers) and
southeast extents (southwestern Alberta and southeastern British Columbia). Adapted from Stott (1998).
October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

567

3 slot

Intg.

Fig. 3Thin section showing intergranular porosity, slot porosity, and microfractures cross cutting clasts and sandy matrix,
Cadomin formationElmworth, Deep Basin*.

Application of Triple-Porosity Model to

Petrographic Data
The strength of the petrophysical triple-porosity model is demonstrated with the use of data from four different tight gas formations
in the WCSB.
Fig. 6 shows a crossplot of total porosity vs. effective porosity,
the latter represented by the summation of intergranular or matrix
porosity (PHIm = m) and fracture + slot porosity (PHI2 = 2).
The data, represented by the red triangles, were obtained from a
petrographic study. At first glance, it appears that there is not a
good correlation. Originally, the data were interpreted by generating a best-fit regression through all the data points. However,
following development of the triple-porosity model, the data were
reinterpreted, resulting in the realization that there were three
different formations (A, B, and C) with different characteristics and
different production potential. Formation A has the best contribution of effective porosity, and in reality it has proved to be the most
prolific formation. By contrast, Formation C has the worst effective
porosity, and in fact it is the worst producer.
Fig. 7 is the same type of crossplot for Formation D, using data
from a petrographic study. The data are represented by blue squares.
A regression, provided by the dashed line, was used before development of the triple-porosity model. Results from the model are shown
by the continuous red line. Upper and lower bounds of the data are
given by the dotted lines. The comparison with the regression line
is excellent, and actually, the triple-porosity model provides a better
fit to the last two data points from the petrographic work.
For example, in the case in which the total porosity is 7% and
vnc is 0.6, the nonconnected isolated porosity is 4.2%. If for the
same case the partitioning coefficient (v) is 0.05, then the fracture- and slot-porosity (2) is 0.35%. This leaves an intergranular
(matrix) porosity attached to the bulk volume of the composite
system (m) equal to 2.45%. The intergranular porosity attached
to only the bulk volume of the matrix block (b) is equal to
0.0245/(10.0420.0035) = 2.57%. The results in this example
indicate that only 40% of the total porosity is effective porosity.
Note that there is a significant difference between Figs. 6 and
7. In Fig. 6, the calculated lines go through the origin. On the
*Personal communication with T. Moslow, 2011, Calgary.

568

other hand, the calculated line in Fig. 7 shows an effective porosity

equal to zero at a total porosity of approximately 2.1%. The tripleporosity model is robust enough to handle these different cases and
those situations in which some intervals might contain only matrix
porosity; or only matrix porosity along with fractures + slots; or the
matrix porosity, fractures + slots, and nonconnected porosity.
An important advantage of the model over the regression best fit
is that it allows estimating reservoir properties and calculating variable values of the cementation exponent with depth and porosity.
Fig. 8 shows a crossplot of the cementation exponent (m) for
the A, B, C, and D formations calculated with the triple-porosity
model. Unfortunately, at this time there are no electrical measurements on cores for the formations considered in this study. However, the graph includes values of m from the tight Mesaverde gas
formation in the USA determined from core samples. There are
some similarities, and, in general, the values of m decrease with
smaller porosities, which is a comparison in the proper direction.
Also, the same types of porosities just discussed for the Nikanassin
groupincluding slots, microfractures, and dissolution pores
have been observed in tight gas sands in the USA. However, the
Mesaverde data are included only for illustration purposes.
Application of Triple-Porosity Model to
Well-Log Interpretation
Fig. 9 shows results of log interpretation in a tight gas well of
the WCSB where the triple-porosity model is used for calculating effective porosity and pore-throat apertures (rp35). Tracks 1
and 2 containing depth and name of the formation have been
deleted from Fig. 9 for reasons of confidentiality. Track 3 is
the gamma ray (GR). Track 4 shows porosity logs including
neutron (NPHIC), bulk density (RHOL), and ITT2 logs. Track
5 presents deep (ILD) and shallow (LLSC) resistivity laterologs.
Track 6 shows apparent water resistivity (RwApp) and apparent
mud filtrate (RmfApp) resistivity logs. Track 7 includes matrix
density (RHOMA), compressive sonic (DTMA) and hydrocarbon density (RHOHY) logs. The black bars in Track 8 (Logi)
show the perforated intervals. Track 9 shows water (SWTU and
SW) and flushed (SXOTU) saturations. Track 10 presents the
values of the cementation exponent (m) calculated with the petrophysical triple-porosity model. Track 11 shows pore-throat radii
October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

Fig. 4Image processing of thin-section microphotographs used to analyze the geometry of individual slots within a tight rock
[source: Rahmanian et al. (2010)].

