Emmc Steps Daac Lesson2 (Rev0)

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND CONTROL
OF AC MACHINES
DC MACHINES
ERASMUS MUNDUS MASTER COURSE on

SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION AND
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS
STRUCTURE OF A DC MACHINE
EXCITATION (FIELD) WINDING in the stator
ARMATURE WINDING in the rotor
The armature is a closed winding and portions of it
are accessible through a collector and brushes
Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2
Pagina 2
EXCITATION WINDING
A DC current, fed to the excitation winding, allows
to establish a flux density field of constant
amplitude which crosses radially the airgap
The excitation field has fixed direction (polar axis)
Pagina 3
EXCITATION FIELD
Field distribution
induces a voltage in
rotor moving conductors
The induced voltage in
each conductor is
proportional to B and
All the conductors under
one pole are subject to
voltages of the same
sign
Pagina 4
BACK-EMF
The back-emf at
armature terminals is
N/2
E = Bi Lv
i =1
N/2
E = Bi Lr
i =1
E = Bavg
Bi
N
Lr
N
E=
Bavg (L )r
2
E = K E er
Pagina 5
ARMATURE WINDING
Originally, it was a ring-type winding (Pacinotti ring)

Now, it is a drum-type winding, with two layers
Pagina 6
TYPES OF DRUM WINDINGS
Lap winding
Wave winding
Pagina 7
LAP WINDING
Pagina 8
WAVE WINDING
Pagina 9
ARMATURE CURRENT
POLAR AXIS
INTERPOLAR AXIS
Current is the same for all the conductors under the same pole
As a conductor crosses the interpolar axis, the current in it goes
to zero and reverses sign (commutation)
However, the commutator and brushes system keeps the
current distribution constant under a pole
Pagina 10
TORQUE
Ia
POLAR AXIS
dF = I dl B
INTERPOLAR AXIS
Torque derives from the combination of all the forces acting on

the conductors
Macroscopically, torque can be seen as the interaction (cross
product) of the excitation and armature fields
The commutator and brushes keep the two fields fixed in space
and in quadrature
Pagina 11
STEADY STATE EQUATIONS

Ia
Ra
Va
Re
Ie
Ve
Ve = R e Ie
Va = R a Ia + E
E = K E er
T = K T e Ia
e = f (Ie )
Pagina 12
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
T
Ia
Ra
Re
Ie
Tstart
Va
Ve
Ia
(
Va E )
=
Ra
Va E
T = K Te
Ra
Va K E er
T = K Te
Ra
K T K E e2
K T e Va
T=
r +
Ra
Ra
Va
Tstart = K T e
Ra
Va
0 =
K Ee
Tn
r
Pagina 13
VOLTAGE REGULATION
T
Tn
K T K E e2
K V
T=
r + T e a
Ra
Ra
Tstart = K T e
Va increasing
0 =
Va
Ra
Va
K Ee
r
When the armature voltage is increased from 0 to nominal
voltage, the mechanical characteristic moves parallel to itself
The usable region is delimited by the nominal torque (constant
torque)
Pagina 14
FIELD REGULATION
T
K T K E e2
K V
T=
r + T e a
Ra
Ra
Tstart = K T e
0 =
Va
Ra
Va
K Ee
e decreasing
r
When the excitation field is decreased from nominal value to 0,
the mechanical characteristic inclines itself.
All characteristics are tangent to an hyperbola (constant power
curve)
Pagina 15
COMBINED VOLTAGE AND FIELD REGULATION

Constant
torque
T, e
Constant
power
Va, P
E
Ia = const.
r
n
e = en
Va increasing
e decreasing
Va = Van
Pagina 16

OF AC MACHINES
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF DC MACHINES

DYNAMIC EQUATIONS
Ia
Ra
La
Va
Le
Re
Ie
Ve
di e
v e = R ei e + L e
dt
di a
+e
va = R a ia + La
dt
e = f (ie )
T = K Tei a
e = K Eer
d r
+ Br
T TL = J
dt
Pagina 18
BLOCK DIAGRAM
TL
Re
ve
1/Le
ie
die/dt
Ra
va
+
dia/dt
1/La
ia
dr/dt
KT
1/J
KE
Pagina 19
BLOCK DIAGRAM (FIXED EXCITATON)

TL
Ra
va
+
dia/dt
1/La
dr/dt
ia
Kt
1/J
Ke
The model can be linearized if we consider e = constant
K e = K Ee
K t = K Te
Pagina 20
LAPLACE DOMAIN BLOCK DIAGRAM

