CONTENTS

Contents

List of figures

List of table

1.0 Literature review

3-4

2.0 What is constructivism

4-5

3.0 Learning for primary science

5-7

3.1 Piagets Theory: Cognitive Development

8-10

3.2 Bruners Theory: Discovery Learning

10-11

3.3 Ausubels Theory: Reception Learning and Expository Teaching

11-12

3.4 Gagnes Theory: Conditions of Learning Theory

12-14

4.0 Teaching and learning strategies for science

14-15

4.1 Experiment

16

4.2 Discussion

16-17

4.3 Simulation

17-19

4.4 Project

19-20

4.5 Visits and use of external resources

20

4.6 Use of technology

20-21

Bibliography

22-25

Appendix

26

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: What is learning

Figure 2: Learning theories

Figure 3: Stage of Piagets theory

9-10

Figure 4: Inductive approach (Bruners Theory)

11

Figure 5: Teaching and learning strategies for science

15

LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Gagnes nine events of instruction

13

1.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Constructivism has become a leading theoretical position in education and

has become a powerful driving force in science education (Steffe & Gale, 1995;
Tobin, 1993). The appeal of constructivism is that it provides a plausible, functional
framework for understanding and interpreting experiences in learning and teaching.
In this way, constructivism acts as a powerful theoretical referent to build a
classroom that maximizes student learning (Tobin & Tippins, 1993).
It means that constructivism actually makes teaching and learning process
easier to be carried out if we, as educator really understand the meaning of it.
Internationally, on the educational field for over 20 years, constructivism also has
had a strong impact. In particular, science educators have been concerned with
teaching strategies based on the notion of constructivism in an attempt to enhance
students conceptual understanding in science subjects. In many cases, these notion
have been utilised as basic frameworks to reform traditional educational practices.
Constructivism is widely used as a blanket term for certain approaches to
social inquiry that are interpretative and recognise the products of research as
human constructions, often co-constructions of the researcher and the researched
(Beld, 1994). Constructivism as an epistemology is fraught with controversy and
disagreement among educators the world over; whereas constructivism as a
perspective on teaching and learning (as reflected in the hard core of the
constructivist research programme in science education) serves as a valid, highly
effective model for educating children (Taber, 2009).
A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors
should never tell students anything directly but, instead, should always allow them to
construct knowledge for themselves. This is actually confusing a theory of pedagogy
(teaching) with a theory of knowing. Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is
constructed from the learners previous knowledge, regardless of how one is taught.
Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct new
knowledge.

My opinion on this is that, nowadays, we have that misconception of thinking

that we should always leave students on their own for them to learn, which is actually
not synonym with constructivism philosophy. Instead, giving them lectures and some
information for them to listen and build their own understanding from that, is crucially,
one of the parts of constructivism

2.0 What is constructivism?

Constructivism is viewed as a philosophy of teaching and learning. It adopts
the view that the learners actively construct new knowledge by actively reflecting on
their own experiences and interactions with the environment. Such experiences and
interactions will include their prior knowledge and the meaning they make of the
learning activities (Yap et. al, 2004). From my point of view, when we encounter
something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience,
maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as
irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we
must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.
Also, according to Yap Kueh Chin et. al (2004), educator use the term
cognitive constructivism to refer to the idea that individuals construct knowledge for
themselves. Each learner individually builds meaning as he/she learns. They use the
term social constructivism to refer to the idea that knowledge is built through
consensus among groups of subjects. Constructivism is not a pedagogical technique
although its philosophical view has implications for the teaching-learning process.
There could be many pedagogical technique that include characteristics that are
congruent with the constructivist view.
Mark Windschitl (1999) stated that constructivism is premised on the belief
that learners actively create, interpret, and reorganize knowledge in individual ways.
These fluid intellectual transformations occur when students reconcile formal
instructional experiences with their existing knowledge, with the cultural and social
contexts in which ideas occur, and with a host of other influences that serve to
mediate understanding. With respect to instruction, this belief suggests that students
should participate in experiences that accommodate these ways of learning. Such
4