(Rp35 = rp35) calculated at 35% cumulative pore volume. Track

12 shows core (KCOR) and calculated permeabilities. Track 13
presents core (PCOR) and effective (PHIEFF) porosities. Column
14 displays total (PHIT) and effective (PHIE) porosities, flushed
saturation bulk volume (BVWSXO), water bulk volume (BVW),
and core porosity (PCOR). The last column shows lithologies
including dispersed (Vdis), laminar (Vlam), and structural (Vstruc)
shales; effective porosity (PHIE), and silt volume (VSILT).
Water saturation in Fig. 9 was calculated with the use of
Simandouxs equation and presented in Schlumbergers Interactive Petrophysics manual (2009). Permeability was calculated with
Morris-Briggs equation (Morris and Briggs 1967). Winlands porethroat aperture (Rp35) was calculated using Aguileras correlation
(Aguilera 2010).
Application of Triple-Porosity Model to
Hydraulic Fracturing
The petrophysical interpretation proved valuable for helping to
secure reliable input data into a commercial 3D hydraulic simulator. For example, the porosity used in the simulation is effective and
eliminates the nonconnected porosity. The petrophysical model
also helped in the determination of advanced reservoir parameters
(Green et al. 2007a, 2007b) such as pressure-dependent modulus
stiffness factor, pressure-dependent leakoff (PDL) coefficient and
transverse-storage coefficient (TSC) as explained by Leguizamon
(2011). There are preliminary indications that larger fracture
porosities from the triple-porosity model correspond to larger
PDL coefficients and TSCs. However, a definitive correlation is
not available yet. An example comparing an actual fracturing job
vs. the proposed optimized fracturing is presented in Figs. 10
and 11.
Fig. 10 shows proppant-concentration (kg/m2) evolution of
the actual job in a well drilled in a tight gas formation in the
WCSB. The graphs show fracture growth after 25, 35, 50, and
68.5 minutes. At the end of the job, the fracture has not been
contained vertically and the maximum propped-fracture length is
approximately 50 m. Fig. 11 shows proppant-concentration evoluOctober 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

tion of a simulated optimized job, which pumps in advance 1 t of

100-mesh sand, for the same well 25, 35, 55, and 68.5 minutes
after initiating the job. Note that in this optimized job, the fracture
is contained vertically, something that did not happen in the actual
job. The fracture length with a reasonable proppant concentration
at the end of the job is approximately 80 m. The total length with
smaller amounts of proppant going to the bottom of the fracture
reaches more than 160 m. The increase in the simulated fracturing
job vs. the actual job is significant. The same holds true for the
effective fracture lengths.
The finding is important because the 3D hydraulic-fracturing
simulation for all cases evaluated within the study area demonstrated that longer fractures in tight gas reservoirs result in higher
recoveries over long periods of time. This agrees with detailed
analytical developments and numerical simulation of horizontal
wells that suggest that fracture half-length appears to have the
highest effect on cumulative-production volumes. This is understood as larger fracture half-lengths increasing the area of drainage in these types of reservoirs (Brohi 2011; Brohi et al. 2011).
This in turn leads to higher economic returns (Leguizamon and
Aguilera 2011).
A Link to Gas Productivity
The petrophysical triple-porosity model has also been used to
obtain information that has been entered into a commercial reservoir simulator (Deng 2010). The same type of data shown in
Fig. 9 was generated for 35 wells in the study area, providing a
wealth of information on tight gas formations of the WCSB. As an
example, some of the data that proved valuable include the effective porosity [matrix (m) plus microfractures and slots (2)]. This
led to smaller but more-realistic volume of OGIP by eliminating
the noneffective porosity (nc).
Pore-throat aperture (rp35) has been shown to be valuable for
determining flow units in conventional reservoirs for several
decades. H.D. Winland of Amoco (Kolodzie 1980) introduced the
concept of pore-throat apertures at 35% cumulative pore volume
(with 35% mercury injection during a capillary pressure test). In
569

PHI_TS (%):
3
36
69
>9

(a)

PHI_DCs (%):
3
36
69
>9

(b)

Fig. 5Ternary-plot diagrams representing percentages of the principal pore geometries observed on thin sections prepared from
drill-cutting samples. Ranges of porosity values estimated from thin sections and from measurements on drill cutting samples
are used as additional constraint in Figs. 5a and 5b, respectively. Fig. 5a shows a ternary diagram with porosity values estimated
from thin sections (PHI_TS). Fig. 5b shows porosity from laboratory measurements on drill cuttings (PHI_DCs). In this example,
the dissolution and microporosity pores are dominant. Source: Solano (2010).

