2014

Dudario
Estructuras Comparadas

Giselle Barbera
Prof. Mariano Quinterno
24/10/2014

Morphology
Concept
Morphology is the study of word structure, word formation, word derivation and word
inflexion.

Morphemes and Lexemes

The lexeme (lexeme) works at a semantic level and is the principal unit in a word,
while the morpheme (morfema) is the smallest unit of meaning.
Morphemes can be classified as follows:
1. Because of their dependence on other units of meaning:
Free (libres): They can function independently as words. This is the case
of the prepositions, the conjunctions and the determiners.
Bound (dependientes): They can only function when attached to a
lexeme or free morpheme.
2. Because of their function:
Inflectional (flexivos): They do not change the category of the word, but
they change its meaning or class. They can be verbal, adjectival or
nominal.
Derivational (derivativos): They change the category of the word by
adding suffixes (sufijos) and prefixes (prefijos).

Inflectional morphemes
ENGLISH
Nouns
Plural s
Possessive s
Verbs
Inflection 3rd person
singular s
Progressive form ing
Past form ed
Past participle form en/ed
Adjectives
Comparative er
Superlative -est

The books
Johns book

Los libros
El libro de John

He reads well

Lee bien

He is working
He worked
He has eaten/studied

Est trabajando
Trabaj
Ha comido/estudiado

Hes taller than you

Hes the tallest boy of his
age

Es ms alto que vos

Es el chico de su edad ms
alto

SPANISH
Nouns
Person

Nia/Nio

Girl/Boy
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Number
Verbs
Person
Number
Tense
Adjectives
Person
Number
Grade

Libros

Books

(T) corras
(Ellos) corran
(l) trabajaba

(You) were running

(They) were running
(He) worked

Hermosa
Hermosos
l es menos inteligente que
yo

Beautiful
Beautiful
He is less intelligent than I
am

Derivational morphemes
Suffixes: they are bound and go after the lexeme. They carry the word stress. In
some cases, the suffixes in English and Spanish are very similar. However, in
some other cases, the morphological processes follow the rules of the English
language:
ENGLISH
Suffix
Derivation
Example
-er
verb to noun
worker
-ful
noun to adjective
faithful
-en
adjective to verb
fallen
-less
noun to adjective
heartless
-ness
adjective to noun
happiness
-ing
verb to noun
shooting
-ing
verb to adjective
tiring
-ly
adjective to adverb
quietly

Suffix
-ear
-oso/a
-mente
-on

SPANISH
Derivation
noun to verb
noun to adjective
adjective to adverb
changes the noun person

Example
agujerear
maravilloso
alentadoramente
casn

Prefixes: they go before the lexeme. In Spanish they are soundless, unlike in
English. In English, also, there is a group of prefixes which do not affect the
lexical category of the word; they are called negative prefixes.
Prefix
Derivation
Example
misverb to verb
misinterpret
unadjective to adjective unconscious
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un-

verb to verb

untie

Interfixes and infixes: Interfixes are added between the prefixes and the
suffixes to avoid cacophony between two sounds and homonymy. They are
soundless and they lack meaning. There are two types of interfixes:
o To avoid hiatus: for example, in Spanish, the interfix c is added between
cafe and ito to avoid a hiatus in cafeito (the resultant word is cafecito)
o With differentiating purpose: added to distinguish between two words
with a different meaning. For example: carnicero (person) to
differentiate him from carnero (animal)
Infixes occur inside a lexeme and add grammatical or referential meaning.

The Verb
Definition
The verb is a lexical word which, along with the noun, constitutes one of the key parts in a
sentence and one of the pillars on which discourse is organized. In accordance with Mara
Marta Garca Negroni, the verb is the nucleus of the predicate in a sentence:
Mara compr/estren/luci/se prob un vestido azul.
Peter went to the cinema last night.
Verbs hold different categories of number, person, mood, tense, aspect and voice. Its
morphological structure is made up of:
a) A lexeme or root and
b) A group of morphemes, which flex to form the different categories already mentioned
above.

Differences between English and Spanish verbs

It is necessary to point out that English verbs are made up of a set of independent
morphemes, which have meaning when they are in isolation. However, Spanish
language is known to belong to the category of flectional languages, the morphemes of
which (both, tense/aspect morphemes and person/number morphemes) cannot be
separated from the verbal root (unlike English verbs), thus forming a morphological
unit.
Hablo/Hablar/Hablaremos
I am speaking/He or She will speak/We will speak

Non- conjugated/non-finite forms of the verb

They do not indicate tense, person or number
SPANISH
In Spanish they are called verboides. They are made up of the verbal root followed by
their own ending. There are three non-conjugated (or non- finite) forms:
Infinitivo/Infinitive: It is the conventional citation form of the verb (i.e. how it
appears in dictionaries and the form by which the whole paradigm is
represented).
In Spanish, the infinitivo is signaled by the suffix r after the theme vowel (vocal
temtica). The variations produced by the theme vowel allow organizing the
different verbs in three distinct terminations:
o First termination: Formed by the thematic vowel /-a/ followed by
morpheme /-r/ (cantar, fumar, bailar)
o Second termination: Formed by the thematic vowel /-e/ and morpheme
/-r/ (tejer, cocer, comer)
o Third termination: formed by the thematic vowel /-i/ followed by
morpheme /-r/. (venir, seguir, reprimir).
These terminations fall under one of the two types of infinitives called infinitivo
simple.

The other class of the infinitive is the so called infinitivo compuesto, which is
composed of the verb haber in the infinitive mood followed by a verb in past
participle (Haber viajado en crucero fue una de las mejores cosas)
It may function as a verb or as a noun.
Viajar a Italia es lo que ms deseo. (Verb)
El fumar es perjudicial para la salud. (Noun)
In English, there also exist three non-conjugated or non-finite verbal forms:
bare and full Infinitive, gerund and participle.
Bare infinitive is used:
With pure modal verbs:
- I can speak English fluently.
- My sister should wear a seat belt whenever she drives a car.
After Id rather:
- Id rather not discuss with my parents.
- Id rather die first.
After let and make (only in the active voice):
- Paul made me go to the cinema in the morning.
- I let my mother feed the dogs.
After perception verbs:
- I saw her leave the classroom.
Full infinitive is used:
As a subject:
- To go for a walk early in the morning is advised by the doctors.
As a Direct Object to the verb (only after certain verbs1):
- The doctor has come to check you up for blood pressure.
After too or enough:
- She is too tall to be in fifth grade.
- I think Im old enough to enter the casino, Im eighteen!
To indicate purpose:
- I went to the bank to get a check.
After WH-words:
- I dont know who to consult.
After let and make (only in the passive voice)
- I was made to repeat the exercise.
- Paul was let to see his daughter again after all these years.
After certain adjectives:
- Unfortunately, I was unable to work for over a week.
- I am really tired. Im ready to go to bed.
Gerund: The gerund in English is part of the infinitive in Spanish.
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After certain verbs such as: let, need, make, see; we use the bare infinitive (the infinitive without
to)

Smoking is prohibited
Difference between Gerund and Present Participle
My passion is playing tennis (Gerund).
My son is playing tennis (Present Participle).
The English gerund is translated in Spanish as an infinitive. Nevertheless, in
Spanish we use the gerundio to translate the present participle.
The gerund is used:
As subject:
- Cooking is fun.
- Eating fruits and vegetables is good for your health.
As direct object:
- I suggest going to the cinema.
- Francisco enjoys swimming more than spending time with his girlfriend
Diana.
With prepositions:
- I admit to having killed my wife.
- I look forward to seeing you soon.
As adjective:
- A walking stick. (Classifier)
Participles
Present participle:
Uses:
With perception verbs:
- I felt the ground shaking for about half a minute.
As an adjective:
- Sleeping beauty.
- Interesting book.
As a verb:
- Peter is playing tennis right now.
- My sister is annoying me very much.
Gerundio: It is like the present participle in English. It may be functioning as an
adjective or as an adverb, but it is still a verb.
Ana se recibi con honores estudiando mucho. (Adverb)
En la plaza haba nios jugando. (Adjective)
Uses:
Simultaneity:
- Estudi escuchando msica.
Adverbial function:
- Canta desafinando.
In supplementary propositions:
- Ana, viendo que no tena otra salida, opt por decir la verdad.
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When it refers to the direct object on the main sentence with a predicative
function:
- Vieron a Matas corriendo en el recreo.
In absolute constructions:
- Leyendo, Juan, no entenders lo suficiente. (condicional)
- Sabiendo que l estara, no nos fuimos de vacaciones. (causal)
As part of verbal phrases:
- Viene trayendo bolsas muy pesadas.
- Pablo anda conociendo gente nueva.
Past participle: The regular verbs are signaled by the suffix ed. Then there are the
irregular ones. In Spanish, the past participle is the participio which ends with the
suffixes ado and ido.
Uses:
As a verb:
- Peter has bought an umbrella.
- I have figured out what Mary is planning.
As an adjective:
- He is an interested person.
- We were bored with the movie.

Conjugated verbs
Grammatical categories
Verbs admit different categories:
Tense: It refers to the time when an action is performed. An action or event
may belong to the present, past or future.
Mood: Grammatical mood refers to a group of verbal forms used to express
modality. Modality is divided into two types:
Modality in a sentence level: it applies to the different types of
sentences (declarative, imperative, interrogative, desiderative, exclamation,
etc.)
Verbal modality: It relates to modal verbs. (see the modality section
below)
Semantically, modality expresses the attitude of the speaker in the presence of
the action performed by verbs.
a) Indicative mood will be used in both, English and Spanish, when the action
is considered real or objective.
b) If the action is regarded as a result of an internal process influenced by fear,
desire, doubt, necessity and possibility, subjunctive mood will be used in
both languages.
c) If the action is considered as an order or plea, Imperative mood will be
used in both languages.
With regards to syntax:
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a) Indicative mood is regarded as an independent mood.

b) Subjunctive mood, instead, is a dependent mood; not only of verbs or
adverbs denoting desire, fear, possibility or doubt, but also of subordinate
periods, when there is not intervention of the speakers subjectivity in the
process:
Las conversaciones se terminaron sin que hubiera acuerdo
In English, Subjunctive mood may be defined as the one that denotes
condition, hypothesis, possibility, etc. and not as a mood that denotes real
facts.

Aspect of verbs
It is related to the progression or concretion of an action. It relates to the development
of an action.
There are two grammatical aspects:
Perfective: when the action is concluded.
Imperfective: it is focused on the progression of the action, regardless of its
beginning and ending.
English:
- I ran (perfectivo).
- I was running (imperfectivo).
The aspect may appear in the semantic content of a lexeme (lexical aspect):
There are four types of events:
States: statics (un estado es un evento que no ocurre, sino que se da): saber,
conocer, querer.
Activities or processess: Dynamic events, non limited (ocurre y progresa en el
tiempo): correr, caminar, leer, escribir.
Fullfillment: Dynamic event, limited (progresa hacia un lmite interno): Escribir
una carta, correr una maratn.
Achievements: Dynamic event, limitated (de duracin breve, culmina en un
punto): alcanzar la cima, nacer.

Telicity
Verbs may be:
Telic: they are presented as having an endpoint. They need to be perfective.
Atelic: they are not presented as having an endpoint. They are imperfective.

Passive voice
It presents an action executed by an agent to a patient, which suffers the action.
Spanish
PASIVA ANALTICA: verbo ser o estar + participio (el delincuente fue detenido por
la polica)
PASIVA REFLEJA O PASIVA CON SE:
- It is only possible in third person
- Subject is postponed
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E.g. Se alquila departamento.

Ingls: The agent is preceded by the preposition by.
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)
E.g. they were caught by the police

Verb classification
a) Transitive and intransitive verbs
Transitive verbs: they need the presence of a direct object, which receives the
action, to make sense.
He conseguido dos entradas para el teatro
I baked some cookies
Intransitive verbs: They do not need a direct object to make sense.
Juan delinque
I laughed/cried
In Spanish, intransitivity is shown through the self-reflexive form se (se rompi,
se caer).
Semantically
b) Regular and irregular verbs
English: regular verbs are formed by the suffix /-ed/ to form the past simple and
past participle.
Irregular verbs do not follow any rule. These verbs suffer changes in the root when
they are conjugated into de past simple and past participle.
Spanish: Los verbos irregulares son aquellos que en su conjugacin sufren
alteraciones respecto de los modelos representados por cualquiera de las tres
conjugaciones regulares.2 (Caber: Yo quepo, yo cupe, yo cabr). Pueden afectar al
lexema, a los morfemas o a ambos a la vez.