experiences include problem-based learning , inquiry activities, dialogues with peers

and teachers that encourage making sense of the subject matter, exposure to
multiple sources of information and opportunities for students to demonstrate their
understanding in diverse ways.
Contrary

to

criticisms

by

some

(conservative/traditional)

educators,

constructivism does not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert
knowledge. In a better way, constructivism modifies that role, so that teachers help
students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. Tools
such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students
formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and
convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment can be provided by
the constructivist teacher. Constructivism transforms the student from a passive
recipient of information to an active participant in the learning process. Always
guided by the teacher, students construct their knowledge actively rather than just
mechanically ingesting knowledge from the teacher or the textbook.
To me, it means that, their involvement in any kind of learning activity is
greatly increased, which can always generates more ideas for them to manipulate,
not always depends on what their teacher gives them. Also from my own
understanding is that constructivism actually attracts the students interest to learn
and makes them want to learn more and more. So it is the students that attracted to
that lesson, not the lesson that attracted or should be reaching out the students.

3.0 Learning theories for primary science

What is learning? Is it a change in behaviour or understanding? Is it a
process? Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is acquiring
information or knowing a lot. Learning as memorising. Learning is storing
information that can be reproduced. Learning as acquiring facts, skills, and methods
that can be retained and used as necessary. Learning as making sense or
abstracting meaning. Learning involves relating parts of the subject matter to each
other and to the real world. Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a

different way. Learning involves comprehending the world by reinterpreting

knowledge (Ramsden, 1992).
Learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive,
emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing,
or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Wikipedia
Encyclopaedia). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning
takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning
theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us
understand the inherently complex process of learning. Learning theories have two
chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a
conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The
other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories
do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are
crucial in finding solutions.

cognitive, emotional,
environmental influences
and experiences

reinterpreting
knowledge

interpreting and
understanding
reality

making sense
or abstracting
meaning

quantitative increase in knowledge

W
H
A
T

acquiring information or
knowing a lot

I
S

memorising

L
E
A
R
N
I
N
G

storing information that

can be reproduced

acquiring
facts, skills,
and methods

Figure 1: What is learning

Piagets
Theory:
Development

Cognitive

Bruners Theory: Discovery

Learning

4 stages:

Inductive Specific to general

- Sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete and formal

Active learning

LEARNING
THEORIES

Gagnes Theory: Conditions of

Learning Theory
5 learning levels verbal, intellectual,
cognitive, motor skills, attitudes
Tasks hierarchy stimulus, response,
procedure, terminology, discriminations,
concept, rule, problem solving

Ausubels Theory:
Reception Learning and
Expository Teaching
Deductive General to
specific
Advance organizers

Instructional event expectancy,

retrieval, selective perception, semantic
decoding, responding, reinforcement,
retrieval, generalization

Figure 2: Learning theories

3.1 Piagets Theory: Cognitive Development

According to Piaget, childrens thinking does not develop entirely

smoothly. Instead, there are certain points at which it takes off and moves
into completely new areas and capabilities. Also according to him, these
transitions take place at about 18 months, 7 years and 11 or 12 years. This
has been taken to mean that before these ages, children are not capable (no
matter how bright) of understanding things in certain ways, and has been
used as the basis for scheduling the school curriculum. Whether or not should
be the case is a different matter (Atherton, 2009).
So in my opinion, we can see Piagets theory as a child cognitive
structure-building idea. It means that as a child grow up, the learning process
that happens is slowly developed stage by stage (which cannot be skipped or
reordered) and cognitive structures are built from what they understand and
respond (what they have gone through that period of time). Those cognitive
structures could be any kind of mental maps, schemes, or networked
concepts.
There are four stages of Piagets theory: Sensorimotor knowledge
(birth to 2 years), preoperational (representational) knowledge (2 to 7 years),
concrete operation (7 to 11 years) and formal operation (12 years to adult). At
sensorimotor knowledge stage, the cognitive system of a child is actually very
limited. However, they still build their own understanding or concepts through
interactions (physical) with their environment. These interactions can only
happens if child can see, feel, hear, touch or taste the presence of objects
and people. When the objects or people are out of their sight, child actually do
not know that they are still exist.