Dengs simulation (Deng et al. 2011), we use a modification proposed by Aguilera (2010):
rp35 = 2.665[ k / (100 ) ] , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
0.45

where k is permeability, md; and  is porosity, fraction.

The porosity used in Eq. 3 for the tight gas sandstone in the
study area was an effective porosity from the triple-porosity model
that corresponds to the sum of matrix (m) plus microfractures and
slots (2). This effective porosity from well-log interpretation was
calibrated with results of the petrographic work shown on Figs. 6
and 7. Also, a good correlation between rp35 values and lithofacies
has been obtained (Deng 2010). Therefore, the simulation 3D
570

geomodel was populated with rp35 values as a replacement for the

lithofacies to define the fluid units with good results (Deng et al.
2011). These results and several empirical observations in different
types of natural-gas reservoirs (conventional and unconventional)
lead to proposing a range of preliminary possible rates that can be
obtained on the basis of knowledge of rp35, as shown on Fig. 12.
Pore-size classes are grouped on the basis of pore-throat (port)
apertures as megaports (r35 >10 m), macroports (2.510 m),
mesoports (0.5 to 2.5 m), microports (0.1 to 0.5 m), and nanoports (0.01 to 0.1 m).
For convenience, the Winland format of the graph shown in
Fig. 12 has always been presented using unstressed porosities and
permeabilities to make it as universal as possible while determining
October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

Fig. 6Petrographic data are represented by red triangles. The triple-porosity model permitted separating the data and quantifying porosities and m for three different formations (Petrography courtesy of ConocoPhillips).

flow units. These graphs use, for example, helium porosities and
air permeabilities. These unstressed properties have been compared
empirically with actual oil- and gas-production rates to generate a
wide range of anticipated production outcomes. For example, for
the case of oil wells, Martin et al. (1997) indicate that comparatively megaports can reach medium-gravity-oil production rates
of tens of thousands of barrels per day if zonal thickness and
other factors are constant; and without mechanical constraints,
macroports can reach thousands of barrels per day, and mesoports
hundreds of barrels per day. Microports can produce several tens
of barrels per day on pump. However, Martin et al. (1997) state
that microport flow units are decidedly nonreservoir in this comparative completion of moderate thickness and medium gravity oil

without mechanical constraints. These flow units are of far more

interest as potential seals for higher quality reservoir downdip.
In the case of gas wells, we have observed production-rate
potentials of more than a 100 MMscf/D for macro- and megaports,
more than 10 MMscf/D for mesoports, more than 1 MMscf/D
for microports, and more than 0.1 MMscf/D for nanoports (shale
gas and coalbed methane are not included in this preliminary
estimate). The rates are for vertical wells. This might prove valuable, particularly in those cases with a limited number of wells
and information, and in exploration areas in which a feeling for
values of porosity and permeability is available. In general, the
same restrictions mentioned before for oil, plus the big restriction
of backpressures, apply to the gas rates shown in Fig. 12. Also, in

Fig. 7Petrographic data of Formation D are represented by blue squares. A regression is provided by the dashed line. Results
from the triple-porosity model are shown by the continuous red line. Upper and lower bounds of the data are given by the dotted lines (Petrography courtesy of ConocoPhillips).
October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

571

2.20

the case of low-permeability formations, the assumption is made

that all wells will be hydraulically fractured. For the case of lowpermeability formations in horizontal wells, we use the assumption
that each fracturing stage is approximately equivalent, regarding
production rates, to a vertical well.

2.00

1.80

1.60

Form. A
Form. B
1.40

Form. C
Form. D
Core Mesaverde

1.20

1.00
0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

Total Porosity
Fig. 8Values of the cementation exponent m for Formations
A, B, C, and D calculated using the petrophysical triple-porosity
model. Core data from the Mesaverde formation in the USA are
taken from Byrnes et al. (2008a, 2008b).