TL
T
va
+
1/(Ra+sLa)
ia
Kt
1/(B+sJ)
Ke
This model can be used to represent a DC machine with fixed

excitation under linearity hypothesis.
Pagina 21
SPEED TRANSIENT
Speed transient can be analyzed using effect superposition
principle
r (s) = G1 (s) Va (s) + G 2 (s) TL (s)
r (s)
G1 (s) =
Va (s) T
L (s ) = 0
r (s)
G 2 (s) =
TL (s) V
a (s ) = 0
Simplifying hypotheses:
B=0
J = Jm
Pagina 22
SPEED TRANSIENT
Speed transient caused by voltage variation
1
1
K t
R a + sLa
J ms
G1 (s) =
1
1
K t
1 + K e
J ms
R a + sLa
G1 (s) =
G1 (s) =
Kt
=
sJ m (R a + sLa ) + K t K e
K e s 2 m a + s m + 1
1
2 La J m
R a Jm
Ke s
+s
+ 1
K tKe
K tKe
R aJm
m =
K tKe
La
a =
Ra
Pagina 23
SPEED TRANSIENT
s m s( m + a )
Usually, m >> a
G1 (s)
K e (1 + s m )(1 + s a )
1
G1 (s)
K e (1 + s m )
Applying a voltage step of amplitude Va
1
Va
r (s)
K e (1 + s m ) s
In time domain:
r ( t )
Va
1 e t / m + r (0)
Ke
Pagina 24
SPEED TRANSIENT
Similarly
(
R a + sL a )
Ra
G 2 (s) =
=
sJ m (R a + sL a ) + K t K e
K tKe
G 2 (s)
(1 + s a )
Ra
K t K e (1 + s m )(1 + s a )
(1 + s a )
La J m
R a Jm
s K K + s K K + 1
t e
t e
Applying a load step of amplitude TL
r (s)
Ra
1
T
L
K t K e (1 + s m ) s
In time domain:
r ( t )
TL R a
1 e t / m + r (0)
K tKe
Pagina 25
CURRENT TRANSIENT
1
1
Ia (s) =
(Va (s) K e r (s) )
R a (1 + s a )
Applying a voltage step:
Ia (s) =
1
1
V
a K e r (s)
R a (1 + s a ) s
In time domain (assuming no load torque):
Va
Va
t / a
+ K e
i a ( t ) = i a (0) +
1 e
1 e t / m
Ra
K eR a
Pagina 26
DC MACHINE TRANSIENTS
VOLTAGE STEP
Pagina 27
DC MACHINE TRANSIENTS
LOAD STEP
Pagina 28

OF AC MACHINES
DC DRIVES

FORMING A DC DRIVE
ARMATURE VOLTAGE REGULATION (FIXED EXCITATION)
Vdc
r*
ia
=
r
Speed
regulator
va*
PWM
va
Ra
La
Le
Re
ie
ve
=
DC-DC
CONVERTER
TACHO
Speed signal
conditioning
This drive structure conceptually works, since there

is a direct relation between voltage and speed.
However, in this structure the current is not
controlled:
during transients current can exceed limits
torque is not controlled
Pagina 30
FORMING A DC DRIVE
Vdc
r*
ia
=
r
Speed
regulator
T*
1/Kt
ia*
Current
regulator
va*
PWM
Ra
La
va
Le
Re
ve
ia*
DC-DC
CONVERTER
Current signal
conditioning
TACHO
Speed signal
conditioning
This drive structure controls also the current

It is composed by two nested loops
The inner loop must have higher bandwidth, so that
its closed loop transfer function can be considered
as instantaneous from the outer loop
A third, position loop can be added outside
ie
Pagina 31
MODELLING OF A DC DRIVE
So far, the following models have already been

T
derived:
L
DC machine
va
+
1/(Ra+sLa)
ia
Kt
1/(B+sJ)
Ke
Transducers
x
1/(1+s)
xmeas
The regulators are generally formed with PID

controllers
KP
KI
KD
+
+
KP+KI/s+sKD
d/dt
Pagina 32
MODELLING OF A DC DRIVE
A model for the converter is needed:

Vdc
=
va*
PWM
va
va*
???
va
=
DC-DC
CONVERTER
Pagina 33
MODELLING OF DC-DC CONVERTER

vamax,pu*
va,pu*
Triangular
carrier
Different time-scales can

be considered:
Instantaneous
Switching period average
Also, non-ideal switches

can be considered:
Turn on, turn off times
Dead time
On-state voltage drop
ton
ton = d Ts
Ts
va
Vdc
va,avg
-Vdc
Pagina 34

Instantaneous model
Vdc , if va, pu* vcarrier
va ( t ) =
*
V
,
if
v
dc
a, pu < v carrier
Switching period average model

v a, pu*
v a ,avg ( t ) =
Vdc ,
Vcarrier
*
v
carrier
if va, pu* = a V
Vdc
carrier va, pu* V

carrier
V
va ,avg ( t ) = va * ,
Vdc va,avg Vdc
Pagina 35

In general, the switching period average model is
used to determine the controller parameters of the
drive.
This method neglects the harmonics at (multiples of)
the switching frequency. Therefore, the armature
current calculated with this model will neglect
harmonics which actually exist.
This implies a limitation in the bandwidth of the
current loop.
Can this limitation be overcome? No, because we
can vary the voltage reference va* only once
(maximum twice) per switching period.
Pagina 36