Personal or impersonal verbs

Spanish: Impersonal verbs in their original sense are conjugated into the third person
of the singular (verbos meteorolgicos o climticos: llueve, nieva, etc.)
English: Impersonal verbs are are expressed through the use of it or they (It snowed
yesterday)
Acontecer, suceder, ocurrir, constar, parecer (terciopersonales)
They are conjugated only into the third person
- Me parece bien.
In English, these kinds of verbs are preceded by it (happen, seem, occur)
- It happened suddenly.
Impersonal sentences with verbs such as seem or look are expressed by a process
called clefting (the sentence is formed by a main clause and a subordinate clause to
express a meaning that could be expressed through a simple sentence.
It seems you are tired (you are tired)
c) Copulative verbs
2

(Garca Negroni M. M., 2004)

10

Spanish: ser, estar, parecer, resultar (poseen un significado mnimo de forma que
aaden muy poco al sujeto y por ello son casi prescindibles).
- La casa es azul (La casa azul)
Rigen al predicativo, mutable o sustituible por el pronombre tono lo (La casa lo es)
English: A copulative verb is be, which is equivalent to ser or estar in Spanish
- The house is far away

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Modality
Concept
Modality may be defined as a semantic category, which expresses subjectivity into
language. From a semantic point of view, grammatical mood, which indicates modality,
expresses the attitude of the speaker, when they are in the presence of a verbal
action.
Indicative mood: Whether the action is considered as real or objective, this mood will
be used by English as well as Spanish language.
Subjunctive mood: Whether the action is regarded as the result of an internal process
governed by fear, desire, doubt, possibility or necessity, This mood will be used in both
languages.
Imperative mood: Whether the action is regarded as a command or a plea, this mood
will be used in English as well as in Spanish.

Grammatical mood
a) Modality in a sentential level: This kind of modality is related to the different
types of sentences, Such as declarative, imperative, interrogative, desiderative,
exclamation, etc.
b) Verbal modality: It is related to modal verbs.

Classification of modality
The modal verbs have three main functions: epistemic, deontic and alethic
Epistemic: it has to do with whether something is true or not (true and false
facts)
Epistemic modal verbs indicate:
a) Ability:
- Can/cant: I can speak English fluently/ Julia, take care of my brother, he
cant swim very well
- Could: I couldnt finish my maths exam, Im sure I didnt pass (No pude
terminar mi examen de matemticas, seguro desaprob)
Beware of could: Could is translated in Spanish as poda or podra depending on
the context. Never translate it as pude.
- Couldnt: It CAN be translated as pude: I couldnt finish the report (no pude
terminar el informe)
b) Logical conclusions
Certainty: Must I must do my homework for tomorrow or my teacher will be angry
(debo hacer mi tarea para maana o mi profesora se va a enojar)
Probability: May John may be in his office by this time (Es probable que John est en
su oficina ahora)
Possibility: Might my sister might have forgotten her handkerchief at school (Es
posible que mi hermana se haya olvidado su pauelo en el colegio)

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Impossibility: Cant I tried, but I cant stand my schoolmate anymore, hes such an
annoying guy! (Lo intent pero no puedo soportar a mi compaero de clases, es muy
molesto!)
Deontic: It is related with what is right and what it isnt.
a) Obligation: Differences with regards to must and have to
- Must: It is regarded as an internal obligation to the speaker
Yo creo que algo puede ser bueno para vos o para m.
I must leave.
- Have to: it is used to express an external obligation to the speaker. It is an
obligation imposed by another person or by the law. It has to do with
inevitability
I have to wear a helmet.
b) Prohibition:
- Mustnt: You mustnt arrive late.
c) Lack of obligation:
- Dont have/need to: You dont have/need to call every time you want to come
home.
d) Advice:
- Should: You should wear a sweater, its very cold outside.
- Ought to: to express the view that something is the right thing to do, because
its morally correct, polite, or someones duty. Implica una cuestin moral. You
ought to admit that you made a mistake
- Had better: warning. Youd better go to the doctor or...
e) Offer: Would you like some water? (Se usa some cuando se espera que la
persona diga que s)
Would you like any water? (Cuando se usa any, respuesta puede ser afirmativa o
negativa. No est esperando un s)
- Shall I give you? (Informal)
- Ill give you a hand
f) Suggestion:
- Shall we go to the theatre?
- We could go to the theatre
g) Necessity:
- You dont need to talk to do it
- You neednt do it
In the past there are some differences with regards to didnt need and neednt:
1) I didnt need to buy a car (And I didnt do it)
2) You neednt have gone to my aunts house (but you did it anyway)
h) Criticism:
- You should have accompanied her to the doctor
i) Request:
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j)
k)
l)

Can/could you bring me a glass of water?

Will/Would you please open the window?
Dilemma:
Should I stay or should I go?
Commandments/formal contracts:
You shall not kill
The party shall be responsible for
Tener la obligacin de
Be to : You are to go to the supermarket
Be supposed to: You are supposed to watch your sister while Im out
Be obliged to: Peter is obliged to use a uniform every day.
Alethic:
It is related to predictability, to the future.
Will: Will you go to Crdoba?
May: She may be in Italy next summer
Might: She might be in Italy next summer
Wont: You wont receive any money from me!
Adverbios de enunciado y adverbios de enunciacin
De acuerdo con Emile Benveniste, cuando el enunciador se sirve de la lengua para
influir de algn modo sobre el comportamiento del alocutario, dispone para ellos
de un aparato de funciones:
- La interrogacin: Enunciacin construida para suscitar una respuesta
- La intimacin: Enunciacin contruida para suscitar una accin del t.
- La asercin: Enunciacin que apunta a comunicar una certeza.
Estos procedimientos que le permiten al locutor situarse con respecto a su
interlocutor se conocen bajo el nombre de modalidades de enunciacin. A esta
categora perteneces tambin ciertos adverbios que se caracterizan por calificar la
enunciacin en la que aparecen: Francamente, sinceramente, confidencialmente
- Sinceramente, el amarillo te queda mal (hace referencia al acontecimiento
enunciativo)
- Honestly, she did not come
Simultneamente, afirma Benveniste, el locutor dispone de una serie de modalidades
formales como:
- Ciertos adverbios modales: probablemente, sin duda, quizs
Que le permiten expresar sus actitudes respecto de lo que dice o enuncia
(esperanza, deseo, aprensin, etc.). Estas modalidades reciben el nombre de
modalidades de enunciado.
- Sinceramente/francamente su discurso fue espantoso
- Luckily, she did not come

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The Subjunctive Mood

The first aspect to take into account about the subjunctive mood (SUBJ) is that it is
used in hypothetical situations; this is the main difference it presents with respect to
the indicative mood (IND), which is used when we talk about facts.

Subjunctive markers in English

There are four markers which trigger the subjunctive mood:
1. Bare Infinitive
2. Were
3. Past Tense Forms
4. Modals

1. Bare Infinitive
She insists that he go (SUBJ) to the club everyday.
Insiste en que vaya (SUBJ) al club todos los das.
On this example, the subjunctive can be easily noticed because the construction used
(3rd person singular + bare infinitive) is incorrect in the indicative mood. Given this,
there is only one correct way to translate this sentence into Spanish.
However, the bare infinitive, when used as a marker of the subjunctive with persons
other than 1st person singular or 3rd person singular, can be ambiguous (A), as in the
following examples:
She insists that they go (SUBJ/IND) to the club everyday. (A)
Ella insiste en que vayan (SUBJ)/van (IND) al club todos los das.
In the aforementioned example, the key which triggers the subjunctive is the
imposition of the speakers will, whereas the indicative mood would simply state a
fact.

2. Were
In informal language, it is replaced by was. It is important to point out that it is only
recognizable as a marker of the subjunctive mood when used with 1st and 3rd persons
singular, due to the fact that, as happens with the bare infinitive, it could be
ambiguous when used with persons other than 1st or 3rd singular (its form remains
the same as the one used for the indicative).
She walks as if she was/were (SUBJ) a model. (The verb implies that she is not a
model, but walks as one)
Camina como si fuera/fuese (SUBJ) una modelo.
Cf.
She walks as she is (IND) a model. (The verb implies the fact that she is a model)
Camina como la modelo que es (IND).

3. Past Tense
In this case, we could be faced with ambiguity, as in the example below:
She insisted they went (SUBJ/IND) to the club everyday. (A)
Insista en que fueran (SUBJ)/iban (IND) al club todos los das.
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Other examples to take into account:

Wish: I wish I had (SUBJ) a car -> Deseara tener (IND) un auto (In Spanish it is
indicative because the desire is a fact, although having a car is hypothetical)
If only I had (SUBJ) a car -> Ojal tuviera (SUBJ) un auto
I wish I had been (SUBJ) to the party -> Deseara haber ido (IND) a la
fiesta
Rather: Id rather she came (SUBJ) -> Preferira que viniera (SUBJ)
Its (high) time: Its high time you left (SUBJ) -> Es hora de que te vayas (SUBJ)

4. Modals
In English, modals are used to convey mood (M), Tense (Tn), and Modality proper
(Mp). Nonetheless, in Spanish, mood and tense are morphologically marked, so
modals are only used to indicate modality proper.
ENGLISH
SPANISH
1. Mood (M)
2. Tense (Tn)
3. Modality proper
Modality proper
(Mp)
(Mp)
a) Mood
a. I demand that he should (M) go.
b. Pido que (se) vaya.
b) Tense
a. He would (Tn) go if you asked him.
b. l (se) ira si se lo pidieras.
c) Modality Proper
a. He should (Mp: Advisability) leave now.
Debera (Mp: Advisability) irse ahora.

Other ways to convey the Subjunctive in English

1. Connectives
a) Compounds with ever
Whatever she did (IND), it was never enough for him.
Hiciera lo que (ella) hiciera (SUBJ), para l nunca era suficiente.
b) Even if
Even if she went (SUBJ) with us, she shouldve paid the ticket.
Aunque (ella) hubiese ido (SUBJ) con nosotros, tendra que haber pagado el
boleto.

2. Infinitive
This is one of the most ambiguous ways to mark the subjunctive.
Borges went to Switzerland to die there (A).
Borges fue a Suiza para morir all (A). (If there is no hint to disambiguate, it is
correct to keep the ambiguity in the translation)
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Cf.
Borges went to Switzerland only to die there.
Borges fue a Suiza y muri all/solo para morir all. (The insertion of only
breaks the ambiguity, because it expresses a result)

3. Position of clauses
This is typical of adverbial clauses, especially when it is unknown whether the clause
modifies the verb in the main clause or in the subordinate clause, as in the example
below:
They told me they would leave when Susan arrived (IND) (A).
Me dijeron que se iran cuando Susan lleg (IND)/llegara (SUBJ).
Cf.
When Susan arrived (IND), they told me they would leave.
Cuando Susan lleg (IND), me dijeron que se iran.

Noun Clauses
1. Noun Clause as Direct Object
In this type of clauses, the key to trigger the subjunctive is the connotation of the verb
(Vb) in the main clause.
VERB IN THE MAIN CLAUSE
English
Spanish
a. Volition (Imposition of will) a. Volition (Imposition of will)
b.
b. Uncertainty
c.
c. Feelings
a. Volition
She had regained consciousness, but was sleeping. A kind nurse suggested (K:
volition) I go (SUBJ) home and get (SUBJ) some rest.
Ella haba recuperado el conocimiento, pero dorma. Una amable enfermera me
sugiri (K: volition) que me fuera (SUBJ) a casa y descansara (SUBJ) un poco.
b. Uncertainty
I doubt (K: uncertainty) this is (IND) what he wants us to do.
Dudo (K: uncertainty) que esto sea (SUBJ) lo que quiere que hagamos.
c. Feelings
Id really appreciate (K: feelings) if you could stay (IND) for the night.
Realmente te lo agradacera (K: feelings) si pudieras quedarte (SUBJ) por esta
noche.