Stress-Dependent Rocks
All rocks are stress dependent to a major or minor degree. For
situations or conditions where there is a need for showing stressdependent porosities, permeabilities, and pore-throat aperture,
laboratory work is the optimum way for evaluating this dependency. Under favorable circumstances, the in-situ permeability
can be estimated from coupled geomechanical reservoir simulation including numerical modeling of flow and buildup tests of
individual wells. The optimum way of accomplishing this task
is by cutting slices of the fully characterized heterogeneous 3D
simulation model and matching the flow and buildup pressures.
This can lead to a significant reduction of permeability in tight-gas
formations with a negligible amount of secondary mineralization.
However, in those cases where there is partial secondary mineralization (for example, partial quartz overgrowths inside slot
porosity), the reduction in the value of in-situ permeability might
be very small (Deng 2010).
The rp35 graph can also be developed for different net-stress
conditions, ideally with the support of core data. The reduction
in porosity and permeability can be calculated with sophisticated
models or with simplified but solid equations. One example is

Fig. 9Log interpretation of well in tight gas formation of the WCSB showing effective porosity (intergranular plus microfractures
and slots) and variable values of m calculated from the petrophysical triple-porosity model.
572

October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

kg/m2

kg/m2

kg/m2

kg/m2

Fig. 10Proppant-concentration (kg/m2) evolution of the actual job in example well showing fracture growth after 25, 35, 50, and
68.5 minutes. Maximum fracture length at the end of the job is approximately 50 m. There is no vertical containment between
the fracture intervals.

shown in Fig. 13, for the case in which the rp35 curve is equal to
0.2 m at room conditions. For this example, changes of porosity
and permeability are calculated from (Jones 1975; Walsh 1981)

 k
=
1 k1

1/ 3

log pk log ph .
log pk1 log ph

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)

Jones equation is based on empirical observations stemming from

rock experiments in the laboratory. The Walsh equation is based on
October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

theoretical developments. Both lead to Eq. 4, making it very valuable from theoretical and practical points of view. This equation
takes into account the presence of natural fractures. We use it on
tight gas formations because of the presence of microfractures and
slot porosity. The net stress on the rocks is represented by pk. The
pressure at which a fracture would heal is ph. Subscript 1 is used
to represent the initial net-stress condition. However, any other
equation can be used to estimate the reductions on these properties as a function of net stress. Results are shown in Fig. 13 with
curves developed at room conditions and net stresses equal to 500
573

kg/m2
kg/m2

kg/m2
kg/m2

Fig. 11Proppant-concentration evolution of simulated optimized job in the same well as in Fig. 10, pumping initially 1 t of 100mesh sand. Results are shown at 25, 35, 55, and 68.5 minutes. The fracture length with good proppant concentration at the end
of the job is approximately 80 m. The total length with smaller amounts of proppant going to the bottom of the fracture reaches
more than 160 m. Note that in this optimized job the fracture is contained vertically.

and 5,000 psi. Note from Eq. 4 and Fig. 14 that the reductions
in permeabilities are larger than the reductions in porosity. The
reductions in pore-throat apertures (rp35) are shown in the righthand side of Fig. 13.
Conclusions
1. A petrophysical triple-porosity model has been shown to be a useful
tool for characterization of tight gas formations in the WCSB.
2. The model distinguishes between effective and noneffective
porosity. The effective porosity is the summation of intergranular
574

porosity plus microfractures and slot porosities. The noneffective porosity is nonconnected porosity.
3. The model provides useful information for 3D simulation of
hydraulic-fracturing jobs in tight gas formations. This in turn
permits optimizing hydraulic-fracturing jobs.
4. A preliminar empirical link has been established between rp35
and oil and gas rates.
5. Porosities, permeabilities, and pore-throat apertures calculated
at room conditions can be adjusted to reflect the effects of net
stress in Winland-type crossplots, as needed.
October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

MMscf/D

Thousand
BOPD

rp35

CHART FOR ESTIMATING PORE THROAT APERTURE

(Extension to Stress-Dependent Properties)

rp35 microns

0.1

10s

Room

100s

1s

PERMEABILITY (md)

0.2

Net Stress, psi

0.1s

10s

0.01s

1s

0.141

500
0.098

0.1s

5000
0.01

0.001
0

Fig. 12Flow units as a function of pore-throat apertures

(rp35); porosities and permeabilities and possible ranges of oil(thousands of BOPD), and gas-flow rates (millions of scf/D) for
different pore-throat apertures.