SWITCHING PERIOD AVERAGE MODEL
Vdc
va*
va
-Vdc
LINEARIZED SWITCHING PERIOD AVERAGE MODEL

va*
va
Pagina 37
MODEL OF A DC DRIVE
CONVERTER
MODEL
r*
Speed
regulator
T*
1/Kt
ia*
Current
regulator
va*
Vdc
MOTOR MODEL
va
+
-Vdc
ia
1/(Ra+sLa)
ia
Kt
T
+
TL
1/(B+sJ)
Ke
1/(1+s1)
1/(1+s2)
TRANSDUCERS
MODELS
Having modeled all components, it is now possible to

analyze the regulators of the two control loops.
Pagina 38
BANDWIDTHS
BW
BW
BWi BWfilter,1
x 10
fs
BW1
log(f)
At least one decade is needed between frequencies,

in order to allow enough attenuation.
The switching frequency imposes all others, since it
is usually also the sampling frequency and
corresponds to the rate of change for the innermost
control variable va*.
The current ripple at switching frequency must be
filtered to avoid aliasing.
Pagina 39
BANDWIDTHS
Example:
Switching frequency:
BW of current transducer:
Cutoff frequency of filter:
BW of current regulator:
BW of speed regulator:
BW of position regulator:
10 kHz
100 kHz
1 kHz
100 Hz
10 Hz
1 Hz
Pagina 40
CURRENT LOOP
KP
ia*
KI
ia
KD
+
+
Vdc
va*
va
+
-Vdc
d/dt
1/(Ra+sLa)
ia
Ke
1/(1+sfilt1)
1/(1+s1)
At the end, the current loop will be represented by:

ia*
Wi(s)
ia
Pagina 41
CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT CURRENT LOOP

Inner loop has the highest bandwidth
Current loop is also a torque loop
T*
1/Kt
ia*
Wi(s)
ia
Kt
Current HAS to be the inner loop due to the cause

and effect relationships
Voltage is the cause that makes current change
Torque is the cause that makes speed change
Pagina 42
SPEED LOOP
TL
r*
Speed
regulator
T*
1/Kt
ia*
Wi(s)
ia
Kt
T
+
1/(B+sJ)
r
1/(1+sfilt2)
1/(1+s2)
Methods for the synthesis of the regulator parameters

of the speed loop have already been investigated
within the Control of electromechanical systems
module
Pagina 43
INCREASING CURRENT LOOP BANDWIDTH

It is possibile to eliminate the filter by using a particular PWM
technique
The sampling must be done twice per switching period and
sampling instants should be at the peaks of the triangular
carrier.
The resulting PWM is the so-called asimmetric PWM, updated
twice per switching period
It is possible to demonstrate that in this way only the average
value of the current is sampled.
Therefore the filter can be eliminated and the bandwith of the
current regulator can be increased.
BWi, max
fsampling
20.7
fswitching
10.3
Pagina 44
CURRENT LOOP SYNTHESIS

KP
ia*
KI
va*
va
ia
ia
1/(Ra+sLa)
ia*
Kp+Ki/s
va*
ia
va
+
1/(Ra+sLa)
ia
Pagina 45

Requirements:
Zero steady state error
Specified closed loop bandwith BWi
Ideal closed loop transfer function:

Wi (s)* = 1
Feasible desired closed loop transfer function:

Wi (s)
with
1 + i*s
2
i =
BWi
*
Pagina 46

Set the back-emf equal to zero
Hypothesis: ideal zero-pole cancellation
KP
K I 1 +
s
KI
G (s) =
s
K P La
=
KI Ra
Open loop transfer function

F(s) =
KI 1
Ra s
ia*
Ki(1+Kp/Kis)
s
ia
va*
va
+
e=0
1/Ra
(1+sa)
ia
Pagina 47
Closed loop transfer function

F(s)
1
Wi (s) =
=
1 + F(s) 1 + R a s
KI
The transfer function has zero steady state error

for step input and can achieve the desired
bandwidth if:
Ra
= i*
KI
K I = R a 2 BWi*
EXERCISE: Determine what happens if the zero-pole

cancellation is not exact
Pagina 48

EXAMPLE
Design the current regulator with bandwidth equal to

300 Hz for a DC machine having the following
parameters
R a = 100m
BWi* = 300Hz
La = 3mH
K P = 5.6549
Vdc = 10V
K I = 188.5
E = 5V(@ n )
Pagina 49