2. Noun Clause in Apposition

NOUN HEAD
English
a. Volition (Imposition of will)

Spanish
a. Volition (Imposition of will)
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b.
c.

b. Uncertainty
c. Feelings

a. Volition
And in Tommys suggestion (K: volition) that Andy ask (SUBJ) for his solicitors
help, there was fair indication of what the detectives would do next.
Y la sugerencia (K: volition) de Tommy de que Andy llamara (SUBJ) a su
abogado indicaba que sera lo prximo que haran los detectives.
b. Uncertainty
You are saying that Mrs. Lambert organized a wedding without any assurance
(K: uncertainty) that there was (IND) a bridegroom?
Ests diciendo que la Sra. Lambert organiz una boda sin la seguridad (K:
uncertainty) de que hubiera (SUBJ) novio?
c. Feelings
It is my hope (K: feeling) that you are enjoying (IND) the reception.
Es mi deseo (K: feeling) que estn disfrutando (SUBJ) de la reunin.

3. Noun Clause as Adjectival Complement

ADJECTIVE HEAD
English
a. Volition (Imposition of will)
b.
c.

Spanish
a. Volition (Imposition of will)
b. Uncertainty
c. Feelings

a. Volition
I was adamant (K: volition) that hed be appointed (SUBJ).
Me mantuve firme (K: volition) en que fuera elegido (SUBJ).
b. Uncertainty
Monk was not sure (K: uncertainty) if he had spoken (IND) impulsively.
Monk no estaba seguro (K: uncertainty) de que no hubiera hablado (SUBJ)
impulsivamente.
c. Feelings
I am very happy (K: feeling) that my daughter is marrying (IND) Henry.
Estoy muy contento (K: feeling) de que mi hija se case (SUBJ) con Henry.

4. Noun Clause as Subjective Complement

SUBJECT
English
a. Volition (Imposition of will)
b.
c.

Spanish
a. Volition (Imposition of will)
b. Uncertainty
c. Feelings
18

a. Volition
The suggestion (K: volition) was that she accompany (SUBJ) several
government officials to the morgue.
La sugerencia (K: volition) fue que acompaara (SUBJ) a varios funcionarios
pblicos a la morgue.
b. Uncertainty
My doubt (K: uncertainty) is that this was (IND) what he intended to do.
Mi duda (K: uncertainty) es que esto fuera (SUBJ) lo que l haba querido
hacer.
c. Feelings
My hope (K: feeling) is that you are having (IND) a wonderful time in Punta del
Este.
Les deseo (K: feeling) que la estn pasando (SUBJ) de maravilla en Punta del
Este.
When the subject is co-referent in both clauses, we replace the noun clause by an
infinitival phrase in Spanish:
Im sorry I made you talk about her.
Lamento haberte hecho hablar de ella.

5. Noun Clauses in Extraposition

In this type of clauses, the key is the Complement (C): either the Subjective
Complement (SC), functioning as Real Subject in Extraposition (RSEP); or the Objective
Complement (OC), functioning as Real Direct Object in Extraposition (RDOEP).
SC/OC
English
Spanish
a. Point of view:
a. Point of view:
1.
1. present Tm reference
2. future Tm reference
2. future Tm reference
b. Necessity
b. Necessity
c.
c. Uncertainty
a. Point of view
Your aunt Maud is here. She is a maddening woman and I consider it a just
judgement upon the Liberal Party (K: point of view future Tm reference) that
she should espouse (SUBJ) its cause. (RDOEP)
Su ta Maud lleg. Es una mujer irritante y considero que es el castigo que se
merece el Partido Liberal (K: point of view future Tm reference) que ella
abrace (SUBJ) su causa. (RDOEP) (A)
Cf.

19

Your aunt Maud is here. She is a maddening woman and I consider it a just
judgement upon the Liberal Party (K: point of view present Tm reference) that
she should [Emphasis] espouse (IND) its cause. (RDOEP)
Su ta Maud lleg. Es una mujer irritante y considero que es realmente el castigo
que se merece el Partido Liberal (K: point of view presente Tm reference) que
ella abrace (SUBJ) su causa. (RDOEP) (A)
In Spanish, there is no way to express emphasis through mood, since future and
present Tm reference always require subjunctive.
b. Necessity
The landing site must be 100 yards wide by 250 yards deep. It is essential (K:
necessity) that it be (SUBJ) clear of mines and artificial obstacles.
La pista de aterrizaje debe tener 100 yardas de ancho por 250 de largo. Es
fundamental (K: necessity) que est (SUBJ) libre de minas y de cualquier otro
tipo de obstculos.
In English it is very common to find an infinitival clause as (RSEP):
Since everybody involved is an experienced police officer, it will not be necessary
(K: necessity) for me to tell (INF) you that the best way to blow this
investigation is to let those scumbags even suspect somebodys taking a close
look at them.
Como todos los involucrados son policas experimentados, no ser necesario (K:
necessity) que les diga (SUBJ) que la mejor manera de hacer fracasar esta
investigacin es dejar que esa escoria siquiera sospeche que estn bajo la
mira.
The idea of subjunctive conveyed in English by the infinitival clause is rendered in
Spanish by a noun clause. Nevertheless, other possible translation would be:
Como todos los involucrados son policas experimentados, no ser necesario (K:
necessity) decirles (INF) que la mejor manera de hacer fracasar esta
investigacin es dejar que esa escoria siquiera sospeche que estn bajo la
mira.
I. IF
IF introducing noun clauses is the same as THAT; as well as their Spanish versions, SI y
QUE.
() my client will sue for custody of his son if and when your Petition for Divorce
reaches the courts. He still earnestly hopes to avoid this eventuality by
persuading you to return to the matrimonial home. In the interim, he suggests
that it will be the fairest, most appropriate, and most beneficial arrangement
(K: point of view future Tm reference) if Leo is moved (IND) immediately to
Brocks Preparatory School, where both his parents will be free to visit him on
equal terms. (RSEP)
() mi cliente pedir la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de
divorcio llegue a los tribunales. Todava honestamente espera evitar esta
20

eventualidad persuadindola de regresar al hogar conyugal. Mientras tanto,

cree que ser el arreglo ms justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view
future Tm reference) que Leo sea trasladado (SUBJ) de inmediato a Brooks
Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrn visitarlo en igualdad de
condiciones. (RSEP)
Cf.
() mi cliente pedir la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de
divorcio llegue a los tribunales. Todava honestamente espera evitar esta
eventualidad persuadindola de regresar al hogar conyugal. Mientras tanto,
cree que el arreglo ms justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view future
Tm reference) es que Leo sea trasladado (SUBJ) de inmediato a Brooks
Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrn visitarlo en igualdad de
condiciones. (SC)
but,
() mi cliente pedir la tenencia de su hijo siempre y cuando su demanda de
divorcio llegue a los tribunals. Todava honestamente espera evitar esta
eventualidad persuadindola de regresar al hogar conyugal. Mientras tanto,
cree que ser el ms justo, apropiado y beneficioso (K: point of view future Tm
reference) si Leo es trasladado (SUBJ in meaning but IND in form) de
inmediato a Brooks Preparatory School donde ambos padres podrn visitarlo
en igualdad de condiciones. (RSEP) In this case, es trasladado is the correct
option because Spanish language does not allow SI to be followed by the
subjunctive form when the verb in the clause is in the present tense.
c. Uncertainty
In English, the subjunctive mood is not required when the subjective complement (SC)
expresses uncertainty.
David knew then what he had to do although it was possible (K: uncertainty)
that he might (Mp: possibility) never get (IND) Emily to forgive her husband.
David supo entonces qu tena que hacer aunque saba que era posible (K:
uncertainty) que nunca pudiera (Mp: possibility) lograr (SUBJ) que Emily
perdonara a su esposo.
In this case, the presence of might in the English sentence conveys Modality Proper,
whereas in Spanish, this feature is conveyed in the verb.
However, there are some cases in which the semantic components of the keys are not
easily identified:
Its crucial (K: point of view?/necessity?) that you do (IND?/SUBJ?) whatever is
necessary to get yourself to a place where you can take the profile Im
developing.
Es fundamental (K: necessity/point of view present/future Tm reference) que
hagas (SUBJ) lo que sea necesario (A) para conseguir un lugar al que puedas
llevar la mascarilla que estoy preparando.
21

Please note that this dilemma does not appear in Spanish, given that in this language
both necessity and point of view trigger the subjunctive. As a consequence, the
problem of identifying the keys is shifted to the reader.
Connectives
a. Complementizers
I. That
This is the most typical connective introducing noun clauses.
I believe (that) they have to have long silly names like that because of the
American Kennel Club.
Creo que tienen que tener nombres largos y tontos como ese por el American
Kennel Club.
II. Whether
Why should we care (K: feeling) whether Switzerland returns (IND) what are
often insignificant amounts of money to Jews?
Por qu debera importarnos (K: feeling) si Suiza devuelve (IND)/que Suiza
devuelva (SUBJ) lo que a menudo son insignificantes sumas de dinero a los
judos?
After SI the indicative form must be used. Nonetheless, the mood is semantically
subjunctive.
III. Lest
This connective presents two characteristics:
i. It can only introduce:
noun clauses as DO of verbs containing a semantic feature of fear;
noun clauses in appositions of nouns denoting fear, or depending on verbs
of fear;
noun clauses as adjectival complement of adjectives of fear.
ii. The mood in the clause is always subjunctive.
Lest is always translated into Spanish as Que.
He feared (Vb) lest people should think (SUBJ) him unpractical.
Tema (K: feeling) que la gente lo creyera (SUBJ) poco prctico.
Though subjunctive is required in both languages, in English this is so because the
choice of lest triggers it, while in Spanish the mood is triggered by the feature of the
main verb.
IV. (Such) as (that)
It introduces noun clauses in apposition. It is translated into Spanish as como; tal
como:
You mustnt let people know shameful things, such as that your hair has fallen
out from chemotherapy.
No debes permitir que la gente se entere de cosas vergonzosas, como que se te
cay el pelo por la quimioterapia.
V. But what
22

This connector is equivalent to that, but it intruduces noun clauses as DO when the
main clause is negative.
Im not sure, my boy, but what if you put it off, in Spanish itll be too late.
No estoy seguro, muchacho, de que si lo pospone no ser demasiado tarde.

Relative Clauses
In Spanish, the antecedent triggers the subjunctive when it is not specific.
ANTECEDENT
Spanish
non specific
I want to know anything which might be (IND) relevant.
Quiero saber cualquier cosa (K: non specific) que pueda (SUBJ) ser relevante.

1. Nominal Relative Clauses

I reminded myself of what my father always says (IND).
Record lo (K: specific: aquellas cosas) que mi padre siempre dice (IND).
Cf.
I admire you even while I worry about what this is going to cost (IND) you.
Te admiro aunque estoy preocupada por lo (K: non specific: she doesnt know
the cost) que te vaya a costar (SUBJ)/Te admiro aunque estoy preocupada por
lo (K: specific: she knows the cost) que te va a costar (IND).
The lack of mood distinction in English may face the translator with a serious problema
of ambiguity.

Adverbial Clauses
These are an automatic choice in English, but a semantic one in Spanish.
ENGLISH: TYPE OF CLAUSE/SPANISH: VERB IN THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
English
Spanish
a. Purpose
a. Hypothetical meaning
b. Conditional (unreal)
b.
c. Clauses introduced by as if/as though, lest c.
a. Purpose/Hypothetical meaning
The most common connector introducing this kind of clauses is so that/para que.
He hadnt hurt her, but she wanted to make him think he had so that he would
feel (SUBJ) guilty.
No la haba lastimado, no en realidad, pero quera hacerle creer que s para que
se sintiera (K: +hypothetical: unknown/still to happen) (SUBJ) culpable.
Nevertheless, the absence of any distinctive subjunctive marker, the context may
provide the information for the reader to conclude that the clause introduced by so
that is result.
She drew the last line so that the sketch was (IND) finished (RESULT).
23

Dibuj la ltima lnea; as el boceto qued (K: - hypothetical: a fact) terminado

(RESULT).
The modal verb could, might function as a marker of the subjunctive or as a marker of
modality proper:
Elfrida asked Rory to stay for supper, so that we could finish (SUBJ/IND?) it all.
(PURPOSE/RESULT?) (A)
Elfrida le pidi a Rory que se quedara a cenar, para que terminramos (K: +
hypothetical: still to happen/unknown) todo. (PURPOSE)
But,
Elfrida le pidi a Rory que se quedara a cenar, as podramos (Mp: possibility)
terminar (K: - hypothetical: known) (IND) todo. (RESULT)
b. Conditional
I. If/Si
The most common connective for this kind of clause is IF/SI. Only unreal situations
require subjunctive:
If I were (SUBJ) you and I were playing (SUBJ) the odds, Id start looking at
other job options.
Si yo fuera usted y estuviera calculando (K: + hypothetical: impossibility)
(SUBJ) las ventajas, comenzara a buscar otras opciones de trabajo.
N.B.: In conditional clauses introduced by IF/SI and by UNLESS/A MENOS QUE, modal
verbs (except for should) always express modality proper.
II. If and when/Siempre y cuando
If and when John deigns (IND) to favor us with his presence, well call your case
again.
Siempre y cuando John se digne (K: +hypothetical) (SUBJ) a favorecernos con su
presencia, reabriremos su caso.
III. Unless and until/Mientras no
Unless and until the witness is located (IND), the evidence she might present
shall not be evaluated.
Mientras esta testigo no sea localizada (K: + hypothetical) (SUBJ), la evidencia
que pueda presentar no ser evaluada.
IV. Lest (In case/En caso de, Por si)
Faber walked alert lest the sentries should take (SUBJ) it into their heads to
make a patrol.
Faber se movi alerta, en caso de que los centinelas decidieran (K: +
hypothetical) (SUBJ) salir a patrullar.
V. As if, As though/Como si
You make it sound as if all of this were (SUBJ) were common sense (SUBJ).
Lo haces parecer como si todo esto fuera (K: + hypothetical) fuera sentido
comn.