The next stage is the preoperational (representational) knowledge (2 to

7 years). At this stage, child start to learn to use language and to represent
objects by words and images. According to Piaget, child are very self-oriented
and their thinking is still egocentric, which means they use their own
perspective to view the world. Also at this stage, child has the difficulty to
8

have the understanding about multiple properties of objects. For instance,

they will group together all the red blocks regardless their shapes.

The third stage is the concrete operation stage (7 to 11 years). Now,

child start to have the ability to think about objects and events logically. Unlike
the preoperational stage child, child at this stage are able to take anothers
point of view and take them into account instead of having only one
perspective (their own perspective). It means that they can group objects
according to several characteristic such as colour and shapes. They can even
arrange them in correct series or order. They also understand the mass,
weight, volume, area and length are conserved. Still, they cannot solve
abstract problems, according to Piaget.

The fourth and final stage is the formal operation stage (12 to adult).
Now, not only child can think logically, like the concrete operation stage child,
but they can also think abstractly. They have the ability to manipulate the
meaning represented by symbols. Piaget said that this is the ultimate stage of
development.

Sensorimotor knowledge (birth to 2 years)

Objects and people only exist if its in their perceptual field

Preoperational knowledge (2 to 7 years)

Self-oriented and egocentric. Hard to understand multiple
properties of objects.

Concrete operation (7 to 11 years)

Think logically. Can classify object according to several
features.
9

Formal operation (12 to adult)

Think logically and abstractly. Cognitive structure almost
like an adult.

Figure 3: Stage of Piagets theory

3.2 Bruners Theory: Discovery Learning

From my own understanding, Bruners theory is all about the learning
process, which should be an active and social process. This is where student
construct their own understanding, new ideas or concepts based on current
knowledge. This is very similar to the idea of constructivism.

Bruner is a proponent of inductive thinking, which means going from

the specific to the general (Kementerian Pendidikan, 2003). In my opinion,
teacher should be the facilitator to guide students along the way of learning.
What I mean by guiding is to provide all the necessities for the students to
explore or manipulate and let them discover the concepts and relationships by
and for themselves. The necessities could be experiences, objects,
experiments or any kind of activities. Teacher can also give problems or
cases to solve and maybe some simulations. All of these will draw the
students own past experiences and existing knowledge to create a new one.
Students will construct their understanding on the topic they are learning
gradually.

10

Specific
Objects
Experiment
Inductive
approach

Simulation
Role-play
Other activities

General concept

Figure 4: Inductive approach (Bruners Theory)

3.3 Ausubels Theory: Reception Learning and Expository Teaching

Unlike Bruners theory, Ausubel says learning should be a deductive
process which means children should first learn a general concept and then
move towards specific (Kementerian Pendidikan, 2003). In my opinion, it
means that they have to learn from the simple one to the more complex and
complicated one. They also have to learn step by step for them to be able to
learn the next one, which is the more difficult one.

Yap et. al (2004) stated that according to Ausubel, learning or teaching

should be done directly. Its called the expository teaching. My opinion on this
is that teacher should play more role to make the learning more meaningful.
Teacher should plan the lesson step by step (deductive approach). There are
three strategies that can be used:

Teacher should know students prior knowledge before start a lesson

and then relate them with the topic that they are going to learn.

11

Use advance organizers. It could be diagrams, pictures or graphic

organizers. This should be move from the most general to the most
specific in a logical manner.