Nomenclature
k = permeability, md
k1 = initial permeability, md
m = porosity exponent (cementation factor) of triple-porosity
reservoir
mb = porosity exponent (cementation factor) of only the matrix block
ph = apparent healing pressure, psi (kPa)
pk = net stress, psi (kPa)
pk1 = initial net stress, psi (kPa)
rp35 = pore-throat apertures at 35% cumulative pore volume (35%
mercury saturation during a capillary pressure test)
v = partitioning coefficient, fraction

10

15

20

25

30

POROSITY (%)
Source: GFREE Research Team, U of Calgary, 2011

Fig. 13Effect of net stress at room conditions and at 500 and

5,000 psi on porosity, permeability, and rp35.

= nonconnected-porosity ratio, fraction

= dispersed shale volume
= laminar shale volume
= structural shale volume
= silt volume
= total porosity, fraction
= initial porosity, fraction
= porosity of natural fractures (PHI2) scaled relative to
the bulk volume of the composite system, fraction
b = matrix block porosity scaled relative to the bulk volume
of the matrix system, fraction

vnc
Vdis
Vlam
Vstruc
VSLT

1
2

Percent Decrease

1
0.9

Porosity reduction

0.8

Permeability reduction

0.7

rp35 reduction

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

Net Stress, psi

Fig. 14Reductions in porosity, permeability, and pore-throat apertures (rp35) as a function of net stress.
October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

575

m = matrix block porosity scaled relative to the bulk volume

of the composite system, fraction
nc = nonconnected porosity (PHInc) scaled relative to the
bulk volume of the composite system, fraction
Acknowledgments
Parts of this work were funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC agreement 34782506), ConocoPhillips (agreement 4204638), Alberta Innovates Energy
and Environment Solutions (AERI agreement 1711), and the Schulich School of Engineering at the University of Calgary. The 3D
hydraulic fracturing simulation was performed using GOHFER,
contributed to the GFREE research program by R.D. Barree of B&A
and Core Lab. The commercial-based well testing and rate-transient
analyses were performed using software provided by Fekete associates. The well-log interpretation using the petrophysical triple-porosity model was carried out using Interactive Petrophysics provided by
Schlumberger. Their contributions are gratefully acknowledged.
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Hui Deng is currently a PhD degree candidate in the chemical
and petroleum engineering department at the University of
Calgary. Previously, he worked for PetroChina for 10 years. Dengs
PhD research is focused on coupled geomechanical modeling
for underground coal gasification (UCG) and carbon capture
and storage (CCS). He holds a BSc degree in petroleum geology
from Northwest University and an MSc degree in petroleum engineering from the University of Calgary, where he concentrated
on reservoir simulation of tight gas reservoirs as part of the GFREE
team in the Schulich School of Engineering. Javier Leguizamon is
a stimulations engineer in the production enhancement team of
Halliburton Canada. He also has more than 5 years experience
in production optimization of conventional reservoirs, working for
Ecopetrol in Colombia as a production engineer. Leguizamon
holds a MS degree in chemical and petroleum engineering
from the University of Calgary. His research work as part of the
GFREE research team in the Schulich School of Engineering
focused on modeling and optimization of hydraulic fracturing
treatments in tight gas formations. Leguizamon also holds a
October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

BS degree in petroleum engineering from the Universidad de

America at Bogota, Colombia. Roberto Aguilera is professor
and ConocoPhillips-NSERC-AERI Chair in the Schulich School
of Engineering, chemical and petroleum engineering department at the University of Calgary, Canada; guest professor of
the China University of Petroleum (Eastern China), a principal
of Servipetrol, and a director of Junex in Quebec. He heads
the GFREE tight gas research program at the University of
Calgary. Aguilera is a petroleum engineering graduate from the
Universidad de America at Bogota, Colombia and holds MEng
and PhD degrees in petroleum engineering from the Colorado

October 2011 SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering

School of Mines. He was an AAPG instructor on the subject of

naturally fractured reservoirs from 1984 through 1996. Aguilera
is a Distinguished Author of the SPE J. of Canadian Petroleum
Technology (1993 and 1999), a recipient of the Outstanding
Service award (1994) and the Distinguished Service Medal
(2006) from the Petroleum Society of CIM, an SPE Distinguished
Lecturer on the subject of naturally fractured reservoirs for the
20002001 Season, the 2011 SPE Canada Regional Distinguished
Achievement Award recipient for Petroleum Engineering Faculty,
and past Executive Editor of the SPE J. of Canadian Petroleum
Technology.

577