Concession
24

In this type of clauses, the lack of mood distinction may create ambiguity.
She listened to his voice with mild pleasure, though he had little to say (IND)
(A).
Ella escuchaba su voz con cierto placer, aunque l no deca (K: - hypothetical)
(IND)/dijera (K: + hypothetical) (SUBJ) mucho.
The ambiguity can be avoided by the use of certain connectors, such as even if, even
though/aunque; even when, even while/aunque, an cuando. Of course, the context
may also help disambiguate. Another way to convey the idea of subjunctive in this kind
of clauses is the use of compounds with ever, and the connective as may also be
used to this purpose.

25

Pronoun
Concept and Main Notions
From a semantic and functional point of view, the pronoun has been defined as a kind
of word that functions as a substitute of the noun or that defines beings and objects
without naming them.
It is important to take into account that:
a) Pronouns do not always substitute a noun (only personal pronouns include the
participants to the conversation into the discourse).
b) Pronouns per se refer to another element in a textual or situational context.

REFERENCE
Endophoric (textual)
When an element from the text refers to another element
appearing in the same text.
Anaphoric
It refers to something that
has already appeared in the
text.

Exophoric (situational)
Also called deictics, refer to
another element from outside
the text.

Cataphoric
It refers to something that
will further appear in the text.

Only personal pronouns admit case and person morphemes:

SPANISH
Case
Nominative
Acusative
Dative
Prepositional
Instrumental

Function
Subject
Direct Object
Indirect Object
DO/IO/other
CC
instrument/company

1st person
Yo
Me
Me
M
Conmigo

2nd person
T/vos
Te
Te
Ti
Contigo

3rd person
l/ella
Lo/la (se)
Le (se)
l/ella (s)
Consigo

There are some pronouns which function as nouns, however;

They do not carry the same meaning: as the person, these pronouns may
present some grammatical features, indicate exact or imprecise number and
show deictic features;
They do not go together with determinatives: they function independently;
They do not go together with modifiers: they do not admit adjectives as
modifiers;
They cannot go together with suffixes and preffixes;
They constitute a closed classification: no new pronouns can be created;

26

They are referential discoursive elements: they constitute the coherence in the
text by means of anaphoric and cataphoric reference.

Pronoun Morphologic, Semantic and Syntactical Classification

-

Semantic classification in Spanish and in English:

Pronombres
personales/Personal
pronouns
Pronombres
indefinidos/Indefinite
pronouns
Pronombres
posesivos/Possesive
pronouns
Pronombres
demostrativos/Demonstrative
pronouns
Pronombres
relativos/Relative pronouns
Pronombres interrogativos y
exclamativos/Interrogative &
Exclamative pronouns
Pronombres
reflexivos/Reflexive pronouns
Pronombres
recprocos/Reciprocal
pronouns

Spanish

English

l vendr pronto.

He will arrive soon.

Cualquiera puede
hacerlo.

Anyone can do it.

La casa es ma.

The house is mine.

Aquella es Luca.

That is Lucy.

El autor que escribi

esta novela.

The autor who/that

wrote this novel.

Qu bonito!

How nice!

Lo hice yo misma.

I did it myself.

Se miraron el uno al
otro.

They looked at each

other.

Personal Pronouns
They are the only words which replace the noun. They are semantically bound to the
designation of a being, object or situation. From a morphological point of view, in
Spanish, they admit gender, number, person and case morphemes; in English,
however, they do not admit gender and number morphemes.

SPANISH

1ra
persona
2da

Sujeto
Objeto
Trmino
Sujeto

ENGLISH

Singular

Plural

Singular

Plural

Yo
Me
M,
conmigo

Nosotros/nosotras
Nos

I
Me

We
Us

T/vos

Vosotros/vosotras

You

You

Nosotros/nosotras

27

persona
3ra
persona

Objeto
Trmino

Te
Ti, contigo

Os
Vosotros, vosotras

You

You

Sujeto
Objeto
Trmino

l/ella/ello
Lo/la/lo
l/ella/ello

Ellos/ellas
Los/las
Ellos/ellas

He/she/it
Him/her/it

They
Them

En espaol, el pronombre tono lo es masculino cuando su referente es un sustantivo

masculino y es neutro cuando se refiere a cosas imprecisas, contenidos oracionales o
sustituye atributos (Te lo advert; No lo comprendo; Mara lo era). En ingls, el
pronombre neutro it reemplaza a referentes singulares definidos o indefinidos,
conceptos abstractos o entidades que no tienen sexo determinado, por ejemplo, los
bebs (A child needs its mother) o los animales.
El lesmo: Fenmeno que consiste en el uso de los pronombres le y les en lugar de lo y
los. La RAE acepta el lesmo masculino de persona en singular pero no el de animal o
cosa (A Pedro lo llam por telfono = A Pedro le llam por telfono). Le o les no pueden
reemplazar a la o las. El lesmo de cortesa consiste en el reemplazo de le o les por lo
referido a usted, ustedes.
El lasmo: Consiste en utilizar incorrectamente los pronombres la y las de objeto
directo en lugar de los pronombres le y les de objeto indirecto.
El losmo: Consiste en utilizar incorrectamente los pronombres lo y los de objeto
directo en lugar de le y les de objeto indirecto.

Pronombres posesivos
Denotan propiedad, posesin o pertenencia de alguien o de algo respecto a cualquiera
de las tres personas gramaticales que actan como poseedores y a las que se refieren.
En espaol, los posesivos admiten morfemas de gnero y nmero y efectan la
distincin nominal entre un poseedor (mo, ma) y varios poseedores (nuestro,
nuestra). Funcionan como adjetivos o sustantivo. En ingls, los pronombres posesivos
pueden sustituir al poseedor (This is the childs bag = This bag is his) o bien a toda la
frase posesiva (This is his). A diferencia del espaol, no marcan distinciones nominales
en relacin al objeto posedo (This bag is his/These bags are his).
En espaol, el uso procltico, la forma apocopada de los posesivos afecta a los que se
refieren a un solo poseedor, salvo en la tercera persona (El abrigo mo = Mi abrigo; La
pileta tuya = Tu pileta). El apocopado acepta variacin en nmero, pero es
genricamente invariable. En ingls, esta variacin ha sido clasificada como forma
adjetiva del pronombre posesivo con caractersticas morfolgicas propias y ocupa una
posicin sintctica como modificador del sustantivo.
Sistema de los posesivos en espaol
Formas plenas
Formas
apocopadas
Singular
Plural
Singular plural
Masculino Femenino Masculino Femenino
28

1
persona

2
persona

Un
poseedor
Varios
poseedores
Un
poseedor
Varios
poseedores

3
persona

1
persona

2
persona

3
persona

Un
poseedor o
varios
poseedores
Un
poseedor o
varios
poseedores
Un
poseedor o
varios
poseedores

Mo

Ma

Mo

Mas

Nuestro

Nuestra

Nuestros

Nuestras

Tuyo

Tuya

Tuyos

Tuyas

Vuestro

Vuestra

Vuestros

Vuestras

Suyo

Suya

Suyos

Suyas

Mi

Mis

Tu

Tus

Su

sus

Sistema de los posesivos en ingls

Pronombres
Adjetivos
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Masculino Femenino
Masculino Femenino
Mine
Ours
My
Our

Yours

His

Yours

Hers

Theirs

Your

His

Your

Her

Pronombres demostrativos
Son palabras que expresan deixis (referencia) y que dependen de un marco referencial
que es externo al texto. Son empleados para la referencia espacial que rodea al
hablante. En ingls, as como en espaol, los demostrativos permiten expresar
distancia en el espacio o en el tiempo mediante una gradacin que va desde la
cercana (Este armario/This cupboard) a la lejana (Aquel cuadro/That picture). En
espaol, los demostrativos admiten morfemas de gnero (masculino, femenino y
neutro) y nmero, mientras que en ingls solo existen las categoras: cercano singular
(this), cercano plural (these), distante singular (that) y distante plural (those).
Espaol
Ingls
Singular
Plural
Singula Plura
r
l
29

their

Proximida
d
Distancia
media
Lejana

Masculin
o
Este

Femenin
o
Esta

Neutro
Esto

Msaculin
o
Estos

Femenin
o
Estas

Ese

Esa

Eso

Esos

Esas

Aquel

Aquella

This

Thes
e

Aquell Aquellos Aquellas

That
Thos
o
e
Los demostrativos pueden desempearse en funcin de adjetivo o sustantivo. En
ingls, pueden modificar a u sustantivo, cumpliendo una funcin adjetiva (This book is
interesting/I like those pants), pero tambin pueden reemplazar al sustantivo en
funcin pronominal (This is good/I like those).
Tambin existen demostrativos adverbiales, que cumplen la funcin de referir espacial
y temporalmente dentro del discurso.
Proximidad
Distancia media
Lejana
Espaol
Ingls
Espaol
Ingls
Espaol
Ingls
Este
This
Ese
Aquel
That
Aqu
Now, here,
Ah
All
There,
hither,
thiter,
hence
thence
Los pronombres demostrativos y el seguimiento referencial: El seguimiento de la
referencia es un componente esencial en la coherencia, ya que garantiza un anclaje o
conectividad de los elementos del texto que le garantiza al lector un acceso ms rpido
a la representacin del texto. Cuantas ms conexiones existan a nivel textual, ms fcil
el acceso. Los marcadores discursivos que actan como referentes para indicar la
relacin espacial y temporal de los participantes del discurso son:
- Los interlocutores (I, you, we, all)
- Otros referentes (this one, that one, that one over there)
- Locacin geogrfica (here, there, way over there)
- Locacin temporal (more, then, long ago, in the future, today, this week,
yesterday, etc)

Pronombres indefinidos
Aluden a conceptos como el de cantidad pero de manera imprecise e indeterminada.
Se oponen por ellos a los numerales. Funcionan como adjetivos, sustantivos o
adverbios y no tienen valor dectico. (Hay muchas tablas con ejemplos en las pginas
135, 136 y 137 del captulo de pronombres.)

Pronombres relativos
Sirven para reproducir la parte de un discurso de otro y a la vez introducir un perodo
subordinado, evitando la repeticin del sustantivo que reemplazan. En espaol hay
cinco pronombres relativos: que, cual, quien, cuyo, cuanto, a los que se aaden las
30

formas adverbiales de valor asimismo relativo: donde, cuando, como. Pueden

funcionar como sustantivos, adjetivos o adverbios. Algunos son invariables y otros
admiten variacin en gnero y nmero. En ingls, los pronombres relativos son: who,
whom, whose, whoever, whosoever, whomever, which, whatever, that. Ambos idiomas
distinguen entre antecedente animado o humano (who) y antecedente inanimado o no
humano (which). Los pronombres en ingls no varan en la marcacin de caso, excepto
para la forma who, que expresa con el pronombre whose el posesivo y con el
pronombre whom el caso objetivo.
Singular
Plural
Masculino
Femenino
Neutro
Masculino
Femenino
Que
That
Cual
Cuales
Which on
Which ones
Quien
Quienes
Who
Who
Cuyo
Cuya
Cuanto
Cuantos
Cuantas
Whose
Whose
How much
How many
How many
El que
La que
Lo que
Los que
Las que
Whoever
Whoever
Whichever
Whoever
Whoever
Donde/dondequiera
Where/whichever
Cuando/cuandoquiera
When/whenever
Como/comoquiera
What/whatever

Pronombres enfticos
Aunque habitualmente se distingue entre relativos e interrogativos o exclamativos, en
realidad son las mismas formas que se distribuyen en dos series: una tona,
correspondiente a los relativos, y otra tnica, que constituye la de los interrogativos y
los exclamativos. As las formas de los pronombres interrogativos y exclamativos
coinciden con las del relativo, aunque se diferencian en su carcter tnico en la
pronunciacin del acento diacrtico en la escritura: qu, cul, quin, cunto, dnde,
cundo, cmo.