Guide and help students to relate all the pieces of information that they
have gathered. The use of concept maps is really important. It can help
students to generate or create their own mental map.
My opinion from own understanding is that the Ausubels theory is

more towards teacher-centered. Well, although students involve in all of the

activities and learning process but it is the teacher that has to do more. All of
the activities should be started by the teacher, giving all of the things that are
needed and students only have to do what they have been told to. Without the
right and enough supply (informations and teaching aids) from the teacher,
the lesson might not be successful. However, I still think that this is a good
approach especially because it is a deductive approach and if it is planned
well, students will have a very good lesson.
3.4 Gagnes Theory: Conditions of Learning Theory
Gagnes theory is actually focus more on intellectual skills. He says
that there are five major types of learning levels:

Verbal information

Intellectual skills

Cognitive strategies

Motor skills

Attitudes

In my opinion, this classification is really very important because not

only that it shows different level of learning but it also tells us that different
level requires different types of instruction. So it can help educator like
teacher in their preparation before start a lesson.
As said, Gagne focus more on intellectual skills. The learning tasks of
intellectual skills can be broken into a hierarchy of behaviours:
12

Stimulus recognition

Response generation

Procedure following

Use of terminology

Discrimination

Concept formation

Rule application

Problem solving
Looking at this hierarchy, we can get the idea that Gagnes theory is

also using deductive approach. Teaching and learning should started from the
very basic and simple one before go to the next stage, which is more
complex. Logically, this theory should work for example before pupils know
why plants cannot live without the sunlight, of course pupils have to know the
basic needs of a plant. In addition, the theory outlines nine events and the
corresponding cognitive process which should be found in any instructional
context.

Instructional events

Relation to learning process

1. Gain attention

New situation, use multimedia

2. Describe the goal

What will they accomplish and how to use

them

3. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge

Prior knowledge relevant to topic, connect

them

4. Presenting the stimulus

Present in different, interesting ways

5. Provide learning guidance

Simpler and easier to understand

6. Elicit performance

Practise skills, apply knowledge

7. Provide informative feedback

Analyse, show correctness

8. Assess performance

Test, general progress information

9. Enhance retention and transfer

Additional practise, review lesson

Table 1: Gagnes nine events of instruction

13

Now, Gagnes theory has a big contribution to our world of educating.

There are two main things that we have learnt from his theory. The first one is
teachers should know what exactly their objectives and learning outcomes.
The second one is that teaching should move from the simple to the more
complex tasks.

4.0 Teaching and learning strategies for science

In order to teach science in the context of science literacy a variety of
teaching strategies may be used, such as experiment, discussion, simulation,
project, visits and use of external resources, and use of technology. These teaching
strategies encourage learners to participate in discussions and exchange ideas
concerning nature of science and the interrelations between science and society.
Some of these teaching strategies are presented on the next page.

14

Discussion
- teacher as facilitator

Experiment

- stimulate thinking, students

express themselves.

- experience it and observe

subsequent reactions or
situations

- follow-up question

TEACHING AND
LEARNING
STRATEGIES
FOR SCIENCE

Use of technology

Simulation

- interesting and effective

- activity that resembles

the actual situation

- analysis and
presentation of data
- easier and faster

Project
Visits and use of external
resources

- Project-based learning
real life situation.

- not limited to activities in

school compound
- task during visit

Figure 5: Teaching and learning strategies for science.

15

4.1 Experiment
Though teachers with high morale, motivation and a mastery of knowledge,
learner difficulties and capacity to facilitate learning are important (Grauwe, 1999;
Zadra, 2000), correct use of an appropriate teaching method is critical to the
successful teaching and learning of science. In my opinion, this is very important
because students may learn names and definitions theoretically. But for them to
master and really understand what the topic is all about, they need to experience it
and observe subsequent reactions or situations.
In experiment, cooperative learning is involved. Cooperative learning is a
comprehensive approach to teaching that derives from a theory of education and
encompasses key assumptions about what students should learn and how they
learn. The shared responsibility and interaction are likely to generate better intergroup relations and result in better self-images for students with histories of poor
achievement (Joyce and Weil, 1980).