EXAMPLE
Current response at zero speed

Pagina 50

INCLUDING THE EFFECT OF THE BACK-EMF
The back-emf will act as a slowly changing

(mechanical time constant) disturbance to the
current regulator.
It will not affect the zero steady-state error.
If there is a back-emf, the effective voltage acting
to change the current is v=(va-e).
Therefore, the regulator (in particular the integral
term) will have to produce a bigger voltage
reference va*, in order to obtain the same v.
This affects the transient response.
Pagina 51

Current response at
rated speed
Pagina 52

In order to improve the transient response, we can

add a feed-forward term, based on an estimate of
the back-emf
ia*
Ki(1+Kp/Kis)
s
ia
va*
+
e^
Ke
va
+
1/Ra
(1+sa)
ia
r
Ke
r ^
Even a rough estimate can significantly improve

the transient
Pagina 53

Current response with estimated back-emf FF

compensation
Pagina 54

DC-DC CONVERTER NON LINEAR MODEL
At high speeds, expecially if fast transients are

required, the reference voltage va* can exceed the
maximum feasible voltage va* = Vdc.
Pagina 55

DC-DC CONVERTER NON LINEAR MODEL
In this case, we need to consider the non-linear

model of the DC-DC converter.
ia*
Ki(1+Kp/Kis)
s
ia
va*
va
+
+
e^
Ke
1/Ra
(1+sa)
ia
r
Ke
r ^
Pagina 56

INTEGRATOR TERM WINDUP
When saturation is considered, a significant

oscillation in the current appears.
Pagina 57

INTEGRATOR TERM WINDUP
The oscillation is
originated by the
integrator windup.
Initially, the output is
saturated (current rises
linearly, not with desired
BW).
When the error is zero,
the output is still
saturated.
It takes time to exit
saturation, which causes
the oscillation.
Pagina 58

ANTI-WINDUP
This phenomenon can be avoided by using a PI

regulator scheme with anti-windup
Kaw
va,presat*
ia*
ia
Ki(1+Kp/Kis)
s
va*
+
e^
Ke
va
+
1/Ra
(1+sa)
ia
r
Ke
r ^
Pagina 59

ANTI-WINDUP
1
K AW =
KP
The response is still dominated by the saturation,

but no oscillation occurs.
Pagina 60

COMPLETE SCHEME FOR CURRENT REGULATOR
Kaw
va,presat*
ia*
Ki(1+Kp/Kis)
s
ia
va*
+
e^
The scheme, made of PI regulator, FF disturbance

compensation and anti-windup, is used also for all
other control loops.
Pagina 61
CURRENT LOOP SYNTHESIS DIGITAL DOMAIN
The scheme, made of PI regulator, FF disturbance

compensation and anti-windup, is used also for all
other control loops.
Pagina 62
MOTION CONTROLLER
REFERENCE MODEL FEEDFORWARD
The reference model is used to enhance transient

response.
Pagina 63
DC DRIVE WITH FIELD WEAKENING

COMPLETE SCHEME
Field weakening control scheme

Pagina 64
Selezionare per scrivere o eliminare il sottotitolo
Pagina 65

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DYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND CONTROL

ERASMUS MUNDUS MASTER COURSE on

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Originally, it was a ring-type winding (Pacinotti ring)

TYPES OF DRUM WINDINGS

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Torque derives from the combination of all the forces acting on

STEADY STATE EQUATIONS

COMBINED VOLTAGE AND FIELD REGULATION

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND CONTROL

ERASMUS MUNDUS MASTER COURSE on

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

BLOCK DIAGRAM (FIXED EXCITATON)

The model can be linearized if we consider e = constant

LAPLACE DOMAIN BLOCK DIAGRAM

This model can be used to represent a DC machine with fixed

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

r (s) = G1 (s) Va (s) + G 2 (s) TL (s)

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Applying a voltage step of amplitude Va

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Applying a load step of amplitude TL

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

In time domain (assuming no load torque):

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND CONTROL

ERASMUS MUNDUS MASTER COURSE on

This drive structure conceptually works, since there

This drive structure controls also the current

So far, the following models have already been

The regulators are generally formed with PID

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

A model for the converter is needed:

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

MODELLING OF DC-DC CONVERTER

Different time-scales can

Also, non-ideal switches

MODELLING OF DC-DC CONVERTER

Switching period average model

carrier va, pu* V

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

MODELLING OF DC-DC CONVERTER

MODELLING OF DC-DC CONVERTER

LINEARIZED SWITCHING PERIOD AVERAGE MODEL

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Having modeled all components, it is now possible to

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

At least one decade is needed between frequencies,

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

At the end, the current loop will be represented by:

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT CURRENT LOOP

Current HAS to be the inner loop due to the cause

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

Methods for the synthesis of the regulator parameters

Dynamic Analysis and Control of AC Machines - Lesson 2

INCREASING CURRENT LOOP BANDWIDTH