Reflexives
In English, reflexive pronouns en in self or selves, so that Obj pronoun there is a
contrasting reflexive counterpart: me vs. myself, you vs yourself. In Spanish, the
contrast is marked only in the third person (including Ud./Uds.): le(s), lo(s), la(s) vs. se,
and in the standard language, a l (ella/Ud./ellos/Uds) vs. a s (consigo).
Pseudo reflecive or spurious se: (Les di la llave*Les la di Se las di)
31

Le and les change to se when followed by another pronoun beginning with l-. This rule
is strange and writers have explaind it as a cambio eufnico so as to avoid the
cacofona of two successive occurrences of /l/. In short, pseudo-reflexive se is a
historical accident that has nothing to do with the reflexive.
True reflexive se:
Ella se vio en el espejo.
She saw herself in the mirror.
El gerente se critic.
The manager criticized himself.
Olga se compr una blusa.
Olga bought herself a blouse.
Here the reflexive has its original meaning, namely that de DO or IO is the same entity
as the Subj. in both languages, it contrasts with nonreflexives:
Ella la vio en el espejo.
She saw her (someone else) in the mirror.
El gerente lo critic.
The manager critized him (someone else).
Olga le compr una blusa.
Olga bought her/him (someone else) a
blouse.
Spanish contrasts se lav with lo lav, while English contrasts washed (no Obj
pronoun, implicit reflexive) with washed him (someone else). A criterion for the true
reflexive in Spanish is the possibility of emphasis with a s mismo (a m mismo, etc.).
Reciprocal se: (Luca y Joaqun se miraron. Lucy and Joaquin looked at each other.)
When the referents of a plural Subj. carry out something on each other, the
construction is called reciprocal. English uses each other or one another, but these
forms can be omitted: they agreed (woth each other), we hugged (each other), they
married (to each other). Spanish applies its reflexive system to the reciprocal, but the
reciprocal emphasizer is not a s mismo but uno a otro, whose a represents IO or DO.
Without emphasizers, a plural reflexive can be ambiguous.
Lexical or inherent se: Ella se quej de la sopa (*a s misma) She complained
(*herself) about the soup.
Quejarse is inherently reflexive in that speaker who selects quejar automaticaly adds a
reflexive morpheme. The se agrees with the Subj (yo me quejo, t te quejas, etc.), but
because a s mismo is impossible with it, it is not a true reflexive. It is simply part of the
verb meaningless in itself since it contrasts neither with (no Obj) nor with lo(s), la(s),
le(s) or some other Obj. other such verbs include arrepentirse, resentirse, percatarse
abstenerse, atreverse, jactarse, and atenerse. English parallels exist but are even rarer:
avail oneself, pride oneself, perjure oneself.
Meaning-changing and/or inchoative se:
The verbs of this category contrast with nonreflexive versions, fail the a s mismo test
for true reflexivity (*ella se bebi el caf a s misma) and show a special shift of
meaning. In rerse, olvidarse, temerse, entrarse, merecerse, beberse, comerse, se
intensifies the action like the English particles up, down, out, away.
Me temo: el inters de lap ersona que habla
Se lo bebi: la buena disposicin, el apetito, la decidida voluntad
Te lo sabes: la presuncin de saberlo todo
32

Te enteraste: cierto conato o fuerza con que se vence algn estorbo.

An important of such inchoatives is that their state (once entered) is expressed by
estar + participle:
Process
State
Se durmi: she fell asleep
Est dormida: shes asleep, sleeping
Se muri: she died
Est muerta: shes dead
Se cas: she got married
Est casada: shes married
However, there remain many verbs whose reflexives convey other meanings in other
structures. (quedar: be left/be quedarse: stay/remain; ir: go irse: go away/leave;
llevar: carry llevarse con: get along with, etc.)
Intransitivizing se:
Ella se detuvo en el andn. She stopped on the platform.
Los vasos se rompen. Glasses break.
El barco se hundir. The boat will sink.
Many English verbs can be used transitively (with DO) or intransitively (without DO)
with the special semantic contrast of X caused Y to verb vs. Y verbed by itself: Joe
stopped her (caused her to stop) vs. She stopped. The Spanish counterparts to such
verbs generally take se for the intransitive sense. Spanish seems to use a reflexive
when the Subj acts upon itself while English optionally deletes its reflexive.
Reflexive se of emotional reaction: Se alegra mucho de esto. Shes very happy
about this.
The psych verbs in this group forma large, important set: aburrir(se), alegrar(se),
animar(se), asombrar(se), deprimir(se), enojar(se), etc. When nonreflexive, the cause
of the emotional reaction is cast as the verbs Subj, and the experiencer is cast as Obj:
Esto les aburre/sorprende. This bores/surprise them. When reflexive, such verbs cast
the experiencer as Subj and the cause of the reaction as an optional PP: Ellos se
aburrieron (de la tele) They got bored (with TV); Ella se sorprendi (de que vinieras).
She was surprised (that you were coming).
Causative se: Juan se oper anoche. John had an operation last night.
The verbs in this group are few: operarse,bautizarse, retratarse, vacunarse cortarse (el
pelo), and some others. Se here indicates that the Subj causes something to be done
for or upon himself/herself. Since these verbs are transitive, they can also occur
nonreflexively: el medico oper a Juan.
Passive and impersonal se:
Se cierra la puerta a la una. The door is closed at 1:00; one closes the door at 1:00.
Se habla espaol. Spanish is spoken; one speaks/you speak Spanish.
Passive se differs from impersonal se in several ways. First, many speakers see se cerr
la puerta as so passive in its force that they add an agent phrase as in true passives: se
cerr la puerta por el guarda = la puerta fue cerrada por el guarda. Second, impersonal
33

se is distinct from passives because it can be used in true passives: se es juzgado por la
posteridad (one is judged by posterity). Third, passive se only accompanies transitive
verbs (intransitive cannot be passivized: *fui venido), in which case it converges with
intransitive se. Impersonal se, in contrast, accompanies either kind of verb transitive or
intransitive, provided that a human subject is implied (*se llueve is odd for the same
reason as *ella llueve):
Se viva bien en aquel entonces. One/They lived well back then.
Se puede entrar? Can one enter?
Como se vive, se muere. One dies as one lives/You die as you live.
Fourth, with passive se the NP is the subject. The verb agrees with it, and this Subj
precedes or follows the verb like any other Subj or is dropped when deemphasized
(Silvia comi/Comi Silvia/Comi).
The more immediate problem is the lack of a single handy English equivalent for
impersonal/passive se. Formal English uses one whereas colloquial usage favors you or
they, which are also possible in Spanish. As an alternative to impersonal se, Spanish
likewise uses uno: es que no se tiene suficiente cuidado = es que uno no tiene suficiente
cuidado.
The true reflexive is distiguished from the passive/impersonal sense by employing
personal a for the latter: Nunca se mtar el tirano. The tyrant will never kill himself.;
Nunca se matar al tirano. People will never kill the tyrant.
Prominalizing with clitics:
Prominalization is the process whereby NPs are changed into pronouns. In English,
this process does not greatly affect word order, for pronouns occur in the same
positions as other NPs:
Mary gave her phone number to
the man who asked her out.
She
gave it
to
him.
In Spanish, though, position depends on the type of pronoun. Traditionally, two sets
are distinguished, the Subj/OP forms and the DO/IO forms:
Set 1: Subj/OP: yo, m, t, ti, Ud., l, ella, ello, nosotros (-as), vosotros (-as), Uds., ellos
(-as), s.
Set 2: DO and IO: me, te, le, lo, la, nos, os, los, les, las, se (all types).
Some of the key contrasts of Spanish clitics with English pronouns are the following:
1) They do not occupy NP positions in surface structure: Vi los animals. *Vi los.
2) They cannot be used apart from a verb: -A quin prefieres? -*Te.
3) They cannot be joined by conjunctions: *Te y me vieron. (English: They saw you
and me)
4) They generally do not share verbs: Puede lavarse y vestirse. *Puede lavar y
vestirse.
5) They cannot be emphasized as separate words.
Neutral:
He introduced her to you.
Te la present.

34

Emphatic Subj:
HE introduced her to you.
l te la present. / Te la
present l.
Emphatic Obj: He introduced her to YOU. Te la present a ti. / A ti te la
present.
6) Even when the Obj is spelled out as a specific pronoun or when the IO is
named by a full NP, the clitic still accompanies the verb, a phenomenon called
clitic doubling:
*(Lo) vi a usted.
Aquellos tipos *(lo) tartan a uno como inferior.
A Sonia *(le) gustan las plantas.
*(Nos) lo dieron a m y a mi hermana.
*(Le) di los dulces a mi amigo.
An a-phrase is also used to emphasize a DO clitic (Me escogiste a m? Lo quieres a
l?) Consequently, a + NP may represent DO, IO, or a PP that is not an Obj of the verb
at all, and its pronominalization is not obvious from form alone:
DO: atender a Clara atenderla; visitar a Clara visitarla
IO: hablar a Clara hablarle; server a Clara servirle
PP: regresar a Clara, regresar a ella; referirse a ella referirse a ella

35

Nouns
Nouns are the names of people, things or places. Many, but not all, have a plural as
well as a singular form, and frequently they are able to take an article or other
determiner.
They may be classified in the following manner:
I. Proper nouns
Proper nouns include the names of people, countries, months, days, magazines,
animals, holidays, towns, villages, cities, buildings, streets, squares, continents,
geographical names (Mountains, lakes, some names of countries, islands, mountain
ranges, seas, rivers and other geographical features) and the names of other places
with an unique reference.
Proper nouns that take the definite article: Among the geographical names,
some names of countries (the Philippines), republics (the Peoples Republic of
China), kingdoms (the Kingdom of Nepal), islands (the Island of Skye), mountain
ranges (the Pyrenees), seas (the Mediterranean Sea), rivers (the North Sea),
and other geographical features (he Panama Canal) take the definite article.
Other kinds of proper nouns that take it are: names of newspapers (the Buenos
Aires Herald), public buildings and other places with a unique reference (the
Empire State), plural family names (The Simpsons), and plural names denoting
nationality (the Americans).
II. Common nouns
Common nouns denote classes or kinds of things. Sometimes, they denote abstract
qualities. They make up the majority of nouns and do not take a capital letter.
III. Collective nouns
Collective nouns may be replaced by the pronouns it or they, using a plural or singular
verb accordingly, while the noun itself remains unchanged.
Sometimes, there is a slight difference of meaning:
English
A burning coal fell on the
rug
Coal is mined in Wales

countable noun
mass noun

Spanish
Un tizn cay en la
alfombra
En Gales se extrae carbn

Dictionaries usually advise choosing a singular verb when one thinks of the group
collectively and a plural verb when one thinks of the individuals composing that group.
e.g.: The government is / are
Nouns denoting fish, animals or birds may be used collectively.
Words denoting plants may be used in the singular with a collective sense.
36

Some nouns have a collective sense when they function as mass nouns and may
denote a single item when they act as countable nouns.
Gender
Gender is not merely a grammatical expression of sex but may be connected with the
need to differentiate between living and lifeless, big and small, etc. It is not always
evident from the morphology of the word in question but may influence the form of
other words. The distribution of words into different genders is often arbitrary. There
are few distinctions of gender in English and these are usually related to sex. While
English does not normally use suffixes to distinguish gender, Spanish does.
Kinds of gender in the noun
A. Nouns denoting persons may be:
B. Nouns denoting non-personal
1. masculine
entities may be:
2. feminine
1. higher animal: masculine
3. dual
feminine
4. common
2. higher organism
5. collective
3. lower animal
A. 1.
2.
Masculine and feminine nouns
English distinguishes the male from the female sex in nouns by means of using
a completely different stem, composition or an adjunct.
Usually a suffix is added to the masculine form to form its feminine. An
exception to this rule is the word widower, where the suffix is added to the
feminine word to form the masculine.
When a separate word exists for a woman, sometimes it means she holds a
certain position or has a certain occupation and sometimes it means that she is
married to a man who holds that position or occupation. Nowadays the
different laws created to prevent discrimination based on gender promote the
use of gender neuter nouns such as the recently created compound
chairperson instead of chairman or chairwoman.
Completely different words
Add a suffix
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
husband
wife
actor
actress
boy
girl
god
goddess
son
daughter
duke
duchess

-ess
-ine
-ina

Feminine endings
Lioness
Heroine
Czarina
37

-ette

Suffragette

3. Dual gender
This class of nouns has no separate names for one of the sexes. This class
includes many nouns formed from verbs and nationalities and words indicating
the religion or politics of a person. If needed, the sex can be distinguished by
means of adding constructions such as a lady / a woman / a female
A. 4. Common gender
This class of nouns lies between personal and non-personal nouns and can take
the pronouns who / he / she / it. The choice depends on the context and the
relationship of the speaker with the noun in question. For example, a man may
refer to his car as she whereas someone else would use the pronoun it. Some
nouns in this class are: baby, car, ship, and nouns denoting pets (dog, cat, etc.).
A. 5. Collective nouns
These nouns may be substituted by either a singular or a plural pronoun and
take a verb in the plural or the singular form, whichever agrees with the
pronoun of choice. E.g.: The government has / have decided to call elections.
B. 1. Higher animals
There exist male and female forms as well as dual forms for many animals.
Sometimes, the female form is used to refer to both sexes (especially in the
plural). Some words denoting felines form the feminine form by adding the -ess
ending.