4.2 Discussion
We always heard about discussion used in learning. To me, it is a very useful
learning strategy because all students can voice out their thinking. A discussion is an
activity in which students exchange questions and opinions based on valid reasons.
Discussions can be conducted before, during or after an activity. Teachers should
play the role of a facilitator and lead a discussion by asking question that stimulate
thinking and getting students to express themselves (Kementerian Pendidikan,
2003). However, discussions need to be carefully planned. From my point of view, if
it is not well-planned, it could result bad outcomes where students dont the right key
of the topic. Arguably, good discussions can take more thought than a lecture might.
It is important to plan an activity that gets at the most important issue in the class.
The problem to solve or question that the group discusses has to be open-ended
and complex enough that they have something to chew on.
A good teacher always has plan B in mind. Planning several follow-up
questions helps to prevent the discussion from coming to premature closure. Set the
question so they have to do more than only come up with the easy answer. Have an
16

alternative activity if the first one does not engage students as anticipated.
This does not mean that if a discussion does not heat up immediately we should
ditch it and revert to lecture. Students need to practice discussion activities a few
times before they become proficient at them. Hang in there with them as they learn
to discuss easily and well (Middendorf and Kalish, 1996).
In a more common sense, I think expectation that every student will
participate should be created. This can be done by telling them this explicitly, and by
designing activities that require different students to have different responsibilities
across the semester. Direct students to be sure and let everyone speak. Again,
randomness can help. For example, when you tell students that the reporter for
today's discussion will be the person whose last name is closest to the start of the
alphabet, some quiet students will end up reporting. If the same people answer all
the time, you might say, "Let's hear from someone we haven't heard from yet." And
then don't call on the students you have already heard from that day.

4.3 Simulation
Simulation is an event or situation made to resemble clinical practice as
closely as possible. Simulation can be used to teach theory, assessment,
technology, pharmacology, and skills (Rauen, 2001). The emphasis in simulation is
often on the application and integration of knowledge, skills, and critical thinking.
Unlike a classroom setting or a paper-and-pencil test, simulation allows learners to
function in an environment that is as close as possible to an actual situation and
provides them an opportunity to "think on their feet, not in their seat." Simulation has
been successfully used as a teaching strategy in both clinical and formal education
(Eaves and Flagg, 2001).
Simulation has been used in the aviation, transportation, and nuclear power
industries and the social and behavioural sciences have all used simulation to teach
concepts; to allow risk-free practice; and to teach, practice, and/or evaluate criticalthinking skills. In healthcare, the first types of simulators were the stagnant models
(eg, rubber body parts). These types are still used to learn basic skills, such as
insertion of urinary and intravenous catheters (Issenberg et. al, 1999).
17

In simulation, an activity that resembles the actual situation is carried out.

Examples of simulation are role-play, games and the use of models (Kementerian
Pendidikan, 2003).
Role-playing is a teaching strategy that fits within the social family of models
(Joyce and Weil, 2000). These strategies emphasize the social nature of learning,
and see cooperative behaviour as stimulating students both socially and
intellectually. Role-playing as a teaching strategy offers several advantages for both
teacher and student. First, student interest in the topic is raised. Research has
shown that integrating experiential learning activities in the classroom increases
interest in the subject mater and understanding of course content (Poorman, 2002).
Fogg (2001) tells of a college professor who felt that his history classes were boring
and not involving the students. After trying out a role-playing type game one
semester, he observed that students were much more interested in the material.
Secondly, there is increased involvement on the part of the students in a roleplaying lesson. Students are not passive recipients of the instructors knowledge.
Rather, they take an active part. Poorman (2002) observes that true learning cannot
take place when students are passive observers of the teaching process. One
student at Barnard College who was enrolled in a role-playing history class said,
This class tricks you into doing so much work (Fogg, 2001). The result of the
involvement is increased learning (Fogg, 2001).
A third advantage to using role-playing as a teaching strategy is that it
teaches empathy and understanding of different perspectives (Poorman, 2002). A
typical role-playing activity would have students taking on a role of a character,
learning and acting as that individual would do in the typical setting. Poorman (2002)
found a significant increase among students in feeling anothers distress as their
own. Role-playing has also been seen to be effective in reducing racial prejudice
(McGregor, 1993).
In my opinion, children always love to play games. However, not all kind of
games they really enjoy playing. So this is where I think teacher has to play very
important role to make the games itself, not only fun but also very useful and
relevant to the lesson. Games require procedures that need to be followed. Students
play games in order to learn a particular principle or to understand the process of
18

decision-making. Using games as a teaching strategy will make learning process

fun, encourages classroom participation, encourages students to communicate with
each other, breaks up the monotony of lecture/add a stress reliever to the day and
also it allows for learning in a low stress environment. Whereas the use of models
means models are used to represent objects or actual situations so that students can
visualize the said objects or situations and thus understand the concepts and
principles to be learned.