B
.

Masculine
drake
dog
stallion

Feminine
duck
bitch
mare

Plural / both sexes

duck(s)
dog(s)
horse(s)

2. Higher organisms
This class includes ships, cars, countries, and other nouns which speakers
occasionally substitute with personal pronouns as a sign of affection.
B. 3. Lower animals and inanimate nouns
Lower animals are usually substituted by the pronoun it. However, their sex is
sometimes indicated in the corresponding noun (both sexes / plural: rabbit,
male: buck-rabbit, feminine: doe-rabbit).
The sex of plants and flowers is not distinguished in English except for the carl
hemp (a masculine form used for the female plant because it is bigger) and its
counterpart the fimble hemp.
Countable Nouns and Mass Nouns
COUNTABLE NOUNS

38

Countable nouns may form the plural, take the indefinite article, take cardinals, be
used with some, be used in the plural with many, be used in the interrogative plural
with how many and be used in the plural without the article to express general ideas
(Flowers bloom in the spring).
MASS NOUNS
Mass nouns do not form a plural unless they may be reclassified as countable nouns
(Would you like a beer? vs Too much beer is bad for you). They may, however, have a
plural sense (furniture).
Mass nouns do not usually take the indefinite article except when they are reclassified
as countable nouns (a glass of water). They are used with some in the singular and may
form phrases with much and interrogatives with how much.
Sometimes, Spanish usage coincides, but often different words are used to express the
two concepts:
English
Spanish
gray hairs
count noun
canas
hair
mass noun
pelo

Typical partitives
Typical partitives are sometimes exclusive of some nouns.
a glass of
a bottle of
a can of
a slice of
a stick of
a lump of
a blade
a sheet of
a loaf of
a bar of
a slab of

General Partitives
General partitives are not restricted to specific nouns.
a bit of
a piece of

A lot of, not much, a little, a few

A lot of, not much, a little and a few are often used with the verb in the singular when
used with mass nouns:
There is a lot of gold in that mine.
However, countable nouns use them in the plural:
Only a few hours were allowed to me by fate.
39

Not much may be used for negative statements:

There is not much wine left.
A little may express the opposite of a lot of for mass nouns:
There is only a little coffee in the jug.
The opposite of a lot of may be a few for countable nouns:
There are only a few books on the shelf.

The Genitive
It may indicate that the noun which is inflected possesses the object which follows it
(the mans son). This is the specifying or possessive genitive.
It may express the class to which the non-inflected noun belongs (lambs wool). This is
the classifying or descriptive genitive.
It may indicate that the inflected noun carried out the action expressed by the noun
that follows it (the girls refusal). This is the subjective genitive.
It may indicate that the inflected noun is the cause or origin of the noun that follows it
(uncles funny story). This is the genitive of origin.
It may indicate that the inflected noun suffers the action expressed by the noun that
follows it (the mans dismissal). This is the objective genitive

The -s genitive
An apostrophe followed by s is added to singular nouns:
Singular: Janes uncle/the girls bag/the childrens toys
Plural nouns which do not end in s add only the apostrophe:
Plural: the horses owners/the boys holidays
OTHER WORDS THAT TAKE ONLY THE APOSTROPHE
1. Greek or classical names of more than one syllable;
2. Many names which end with the sibilant /z/;
3. In fixed expressions for the sake of euphony;

The semi independent or elliptic genitive

In this construction the headword need not be repeated if it occurs earlier or later in
the sentence: He put his arm through his wifes
Sometimes the elliptic genitive is placed before the element ellipted: Maureens is a
happy family. This construction may be used predicatively with a form of the verb to
be:
Whose is this book? Its Michaels.

The post-genitive or double genitive

This structure combines the inflected genitive with the of construction:
a friend of Toms
a relative of my uncles

The group genitive

The genitive inflection is appended to the last element:
40

His mother-in-laws house

The Duke of Kents residence
Other structures could have two different meanings according to whether one or both
elements carry the -s suffix. In David and Marks dogs all the dogs belong to both of
them but in Davids and Marks dogs would mean that some dogs belong to David and
some to Mark. In the first case this structure is called group genitive and in the second
example it is called coordinated genitive.

The local genitive

The local genitive is used
1. To denote residence (my mothers, the Browns)
2. With a proper noun to denote a department store, restaurant, church,
hospital, and other buildings or institutions, or added to a saints name
(Lyons Coffee House, Mc Donalds, St. Pauls Cathedral)
With a common noun to denote commercial establishments or places where a
service is rendered (the grocers, the chemists)
The apostrophe is omitted in the names of some towns named after saints, sometimes
even if a common noun follows the saints name. It is also omitted in some cases
where the building or institution has become familiar.

The periphrastic genitive

Of is the principal preposition used in the periphrastic genitive although constructions
with to are also possible: the lady-in-waiting to the Queen
Uses of the periphrastic genitive
Balance: The of genitive is not usually used with proper names unless balance is
required (The uncle of Peter and Jane, Peter and Janes uncle).
Prominence: Sometimes it is used to give prominence to the proper name (The
works of William Shakespeare).
Names or relatives: These nearly always take the -s genitive, even when
accompanied by a possessive pronoun. Sometimes the -of genitive is used to
give emphasis (The birth of his son was the cause of great joy).
Lower animals and inanimate nouns: The -of genitive is usually preferred with
nouns denoting lower animals and with inanimate nouns except for those
which may also take the -s genitive. Some of these nouns can form
constructions with both the -of genitive and the -s genitive (the surface of the
earth, the function of the brain). Some inanimate nouns only take the -of
41

genitive yet may take the -s genitive when the noun is replaced by a pronoun:
the width of the material.

The elliptic genitive

In the case of the elliptic genitive the s genitive may be replaced by the genitive when
it is preceded by that or those.
He put his arm through his wifes.
He put his arm through that of his wife.

The local genitive

The local genitive cannot be formed with the of- genitive although it may form part of
it:
The curate of St. Pauls.
THE -S GENITIVE VS. THE OF-GENITIVE
-s genitive
-s genitive or of-genitive
names of relatives
with proper names
with classifying genitives
with names of persons in the singular
with temporal nouns
with names of animals in the singular
as post-genitive
in written English with plural names of
persons and animals
as local genitive
with certain inanimate nouns
as a subjective genitive before a gerund
with some names of measures and values
in set phrases
The of-genitive is used rather than the -s genitive
with inanimate nouns
in spoken English with nouns with a plural s suffix

Plural
The plural form in English is formed:
1. Adding the -s suffix in most words. This is also the case for shortened words
(kilogram -> kilo -> kilos)
2. Adding -ies in the case of words ending in -y preceded by a consonant (fairy ->
fairies)
3. Adding the -en or -ren suffixes (children, oxen)
4. Adding -es to words ending in -sh, -ch, -o, -ss and x (tomatoes, ashes)
5. Adding -ves to words ending in -fe and -lf (wolves, knives)
6. Some words of foreign origin keep their original plural form (criterion, criteria;
curriculum, curricula)
7. Other words use the zero plural meaning they remain unchanged
morphologically but with a plural sense (fish, fish; sheep, sheep; deer, deer).
42

Articles

Definite
The
Used with old / given
information
or
information that has
been restated
generalizations
musical instruments
geographical
names
that imply a group of
something
superlatives

ENGLISH
Indefinite

A / an / some
Used
with
new Used with abstract
information
concepts
and
Most nationalities
generalizations
Professions
To talk about the
religion or political
ideology of a person

SPANISH
Definite
Indefinite

El / la
Un(os) / una(s)
Generalizations
The singular form has a used
with
noun
Some
geographical
numerical sense. It
complements, unless
names
might mean a / an or
theyre modified (e.g.
superlatives
one
Es abogado)
titles
used
with
noun in expressions of price,
complements
when
speed, ratio
they are modified or in fixed expressions (e.g.
figurative speech (e.g.
Qu lstima!)
Es
una
Buena
profesora)

43

El adjetivo
Los adjetivos en ingls siempre van antepuestos al sustantivo?
Generalmente
s,
pero
hay
excepciones.
Los adjetivos affected, required, available, suggested, free, imaginable, necessary, open y
visible pueden ir antes o despus del sustantivo al que modifican.
Los adjetivos "elect (president elect), incarnate (devil incarnate), minor (Asia minor) y
designate (ambassador designate) siempre deben ir despus del sustantivo.
Cmo se pueden clasificar los adjetivos?
Attributive: Son los adjetivos que van antes del sustantivo. Le dan un atributo al sustantivo
que
modifican:
A
green
door.
Predicative: Son los adjetivos que van despus de un verbo: She feels ill.
Postpositive: Son los adjetivos que van directamente despus del sustantivo al que
modifican: The devil incarnate.
Gradable & Non-gradable
Gradable: Adjectives or adverbs which can be set on a scale of more or less in terms of
their qualities, properties, states, conditions, relations, etc. (good, small, easily, nicely).
Gradable adjectives and adverbs can be premodified by degree adverbs (Thats an extremely
good camera.) and can take the comparative and superlative inflections (smaller, smallest),
or be preceded by more or most (more easily, most superior).
Non-gradable: Adjectives or adverbs that cannot be graded on a scale of more or less in
terms of the property they describe (dead/alive, male/female, truly, main, married). Nongradable adjectives and adverbs cannot take the comparative or superlative inflection, nor
can they be preceded or premodified by words like more, most, quite, rather, so, very
(more male, rather dead, very truly, very married are not possible).
Cul es el orden correcto de los adjetivos en ingls?
O
S
B
A
SH
C
O
M
P
Opinion Size
Build
Age
Shape
Color Origin Material Purpose
These fantastic monumental strong old grey Indian log-carrying elephant.
(!) Se recomienda no usar ms de tres adjetivos juntos.
Elder vs. Older
Elder slo se usa en posicin atributiva (their eldest daughter has arrived), mientras que
older puede ocupar cualquier posicin (thats the oldest cathedral of Argentina).
(!) Elder no se puede usar junto con than: My sister is Elder than me. My sister is older
than me.
Cmo se forman los adjetivos compuestos en ingls?
1.
Nmero
+
sustantivo:
A
three-star
hotel
2. Nmero + parte del cuerpo (+ed) + sustantivo: A one-eyed man
3. Adjetivo + participio: A fast-running/hard-working/bad-tempered employee
4. Adjetivo + parte del cuerpo (+ed): A fair-haired woman

44

 Adjetivos que parece adverbios (!)

Cuando el adjetivo termina en ly no se pueden formar adverbios agregando nuevamente
li o ly, por lo tanto, hay que parafrasear la oracin. Algunos adjetivos terminados en -ly:
Ugly,
costly,
miserly,
unruly,
silly,
orderly.
Por ejemplo: Friendly (adj.) -> Friendlily -> In a friendly way. | Silly -> Sillily -> In a silly
manner.

45

La ortografa y la puntuacin
PERIOD / PUNTO
. At the end of a sentence (a Punto y seguido. Punto y aparte. Punto final.
statement or a command)
. After abbreviations
Luego de las abreviaturas.
NEVER in titles, subtitles.
NUNCA en ttulos o subttulos.
NEVER
after
exclamation
or NUNCA luego de signos de admiracin o de
interrogation marks.
pregunta.
NUNCA en las cifras que indican aos o nmero
de pgina.
NUNCA en las entradas de una enumeracin si
son breves (precedidas por nmeros, letras o
guiones).
NUNCA en las frases que sirven de epgrafe.
(!)
Nmeros:
12 345 678 (12.345.678)
12.10 / 12:10
12.11
SEMICOLON / PUNTO Y COMA
; Between independent clauses when = Espaol
ideas are closely connected (when it
replaces a coordinating conjunction).
; To separate items in a series when = Espaol
they already have commas between
them.
COMMA / COMA
, To signal a short pause within a = Espaol
sentence.
, After introductory words, phrases or Despus de oraciones subordinadas.
clauses, and before the subject of the Si te parece, llamame maana.
main clause. If the introductory Cuando llegues a la ciudad, si te parece
phrase is short, the comma can be llamame.
omitted.
, Between independent clauses joined Entre construcciones verbales equivalentes o
by a coordinating conjunction. If the que cumplen igual funcin sintctica, excepto
clauses are short, the comma can be cuando estn precedidas por Y, E, NI, O y U.
omitted.
Antes de abandonar el pas, visit a sus
amigos, don libros y fue de visita
, She came to the room, only to find Sin embargo, se coloca coma delante de la
somebody on the ground
conjuncin cuando la construccin que esta
46

encabeza expresa un contenido semntico (ya

sea temporal, consecutivo, etc.) diferente al
expresado por la secuencia anterior:
Arroj al fuego las cartas, un par de fotos y su
diario, *otra accin+ y luego huy de all
, Happily,
Cuando hay que indicar que un elemento se
relaciona no con la palabra inmediatamente
precedente, sino con otra ms alejada.
Logr su objetivo, felizmente.
, = English
Delante o detrs de un vocativo.
Juan, llmame.
, = English
Cuando se interviene el orden regular de los
componentes de la oracin.
Para no olvidarme, har un nudo en el
pauelo.
, To separate items in a list. (For the Separa trminos de una enunciacin
last two items, use and. The (sustantivos, adjetivos, verbos, adverbios, etc.)
comma can be omitted in this case.)
, To separate words, phrases or = Espaol
clauses which add information (e.g.
non-defining relative clauses or
appositions).
, To separate a quotation from the = Espaol
rest of the sentence.
, After interjections. After Yes and = Espaol
No.
(!) In the structure NEITHER NOR the Cuando la conjuncin el NI y se repite, debe
comma is not used.
colocarse coma delante de cada uno de los
miembros coordinados:
No le gustan ni el aspecto, ni las costumbres
de la ciudad, ni la lengua.
, = English
En lugar del verbo:
Los nios, en el jardn.
NEVER between the verb and the Cuando los elementos que conforman la
subject.
enumeracin forman el sujeto y van
antepuestos al verbo, no se pone coma detrs
del ltimo:
Los gelogos, los arquelogos y los
antroplogos deben tener
NEVER between the verb and the = Spanish
object.
47

NEVER
after
a
coordinating
conjunction.
COLON / DOS PUNTOS
: Between two independent clauses
when the second one explains the
first.
: To introduce a quotation. It must be
an independent clause; it is more
formal.
: Before a list or an explanation.
NEVER before a linking verb (e.g. to
look, to feel, to smell, to sound,
and to taste) or a preposition.
DASH / GUIN
- To separate words, phrases or
clauses that add extra information
when:
1. You have already used
commas.
2. To emphasize the
information.
- To indicate a sudden interruption in
thought.
(!) AVOID using this punctuation mark
to introduce direct speech in
narratives.
Hello,
she
said.
English doesnt use raya de
dilogo.
APOSTROPHE / APSTROFO
To indicate possession.
To indicate that a letter or a number
has been omitted.
QUOTATION MARKS / COMILLAS
To introduce a direct quote.

To highlight a word because it is a

coinage, it has a special meaning or
because the writer wants to distance
himself from the word/phrase.

Se puede usar antes de PERO: Est cansado,

pero contento.
= Espaol

En espaol se usa ,.
Se usa mayscula despus de : si se introduce
una oracin nueva.
= Espaol
Los dos puntos nunca pueden ir precedidos de
la conjuncin que.

= Espaol

= Espaol
= Espaol

48

When you introduce a full quote, = Espaol

include any punctuation marks inside
the quotation marks.
Use single quotation marks when
quoting something inside another
quote.
QUESTION MARKS / SIGNO DE INTERROGACIN
? At the end of questions and question = Espaol, slo que se usa doble ?
tags.
EXCLAMATION MARKS / SIGNO DE EXCLAMACIN
! After imperative clauses, commands, = Espaol
orders or interjections.
BRACKETS|PARENTHESIS / PARNTESIS
( ) To enclose a closely connected
comment or explanation.
( ) After a quote, to indicate the author,
year of publication and page number.
SQUARE BRACKETS / CORCHETES
[ ] To include changes, corrections or = Espaol
additions in a quotation.

49

Adverbio
La funcin del adverbio puede ser:
- Intraoracional: cuando acta dentro del sintagma verbal.
La reunin se desarroll rpidamente.
- Perifrica: cuando modifica todo el enunciado. El adverbio puede modificar el
dictum (contenido proposicional de toda la oracin) o el modus (modalidad o actitud
del hablante)
Polticamente, la institucin ha mejorado (dictum)
Lamentablemente, otro nio fue atacado por un perro en la va pblica (modus)
Algunos adverbios solo cumplen una funcin:
- Los apocopados muy, tan y cun solo complementan adjetivos o adverbios: Muy
lejano.
- El adverbio medio solo complementa adjetivos o participios: Medio loca, medio
dormido.
- El adverbio recin solo complementa participios en Espaa: recin nacido, recin
llegada. Sin embargo en Amrica, tambin complementa verbos en forma personal:
recin sali, recin naci.
Clasificacin semntica (los adverbios pueden clasificarse de varias maneras)
1) Adverbios lxicos:
- Los que derivan de adjetivosa travs del sufijo mente (en espaol) y ly (en
ingls).
- Los adjetivales, que funcionan como complemento de un verbo, en espaol
adoptan forma masculina. Agustn juega limpio.
- Los que indican lugar (arriba, adentro, lejos), tiempo (antes, luego, temprano),
modo (bien, mal) y modalidad (quiz, quizs, acaso)
2) Adverbios pronominales:
- Espaciales: aqu, ah, ac, all.
- Temporales: ahora, entonces, hoy.
- Modales: as.
- Cuantitativos: tanto, poco, mucho, bastante.
- Numerales: primero, segundo, medio.
- De polaridad: s, no, tambin, tampoco.
- Relativos: donde, quien, cuando.
- Interrogativos o exclamativos: dnde, cmo.
1) Tambin se los puede clasificar tomando como base la circunstancia que expresan:
Tipo de adverbio
Espaol
Ingles
De lugar
Aqu, all, ah, arriba, abajo, Here,
there,
upwards,
dentro, fuera, cerca, lejos, downwards, inside, outside,
etc.
near, close, far, etc.

50

De tiempo

De modo

De cantidad
De afirmacin

De negacin

Ayer, hoy, maana, antes,

ahora, despus, pronto,
tarde, nunca, etc.
Bien, regular, mal, as,
despacio,
deprisa,
suavemente,
especialmente,
astutamente, a oscuras, a
las claras, etc.
Mucho, poco, bastante, mas
menos, tanto, etc.
Si, tambin, ciertamente,
efectivamente, en verdad,
etc.
No, tampoco, jams, etc.

Today, yesterday, then,

now, afterwards, son, late,
never, etc.
Well, wrong, so , slowly,
quickly, especially, slyly,
clearly, etc.

Much, Little, enough, more,

less, etc.
Yes, too, also, certainly,
definitively, really, etc.

No, neither, (either), never,

etc.
De duda
Quiz o quizs, tal vez, Maybe, probably, perhaps,
acaso, probablemente, etc. etc.
De deseo
Ojala, as, etc.
Hopefully, etc.
De exclusin, inclusin o Solo,
aun,
inclusive, Only, even, besides, also,
adicin
adems,
incluso, etc.
nicamente, etc.
De identidad
Mismamente, cabalmente, Own, precisely, concretely,
mismo,
propiamente, etc.
precisamente,
concretamente, etc.
De exclamacin
Que, cun, etc.
What, how, etc.
2) Algunos adverbios perteneces a varias clases semnticas:
Espaol
Clase semntica
Ingls
Igual
De modo o de duda
Like
Habla igual que vos.
He talks lik you.
Igual llueve maana.
Horriblemente,
De modo o de cantidad
Horribly,
terribly,
terriblemente,
extraordinarily, absolutely,
extraordinariamente,
etc.
absolutamente, etc.
Horribly sick.
Horriblemente feo.
Terribly tired.
Terriblemente cansada.
Nunca y jams
De tiempo y de negacin
Nevermore, never again

51

Nunca ms se vieron elfos

en la ciudad.
Nada
De negacin y de cantidad
No le gusto nada.
As
Quiero hacerlo as.
As de moscas.
As te parta un rayo
Bien
Est bien excedido de peso.
Est bien lejos.

Nevermore were the elves

seen in that town.

De modo, de cantidad o de Likewise

deseo
Im tempted to do likewise.

De modo o de cantidad

Way
He is way overweight.

3) Algunos adverbios no pertenecen a ninguna de estas clases: viceversa, justo,

justamente, contrariamente y siquiera.
Locuciones adverbiales adverbials
Son conjuntos sintcticos indivisibles de dos o ms palabras cuyo comportamiento es igual al
de un adverbio.
Algunas locuciones provienen del Latn, como ex profeso, grosso modo, in situ, ipso facto,
latu sensu, modus operandi, modus vivendi, motu proprio. En estos casos debe evitarse el
agregado de preposiciones: lo hizo ex profeso.

52

Preposition
The preposition is considered a key element for the organization of a sentence. It contains
grammatical information as to the relation between words with lexical meaning on their
own.
Characteristics:
1) Functional/linking words: There are full prepositions which have lexical meaning
and empty prepositions which are merely a link between a word and a
complement.
In Spanish, such distinction is not very clear and mostly depends on the context, still you
could say that: ante, bajo, contra, desde, entre, hacia, hasta, para, por, segn, sin, sobre and
tras may have lexical meaning on their own and a, con, de, en and por may be empty
prepositions.
2) The complement is always after the preposition.
In Spanish, unlike in English, the pronouns that are complements change position along with
the preposition.
De qu pedido me ests hablando? = Vos me ests hablando de qu pedido?
Specify from which article you are quoting = Specify the article you are quoting from.
3) Closed type of word: New prepositions cannot be created.
4) Prepositions can be simple (a, de, con, etc.) or compund (por atrs, de debajo, etc.).
In Spanish, compound prepositions can only change position in some exceptions due to
style. Gracias a Dios = A Dios gracias.
Spatial relations:
- Basic relation: It depends on the position of an object as to the speaker, e.g.
here/there.
- Deictic relation: The position of two or more objects depends on the position of one
of the objects, e.g. x is under y.
- Intrinsic relation: a specific part of an object is used to make a reference, e.g. the
head of the bed is against the wall.
In English, there are two types of spatial prepositions: topological prepositions in which the
relation between two objects is permanent and projective prepositions in which the
relation depends on the point of view of the speaker.
Topological preposition: Coincidence (on, at), interiority (in) and exteriority (out of).
Projective preposition: inferiority (below), superiority (above), anteriority (in front of),
posteriority (behind) and laterality (between).
Simple prepositions
At
In
On
Off

53

Out
By
Up
Down
With
Within
Nearby
Into
Through
Throughout
Across
Among(st)
About
Above
Behind
Below
Beside
Outside
Via
Compound prepositions
On top of
In between
In back of
To the left/right of
Temporal
During
Since
Intransitive
Here
Outward
There
Afterward(s)
Upward
Upstairs
Downward
Downstairs
Inward
Sideways

From
Over
Without
Onto
Underneath
Against
Amid(st)
Beneath
Inside

To
Under
Near
Toward
Along
Around
Before
Between
Alongside

to the side
In front of

Parallel to
Perpendicular to

Until

Ago

Backward(s)
Away
Apart
Together
North

South
East
West
Left
Right

in inside; out/out of outside

In refers to inclusion or contention which may be partially or completely. The same happens
with out/out of, the relation may be partially or completely.
Inside refers to complete inclusion or contention and outside refers to complete exclusion.
In on
In refers to the inside of a three-dimensional object while on refers to an object that is in
contact with a two-dimensional surface.
Through throughout
Through is used with objects that cannot be distributed and throughout refers to the spatial
distribution along or across an object.
In Spanish, prepositions can be semantically weak (pantaln de sport; ao de luz) which
can be omitted (pantaln sport; ao luz) and strong which can make opposite prepositions
(con/sin; desde/hasta; sobre/bajo; etc.)
Preposicin Significado
Sin
Compaa negada, falta, carencia, etc.
Bajo
Lugar inferior, sumisin, etc.
Sobre
Encima de, acerca de, aproximacin, etc.
Tras
Lugar o espacio posterior
54

Ante
Con

En presencia de, respect de

Compaa
Instrumento
Modo

Con

Expresin de lugar
Lugar en que se cumple la accin: vivo en Santa Rosa.
Proximidad o aproximacin en el espacio: Voy a Santa Rosa.
Separacin: Vengo de Santa Rosa.
Situacin: Est tras la puerta
Situacin: Entre las hojas del libro
Direccin: Va hacia all.
Lugar a travs del cual se realiza la accin: Pasea por la calle. Levanta los
pies.
Compaa: Qued con ellos.