4.4 Project
A project is a learning activity that is generally undertaken by an individual or
a group of students to achieve a particular learning objective. A project generally
requires several lessons to complete. The outcome of the project either in the form of
a report, an artifact or in other forms needs to be presented to the teacher and other
students. Project work promotes the development of problem-solving skills, time
management skills, and independent learning (Kementerian Pendidikan, 2003).
Project-based learning (PBL): best defined as instruction relating questions
and technology relative to the students everyday lives to classroom projects.
Students form their own investigation of their own group which allows students to
develop valuable research skills. The students engage in design, problem solving,
decision making, and investigative activities. It allows students to work in groups or
by themselves and allows them to come up with ideas and realistic solutions or
presentations. Students take a problem and apply it to a real life situation with these
projects (Wikipedia Encyclopaedia).
Project-based learning (PBL) provides complex tasks based on challenging
questions or problems that involve the students' problem solving, decision making,
investigative skills, and reflection that include teacher facilitation, but not direction.
Project Based Learning is focused on questions that drive students to encounter the
central concepts and principles of a subject hands-on.
With Project-based learning students learn from these experiences and take
them into account and apply them to their lives in the real world. PBL is a different
teaching technique that promotes and practices new learning habits. The students
19

have to think in original ways to come up with the solutions to these real world
problems. It helps with their creative thinking skills by showing that there are many
ways to solve a problem.

4.5 Visits and use of external resources

The learning of science is not limited to activities carried out in school
compound. Learning of science can be enhanced through the use of external
sources such as zoos, museums, science centers, research institutes, mangrove
swamps and factories. Visits to these places make the learning of science more
interesting, meaningful and effective. To optimize learning opportunities, visits need
to be carefully planned. Students should be assigned tasks during the visit. No
educational visit is complete without a post-visit discussion (Kementerian
Pendidikan, 2003).
My only view on this is that safety procedures have to be taken into
consideration a lot more. We dont want something bad happen while we go out
visiting. That is the only problem I think with this strategy especially when a lot of
students involve in the visit. It is not easy to control them. So teacher should make
some preparations such as bringing other people to help to take care of them during
the visit and of course some early briefing would help too.

4.6 Use of technology

Technology is a powerful tool that has great potential in enhancing the
learning of science. Through the use of technology such as television, radio, video,
computer, and the internet, the teaching and learning of science can be made more
interesting and effective. Computer simulation and animation are effective tools for
the teaching and learning of abstract or difficult science concepts. Computer
simulation and animation can be presented through courseware or web page.
Application tools such as word processors, graphic presentation software and
electronic spreadsheets are valuable tools for the analysis and presentation of data
(Kementerian Pendidikan, 2003).
20

Technological resources can ask for different methods of learning through

powerful visuals and well-organized print; through direct, vicarious, and virtual
experiences; and through tasks requiring analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, with
applications to real-life situations. They can encourage self-reflection and selfevaluation. They can drive collaboration and group problem solving. Technologies
can help students learn in ways they find most effective and broaden their
repertoires for learning. They can supply structure for students who need it and leave
assignments more open-ended for students who dont. Fast, bright students can
move quickly through materials they master easily and go on to more difficult tasks;
slower students can take more time and get more feedback and direct help from
teachers and fellow students. Aided by technologies, students with similar motives
and talents can work in cohort study groups without constraints of time and place
(Chikering and Ehrmann, 1996).
My opinion on this is that technology is a must nowadays. I think in any kind of
lesson, we should always try to use technology whether it is a television, radio,
video, computer, or the internet. This is because our modern life needs that. We
want something that is faster and interesting, which we can get from our technology
world. It is a win-win situation really because not only it is good for the student but it
is also a great help for the teacher to have all the technologies available to make
teaching and learning much easier and successful.

21

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APPENDIX

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