A
En
De
Por
Desde
Con
Sobre
Para

Expresin de tiempo
Momento particular en un espacio de tiempo: A las nueve.
Unidad de tiempo en toda su expresin: En Navidad.
Duracin o momento indeterminado: De noche.
El momento de la accin: por la noche.
Punto de partida en el tiempo: desde hoy.
Simultaneidad: No vas a salir con este tiempo.
Proximidad: sobre las once.
Conclusin: Para maana.

Por
Para
A
De

Expresin de causa o finalidad

Causa. Con verbos de movimientos, finalidad: Voy por agua.
Finalidad: Para Mercedes.
Finalidad: til a sus amigos.
Agente: Preferido de todos.

Con
De
A
En

Expresin de instrumento
Medio o instrumento: Con un cuchillo.
Expresa autor o causante de un estado: Seguido de un amigo.
Instrumento: A sangre y fuego.
Material o cantidad: Pagar en oro.

En
A
De
Tras
Entre
Hacia
Por

De, a, por, con, en

Expresin de modo
Cuando forman
55

parte

de

locuciones

adverbiales: a gatas, de firme, por ventura,

con prudencia, en serio.
-

It should be avoided the use of more than one preposition with the same
complement.
Caf con azcar o sin ella instead of caf con o sin azcar
When a preposition is repeated, it can be elided.
Licuado de leche y de banana = licuado de leche y banana (both are right)
Elision cannot link together two entities that are to be taken as separate.
Estuvo en Crdoba y en Tucumn = Estuvo en Crdoba y Tucumn (the second is
wrong)
Elision cannot be used before pronouns.
Trajo regalos para l y para m =Trajo regalos para l y m (the second is wrong)
Elision cannot take place between two nouns when only one of the nouns is modified
by an adjective.
Sirve para lana y para algodn peinado = Sirve para lana y algodn peinado (the
second is wrong)
Elision cannot take place when only one of the words has a complement.
Aprendi a multiplicar y a dividir por cinco = aprendi a multiplicar y dividir por cinco
(the second is wrong)

Movement:
Spanish is a type of language that expresses movement and path with the verb (i.e.
entrar/salir), unlike English that uses a particle or a satellite to express path (i.e. move/go in;
move/go out).
For example, as a satellite, over may refer to path; and as a preposition, it may indicate a
position in relation to a spot.
It flipped over = se dio vuelta en el aire/ daba vueltas en el aire.
He jumped over the wall = Salt por encima de la pared/Salt la pared.
The difference between a satellite and a preposition is that the satellite is closely related to
the main verb, while the preposition is to the complement.
When a satellite is before a preposition, there is movement, path and source/destiny.
I ran out of the house.
When a reference can be deduce by the context, it can be elided.
I ran out (of the house)
Sometimes the satellites combined with the prepositions can make a single lexical unit
called satprep.
- Satellite: I went up.
- Preposition: I went to Marys house.
- Satprep: I went up to the door.
56

Sentences & Clauses

There are three kinds of sentences:
Simple: Subject + Predicate
Compound: two simple sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction
Complex: Main clause + Subordinate clause

Conjunctions
Logical connector

Concession/Contrast

Addition

Purpose

Consequence

ENGLISH
_________ C ________
C _________, ________
Intra-sentential connector
Although/Even though/Though he
was tired, he decided to go.
Despite the fact that I was tired,
()/Despite being tired, I decided
to go.
I like football, whereas/while my
brother likes tennis
However + ADJ + SUBJ + VERB =
CONTRAST
Both Marta and Luciana like going
to the park.
Not only Marta but also Luciana
likes going to the park.
Theyll take my money as well as
my CDs
I went to the bank to/in order to/so
as to/with the aim of/with a view
to cash a cheque for fear of losing
my money.
I went to the bank in order that/so
that I could cash a cheque.
I was ill, so I missed a class.
I was so tired that I stayed home.
It was such a good book that I read
it twice.
He was so good a student that
So + ADJ + a/an + NOUN + that
He is too tall to walk through the
door.
Hes not old enough to go to this
57

_________. C, ________:
__________. ________, C
Extra-sentential connector
He was tired.
However/Nonetheless/
Nevertheless/Notwithstanding
that, he decided to go.

There are general problems

regarding safety. In
addition/Furthermore/Moreover/
Besides/Additionally/On top of
that/Whats more, there are
other issues that

I was ill. Thats

why/Consequently/As a
result/Hence/Thus/Therefore I
decided to stay home.

Reason

Conditionals

Time

Place
Exemplification

pub.
ADJ + enough
Enough + NOUN
I missed the class
because/since/as/for/given that I
was ill.
Since/As tend to go at the
beginning because they are
discourse markers.
Because of/Owing to/Due to +
NOUN/-ing/the fact that
Inversion
- Should you see Peter, ()
- Were I you, ()
- Had I seen him, ()
Provided that the weather is fine,
we'll have a picnic on Saturday.
Unless the weather is fine, we
wont have that picnic.
Ill carry an umbrella in case it
rains.
Ill phone you as soon
as/when/after/before I arrive.
I wont phone you until I arrive.
She phoned you while you were
out
She bought some shoes as he did
the shopping.
He died when I was in London.
I am happy
wherever/everywhere/where I go
He has a sweater like that one.
I like many fruits, such as apples,
grapes, etc.

Sequencing

Proposicin

After I came back, he left.

I was doing my homework. After
that, I watched TV.
He entered the room, and then
he looked around and saw his
keys.

I like fruits. For example/For

instance, apples.
First/Second/Third/Finally, he
deigned to appear before us.

ESPAOL
Tipo de encabezador
Incluyente
Relacionante
58

Funcin de la
proposicin

Sustantiva

que
si

el que, la que, los

que, las que,
quien, quienes,
cuanto, cuanta

Adjetiva

que, quien, cual,

cuyo, donde;
cuando, como,
cuanto

Adverbial de
modo

como, segn,
conforme
como si, cual

de tiempo

antes (de) que,

despus (de)
que, luego que,
hasta (que),
una vez que, no
bien, en cuanto,
apenas

de lugar

de causa

cuando,
mientras,
conforme,
segn, siempre
que, en tanto
que, ahora que,
al tiempo que,
cada vez que

circunstancial de tiempo,
predicado adverbial,
termino
de complemento,
aposicin de
adverbio

donde

circunstancial de lugar,
aposicin de adverbio,
predicado adverbial,
termino
de complemento

porque, ya
que, puesto
que, dado que,
como, que

de cantidad

circunstancial de causa,
modificador de
modalidad

cuanto, lo que

final

para que, que,

a fin de que

condicional

si, a no ser que,

a menos que,
como

sujeto, predicativo,
predicado
nominal, objeto directo,
trmino de
complemento
atributo de sustantivo,
predicado nominal,
predicativo, aposicin de
un
adjetivo
circunstancial de modo,
atributo de un adjetivo,
modificador de
modalidad

59

circunstancial de
cantidad,
aposicin de adverbio
circunstancial de fin,
modificador de
modalidad
modificador de! ncleo
oracional, modificador
de
modalidad

concesiva

consecutiva

comparativa

aunque, aun
cuando, por
mas que, a
pesar de que

modificador del ncleo

oracional, modificador
de
modalidad

que (con
Intensif.: tan,
tanto, tal)
que (sin
intensif.)
(masmenos)...
que
(masmenos)...
de
(mejor/peor)...
que
(mayor/
menor)... que

modificador de adjetivo,
modificador de adverbio,
modificador del ncleo
oracional

(tan/tal/
tanto)...como

aposicin del intensivo,

atributo del cuantitativo
o cualitativo, termino de
complemento
comparativo

Noun Clauses
1. Wh- noun clauses
What you say is true.
SUBJECT
Where she is, I dont know.
2. That noun clauses
She said that she was coming.
REPORTED SPEECH
3. If/whether noun clauses
She asked me whether I was coming

Clefting (focusing)/Oraciones hendidas

Example: Mary told me the truth at a pub.
It was Mary who told me the truth at a pub.
It was the truth that Mary told me at a pub.
IT-CLEFT SENTENCES
It was at a pub that Mary told me the truth.
Cleft sentences are used to focus in some particular information. They are said to be limited,
given that the only pronouns they admit are that and who.

Adjectival Clauses
1. Defining relative clause
They provide essential information
They cannot be omitted
No commas are used
Example: Peter is a neighbor whose dog I hate.
60

An island is a piece of land that is surrounded by water.

2. Non-defining relative clause
That is not used
They can be omitted
They are often written between commas
Example: Mary, who lives in Lans, is a good actress.
3. Sentential relative clause
They make a reference to the whole sentence
They are a kind of non-defining relative clause
Example: The fact that the book was a success, made the writer happy.
In this type of clauses, a common error made by non-native speakers is the choice of
the relative pronoun.
For example: Mary, that lives in Lans, is a good actress/Mary, who lives in Lans, is
a good actress.
4. Reduced relative clause
They lose the relative pronoun and the verb
Example: An island is a piece of land that is surrounded by water.

61

Bibliografa

Miranda, L. et al (2009). Espaol-ingls en clave contrastiva. Volumen 1. Santa Rosa:

Universidad de la Pampa. Captulos 2, 3 y 4.
Miranda, L. et al (2009). Espaol-ingls en clave contrastiva. Volumen 2. Santa Rosa:
Universidad de la Pampa. Captulos 1, 2, 4, 5 y anexo.
Garca Negroni, M.M. & Tordesillas, M. (2001). La enunciacin en la lengua. De la
deixis a la polifona. Madrid: Gredos. Captulo IV.
Palmer, F.R. (1987). The English Verb. Second edition. Harlow: Longman. Chapters 6 &
7.
Vias Urquiza, M.T. (2002). Ambiguity Keys. English & Spanish. Buenos Aires: Editorial
Dunken.
Whitley, M.S. (2002). Spanish / English Contrasts. A Course in Spanish Linguistics.
Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Captulos 9, 11 y 13.
Loredo-Vera, M. (2008). Contrastive Analysis of Prepositions in Spanish and English.
Gmez-Gonzlez, M. y Gonzlvez-Garca, F., On Clefting in English and Spanish.
Baker, M. (1994). Equivalence at word level in In Other Words. London:
Routledge.

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ndice

Morphology .................................................................................................................. 2
The Verb ....................................................................................................................... 5
The Subjunctive Mood .................................................................................................15
The Pronoun .................................................................................................................26
Nouns ........................................................................................................................... 36
Adjectives ..................................................................................................................... 44
La ortografa y la puntuacin ....................................................................................... 46
El adverbio .................................................................................................................... 50
The Preposition ............................................................................................................53
Sentences & Clauses.....................................................................................................57
Bibliografa ................................................................................................................... 62

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